concentration is ND = 1017/cm3. Find the electron and hole concentrations at T = 300K. Solution 3.4.1. Physical Structure
pn junction structure p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor metal contact for connection 3.4.2. Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals
• Q: What is state of pn junction with open-circuit
terminals? • A: Read the below… – p-type material contains majority of holes • these holes are neutralized by equal amount of bound negative charge – n-type material contains majority of free electrons • these electrons are neutralized by equal amount of bound positive charge 3.4.2. Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals
bound charge charge of opposite polarity to free electrons / holes of a given material neutralizes the electrical charge of these majority carriers does not affect concentration gradients 3.4.2. Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals • Q: What happens when a pn-junction is newly formed – aka. when the p-type and n-type semiconductors first touch one another? – A: See following slides… Step #1: The p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined at the junction.
p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor
junction filled with holes filled with free electrons
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited
terminals). Step #1A: Bound charges are attracted (from environment) by free electrons and holes in the p-type and n-type semiconductors, respectively. They remain weakly “bound” to these majority carriers; however, they do not recombine.
negative bound positive bound
charges charges
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited
terminals). Step #2:
Diffusion begins. Those free electrons and holes which
are closest to the junction will recombine and, essentially, eliminate one another.
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited
terminals). Step #3: The depletion region begins to form – as diffusion occurs and free electrons recombine with holes. The depletion region is filled with “uncovered” bound charges – who have lost the majority carriers to which they were linked.
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited
terminals). Step #4: The “uncovered” bound charges effect a voltage differential across the depletion region. The magnitude of this barrier voltage (V0) differential grows, as diffusion continues. No voltage differential exists across regions of the pn-junction outside of the depletion region because of the neutralizing effect of positive and negative bound charges. voltage potential
barrier voltage (Vo)
location (x) Step #5:
The barrier voltage (V0) is an electric field whose polarity
opposes the direction of diffusion current (ID). As the magnitude of V0 increases, the magnitude of ID decreases. diffusion current drift current (ID) (IS)
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited
terminals). Step #6:
Equilibrium is reached, and diffusion ceases, once the
magnitudes of diffusion and drift currents equal one another – resulting in no net flow. diffusion Once equilibrium current is achieved, no netdrift current current flow exists (Inet = ID – IS) (ID) while under open-circuit within the pn-junction (IS) condition.
p-type depletion n-type
region 3.4.2. Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals • pn-junction built-in voltage (V0) – is the equilibrium value of barrier voltage. – It is defined to the right. – Generally, it takes on a value between 0.6 and 0.9V for silicon at room temperature. – This voltage is applied across depletion region, not terminals of pn junction. • Power cannot be drawn from V0. The Drift Current IS and Equilibrium
In addition to majority-carrier diffusion current (ID), a
component of current due to minority carrier drift exists (IS). Specifically, some of the thermally generated holes in the p-type and n-type materials move toward and reach the edge of the depletion region. There, they experience the electric field (V0) in the depletion region and are swept across it. Unlike diffusion current, the polarity of V0 reinforces this drift current. 3.4.2. Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals
• Because these holes are free electrons are
produced by thermal energy, IS is heavily dependent on temperature • Any depletion-layer voltage, regardless of how small, will cause the transition across junction. Therefore IS is independent of V0. • drift current (IS) – is the movement of these minority carriers. – aka. electrons from n-side to p-side of the junction Note that the magnitude of drift current (IS) is unaffected by level of diffusion and / or V0. It will be, however, affected by temperature. diffusion current drift current (ID) (IS)
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited
terminals). Diode Packages
Diodes come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The
design and structure is determined by what type of circuit they will be used in. Forward Bias
• Voltage source or bias
connections are + to the p material and – to the n material. • Bias must be greater than .3 V for Germanium or .7 V for Silicon diodes. • The depletion region narrows. Reverse Bias
• Voltage source or bias
connections are – to the p material and + to the n material. • Bias must be less than the breakdown voltage. • Current flow is negligible in most cases. • The depletion region widens. 4.1.1. Current-Voltage Characteristic
• External circuit should be designed to limit… – current flow across conducting diode – voltage across blocking diode Figure 4.2: The two modes of • Examples are shown operation of ideal diodes and the to right… use of an external circuit to limit (a) the forward current and (b) the reverse voltage. 4.2. Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes (V-I curve) discontinuity caused by Most common differences in scale implementation of a diode utilizes pn junction. I-V curve consists of three characteristic regions forward bias: v > 0 reverse bias: v < 0 breakdown: v << 0 4.2.1. The Forward-Bias Region
The forward-bias region of operation is entered when v > 0. I-V relationship is closely approximated by equations to right.
