1.

SYSTEM
● The system is the part of the universe that we are studying or focusing on.
● In a chemical reaction, the system typically consists of the reactants and products involved in the reaction.
● For example, if we are studying the freezing of water, then the water that is freezing is the system.

2. SURROUNDINGS
● The surroundings refer to everything outside the system that can interact with it.
● In the case of freezing water, the freezer or the air around the water is the surroundings, because they can either
absorb or release energy to or from the system.
● The surroundings play a role in the energy exchange with the system.

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

1. Exothermic: If the system releases energy to the surroundings (e.g., when water freezes), the reaction or
process is called exothermic. The surroundings gain energy, often resulting in an increase in temperature.
2. Endothermic: If the system absorbs energy from the surroundings (e.g., when ice melts), the reaction or
process is called endothermic. The surroundings lose energy, often resulting in a decrease in temperature.

Practical Examples
● Burning wood: The system is the burning wood, and the surroundings are the air around it. Energy in the form of
heat and light is released by the system into the surroundings, making it an exothermic process.
● Dissolving salt in water: The salt (system) absorbs heat energy from the water (surroundings) to dissolve. This
is an endothermic process, as the surroundings lose energy.

ENTHALPY
● Enthalpy is the heat absorbed or released during a chemical reaction where the only work done is the expansion
of a gas at constant pressure.
● Not all energy changes that occur as a result of chemical reactions are expressed as heat.
● Energy = Heat + Work
● Work is a force applied over a distance.
● Most energy changes resulting from chemical reactions are expressed in a special term known as enthalpy.
● It is nearly impossible to set up a chemical reaction where there is no work performed.
● The conditions for a chemical reaction are often set up so that work is minimized.
● Enthalpy and heat are nearly equal under these conditions.

ENTHALPY CHANGE
The change in enthalpy is designated by the symbol ΔH:
● If ΔH < 0 the process is exothermic.
● If ΔH > 0 the process is endothermic.
Sometimes the symbol for enthalpy (ΔH) is used for heat (ΔQ). In many cases where work is minimal, heat is a close
approximation for enthalpy. One must always remember that while they are closely related, heat and enthalpy are not the
same thing

ENERGY & ENTHALPY CHANGE

● It is impractical to measure absolute amounts of energy or enthalpy.
● Enthalpy is always measured relative to previous conditions and to the system.
● Hence we measure changes in enthalpy rather than total enthalpy

MEASURING ENTHALPY
The amount of heat absorbed or released during a chemical reaction depends on the conditions under which the reaction
is carried out including:
● The temperature
● The pressure
● The physical state of the reactants and products

STANDARD CONDITIONS
For most thermodynamic measurements standard conditions are established as:
● 25 oC or 298 K
● 1.0 atmosphere of pressure
EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS (Increase in Temperature)
Examples include:
● Burning reactions including the combustion of fuels.
● Detonation of explosives.
● Reaction of acids with metals.
● Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid. (Where when we put Magnesium on a vial of Hydrochloric Acid, which is
currently 25 degrees celsius, it becomes hot, up to 45 degrees celsius. Along with the heat energy given out.)

From the previous Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid experiment:

If heat is given out this energy must have come from chemical energy in the starting materials (reactants).
Reactants convert Chemical Energy to Heat Energy, The temperature rises.

Conclusion:
Exothermic reactions give out energy. There is a temperature rise and ΔH is negative.

ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS (Decrease in Temperature)

Example: Ammonium Nitrate & Water Experiment (When we put Ammonium Nitrate in a vial of water, which is currently 25
degrees celsius, it becomes cooler, down to 5 degrees celsius, Heat energy is used up during the reaction so the contents
in tube feel cold.)

Extra energy is needed in order for endothermic reactions to

occur.
This comes from the thermal energy of the reaction mixture
which consequently gets colder.
Reactants convert heat energy into chemical energy as they
change into products. The temperature drops.
Endothermic reactions take in energy. There is a
temperature drop and ΔH is positi

CALCULATION FOR ENTHALPY CHANGE

1. STANDARD ENTHALPY OF FORMATION CHANGE (ΔH°f) = The enthalpy change absorbed or released during
the formation of 1 mole of a compound from its elements in their standard states.
2. STANDARD ENTHALPY OF DECOMPOSITION CHANGE (ΔH°d) = The enthalpy change absorbed or released
during the decomposition of 1 mole of a compound into its elements in their standard states.
3. STANDARD ENTHALPY OF COMBUSTION CHANGE (ΔH°c) = The enthalpy change absorbed or released
during the complete combustion of 1 mole of a substance under standard conditions.

CALCULATION RULES FOR ENTHALPY CHANGE

● The reaction coefficient represents the amount of substance in the reaction associated with ΔH.
● The value of ΔH depends on the amount of substance.
● The value of ΔH does not depend on the number of reaction stages, but it does depend on the conditions of the
reacting substances and the reaction products → HESS's Law.

Remember!
● If the reaction is reversed, the sign of ΔH is reversed.
● If the reaction is multiplied by x, the value of ΔH is multiplied by x. But if are added, the values are added.
EXAMPLES
1. Consider the following thermochemical equation: C4H8+6O2→4CO2+4H2O, Δ𝐻=−120 kJ/mol
Find the enthalpy change (ΔH) for this reaction: 8CO2+8H2O→2C4H8+12O2
2. Given the reaction: 2S+3O2→2SO3, Δ𝐻=−600 kJ. If the heat produced is only -200 kJ, how many moles of SO₃ are
formed?
3. From the reactions:
C+O2→CO2, Δ𝐻=−390 kJ
H2+1/2O2→H2O, Δ𝐻=−285 kJ
2C+H2→C2H2, Δ𝐻=+225 kJ
Calculate ΔH for the reaction:C2H2+ 5/2O2→2CO2+H2O
4. Given: CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O, Δ𝐻=−900 kJ
If 1350 kJ of heat is produced, what is the volume of CO₂ (at STP) produced?

MENENTUKAN PERUBAHAN ENTALPI REAKSI DENGAN HUKUM HESS

Perubahan entalpi hanya tergantung dari keadaan awal dan akhir reaksi saja, tidak tergantung jalannya reaksi.
Baik 1 tahap, maupun beberapa tahap hasil akhir akan sama.
ΔH1 = ΔH2 + ΔH3

Soal #1:
Diketahui reaksi kimia sebagai berikut:
C + O2 → CO2 ΔH = - 393,5 kJ
H2 + 1/2 O2 → H2O ΔH = - 283,8 kJ
2C + H2 → C2H2 ΔH = + 226,7 KJ
Atas dasar reaksi di atas, maka entalpi reaksi:
C2H2 + 5/2 O2 → 2CO2 + H2O adalah…

Soal #2:
Dari data:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O ΔH = - 571 kJ
2 Ca + O2 → 2 CaO ΔH = - 1269 kJ
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 ΔH = - 64 kJ
Maka entalpi pembentukan 37 gram Ca(OH)2 adalah.... (Ar Ca = 40, O = 16, H = 1)

Contoh Soal #1:

Diketahui siklus hukum hess sebagai berikut:
Nilai ΔH2 adalah…

Contoh Soal #2: Menurut diagram energi di atas, penguapan 2 mol air dari tubuh memerlukan energi sebesar....
Bond Enthalpies
If in a chemical reaction the reactants react to form products, what happens to the energy in the reactants? And what are
the conditions of the system and the surroundings?
● The energy required to break a covalent bond in the gaseous phase is called a bond enthalpy.
● Bond enthalpy tables give the average energy to break a chemical bond. Actually there are slight variations
depending on the environment in which the chemical bond is located
● Energy is required to break chemical bonds (endothermic). Therefore when a chemical bond is broken it carries a
positive value
● Energy is released when chemical bonds form (exothermic). When chemical bonds are formed their energy
change carries a negative value

Bond Enthalpy Table

Differences between Exothermic Reaction & Endothermic Reaction:

● Exothermic reaction: More energy is released in forming the bonds than in breaking the bonds.
● Endothermic reaction: Absorbs more energy breaking bonds than it releases in bond formation.

Bond Enthalpies
● By comparing the energies for breaking bonds in the reactants and forming bonds in the products one can
approximate the enthalpy change for a reaction

The energy required to break the bonds between atoms in A compound. The enthalpy change (ΔH) is determined from
the average bond energy of each substance involved in the reaction.
Formula:
ΔH = ∑energy of reactants - ∑energy of products

EXAMPLE #1:
Given bond energies: O-H = 464 kJ/mol, O=O = 500 kJ/mol, H-H = 436 kJ/mol. Calculate the enthalpy required to
decompose 9 grams of water vapor (Mr = 18) according to the equation. 2H2O (g) → 2 H2 (g) + O2 (g).

EXAMPLE #2:
Given the following average bond energies:
C-H = 414 kJ/mol, C═C = 615 kJ/mol, C-C = 347 kJ/mol
C8H18 → C6H14 + C2H4
The enthalpy change for the following reaction is...
EXAMPLE #3:
Given the following average bond energies:
C-H = 414 kJ/mol, Cl-Cl = 244 kJ/mol, H-Cl = 432 kJ/mol, C-Cl = 326 kJ/mol.
CH4 (g) + Cl2 (g) → CH3Cl (g) + HCl (g)
The enthalpy change for the following reaction is...

CALORIMETER
In the experiment: the heat produced by the reaction (system) is equal to the heat absorbed by the water and the
calorimeter.
The amount of heat produced/absorbed by the reaction (system) can be calculated using the equation below:
Q = m . c . ΔT or Q = C . ΔT
Q = amount of heat (Joules, cal, KJ, kcal)
m = mass in grams
c = specific heat of water/solution (J/gK, J/g°C)
C = heat capacity of the calorimeter (J/K, J/°C)
ΔT = temperature change

Extra Formulas:
QReaction + QSolution + QCalorimeter = 0
ΔH = - Q/Moles

Example #1:
Upon dissolving 2 grams of NaOH crystals (Mr = 40) in 50 mL of water, the temperature increases from 27°C to 32°C. If
the specific heat capacity of the solution is 4.2 J/g°C and ρ water = 1 g/mL, the enthalpy of dissolution of NaOH = ______
kJ/mol.
Example #2:
A sample of gas undergoes condensation in a calorimeter, causing the temperature of 250 grams of water to rise from
22°C to 32°C. Given the specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g°C. Calculate the heat reaction.
Example #3:
At a temperature of 25°C, 50 mL of 0.4 M HCl solution is reacted with 50 mL of 0.4 M NaOH solution in a calorimeter. The
temperature rises to 28°C. If the density is ρ = 1 g/mL and c = 4.2 J/g°C, the enthalpy of neutralization = ______ kJ/mol.