(4.3) is a simplification suitable for large v 4.2.1. The Forward-Bias Region
Equation (4.3) may
be reversed to yield (4.4). This relationship applies over as many as seven decades of current. 4.2.1: The Forward-Bias Region
• cut-in voltage – is voltage, below which, minimal current flows – approximately 0.5V • fully conducting region – is region in which Rdiode is approximately equal 0 – between 0.6 and 0.8V fully conducting region 4.2.2. The Reverse-Bias Region
The reverse-bias region of
operation is entered when v < 0. I-V relationship, for negative voltages with |v| > VT (25mV), is closely approximated by equations to right. 4.2.2. The Reverse-Bias Region
• A “real” diode exhibits reverse-bias current,
although small, much larger than IS . – 10-9 vs. 10-14Amps • A large part of this reverse current is attributed to leakage effects. 4.2.3. The Breakdown Region
The breakdown region
of operation is entered when v < VZK. Zener-Knee Voltage (VZK) This is normally non- destructive.
breakdown region i IS (e v / VT 1)
i IS i IS 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑣/𝑉𝑇
V = 10VT V = -VZK
V = -VT Zener breakdown • Zener breakdown occurs when the electric field in the depletion layer increases to the point of breaking covalent bonds and generating electron-hole pairs. • The electrons generated in this way will be swept by the electric field into the n side and the holes into the p side. Thus these electrons and holes constitute a reverse current across the junction. • Once the zener effect starts, a large number of carriers can be generated, with a negligible increase in the junction voltage. • Thus the reverse current in the breakdown region will be large and its value must be determined by the external circuit, while the reverse voltage appearing between the diode terminals will remain close to the specified breakdown voltage VZ. avalanche breakdown • avalanche breakdown, which occurs when the minority carriers that cross the depletion region under the influence of the electric field gain sufficient kinetic energy to be able to break covalent bonds in atoms with which they collide. • The carriers liberated by this process may have sufficiently high energy to be able to cause other carriers to be liberated in another ionizing collision. • This process keeps repeating in the fashion of an avalanche, with the result that many carriers are created that are able to support any value of reverse current, as determined by the external circuit, with a negligible change in the voltage drop across the junction. 4.3. Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic
The previous slides define a robust set of diode
models. Upcoming slides, however, discuss simplified diode models better suited for use in circuit analyses: exponential model constant voltage-drop model ideal diode model small-signal (linearization) model
Oxford University Publishing
4.3.5. The Constant Voltage-Drop Model
The constant voltage-
drop diode model assumes that the slope of ID vs. VD is vertical @ 0.7V Q: How does example 4.4 solution change if CVDM is used? A: 4.262mA to 4.3mA Figure 4.12: Development of the diode constant-voltage-drop model: (a) the… 4.3.6. Ideal Diode Model
The ideal diode model
assumes that the slope of ID vs. VD is vertical @ 0V Q: How does example 4.4 solution change if ideal model is used? A: 4.262mA to 5mA 4.1.1: Current-Voltage Characteristic of the Ideal Diode mode #2: reverse mode #1: ideal diode: is most fundament nonlinear circuit elementbias = open ckt. forward bias = two terminal device with short ckt circuit device symbol to right symbol operates in two modes with two nodes forward and reverse bias
figure 4.1. When to use these models?
exponential model • ideal diode model
low voltages – high voltages >> 0.7V less complex circuits – very complex circuits emphasis on accuracy – cases where a difference over practicality in voltage by 0.7V is constant voltage-drop mode: negligible medium voltages = 0.7V • small-signal model more complex circuits – this is next… emphasis on practicality over accuracy 4.3.7. Small-Signal Model
small-signal diode model
Diode is modeled as variable resistor. Whose value is defined via linearization of exponential model. Around bias point defined by constant voltage drop model. VD(0) = 0.7V 4.3.7. Small-Signal Model
Q: How is the small-signal diode
model defined? step #1: Consider the conceptual circuit of Figure 4.13(a). DC voltage (VD) is applied to diode Upon VD, arbitrary time-varying signal vd is super-imposed 4.3.7. Small-Signal Model
small signal approximation
Shown to right for exponential diode model. total instant current (iD) small-signal current (id.) small-signal resistance (rd.) Valid for for vd < 5mV amplitude (not peak to peak). 4.3.7: Small-Signal Model
Q: How is small-signal resistance rd defined?
A: From steady-state current (ID) and thermal voltage (VT) as below. Note this approximation is only valid for small- signal voltages vd < 5mV.
