STUDENT ASSESSMENT SUBMISSION AND DECLARATION

When submitting evidence for assessment, each student must sign a declaration confirming that the work
is their own.
Student name: Dasun Nirmal Lecturer’s name: Ms.Ama Kulathilake

Issue date: 31 May 2024 Submission date: 10 June Submitted on:

2024

Programme: Graduate Diploma in Software Engineering (GDSE)

Module: ITS 2135 - Computer Networking for Software Engineers

Assessment number and title: CA1 - Understanding Computer Networks through a Five-Layer
Model (Take Home)

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a particular form of cheating. Plagiarism must be avoided at all costs and students who
break the rules, however innocently, may be penalised. It is your responsibility to ensure that you
understand correct referencing practices. As a university level student, you are expected to use
appropriate references throughout and keep carefully detailed notes of all your sources of materials for
material you have used in your work, including any material downloaded from the Internet.

Student Declaration
Student declaration
I certify that the assignment submission is entirely my own work and I fully understand the
consequences of plagiarism. I declare that the work submitted for assessment has been carried out
without assistance other than that which is acceptable according to the rules of the specification. I
certify I have clearly referenced any sources and any artificial intelligence (AI) tools used in the work. I
understand that making a false declaration is a form of malpractice.

Student signature: [email protected] Date: 2024/06/07

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2. Attach this brief as the first section of your assignment.
3. All the assignments should be prepared using a word processing software.
4. Allow 1” for top, bottom, right margins and 1.25” for the left margin of each page.
Word Processing Rules

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Assessment Brief
Programme Title Graduate Diploma in Software Engineering (GDSE)

Student Name/ID Dasun Nirmal - 2301671031

Number

Module Code and Name ITS 2135 - Computer Networking for Software Engineers
Academic Year 2024

Unit Lecturer Ms.Ama Kulathilake

Assignment Title CA1 -Understanding Computer Networks through a Five-

Layer Model
 27 May 2024
Issue Date
Submission Date 10 June 2024

Submission Format
The submission should be in the form of an individual report written in a concise, formal
business style using single spacing and font size 12. You are required to make use of
headings, paragraphs and subsections as appropriate, and all work must be supported
with research and referenced using Harvard referencing system. Please also provide an
end list of references using the Harvard referencing system.
The recommended word count is 2,000–2,500 words for the report excluding
annexures, although you will not be penalised for exceeding the total word limit.
This assessment carries 15% of the total module marks.

Learning Outcome/s Covered in the Assessment

LO1 - Describe computer networks in terms of a five-layer model

Task

You are required to write a detailed report on the five-layer model of computer networks.
The report should be well-structured, clearly explaining each layer, its purpose, and its
role within the overall network architecture. Use relevant examples and diagrams to
support your explanations.

Structure of the Report (But not limited to):

1.Introduction

Brief overview of computer networks

Importance of network models in understanding network architecture
Introduction to the five-layer model

2.The Five-Layer Model

Layer Names
Description and purpose
Key functions
Examples of protocols and technologies used

3.Conclusion

Summarize the key points discussed in the report.

The significance of understanding the five-layer model in real-world networking.
4.References

List all the sources cited in the report using the appropriate citation style.

Report Requirements:
Length: 2000-2500 words.
Format: Typed, double-spaced, using a standard font (e.g., Times New Roman, 12pt).
Structure: Must include a cover page, table of contents, introduction, main body (divided
into sections for each layer), conclusion, and references.
Diagrams: Include relevant diagrams and illustrations to enhance your explanations.
Referencing: Harvard referencing style for citations and bibliography.

Submission Instructions:
Submit your report in a PDF format via google classroom by the specified deadline.
Ensure that your report is plagiarism-free and properly proofread for grammar and spelling
errors.

Report name : DasunNirmal-Sid-2301671031-ProtocolsReport.pdf

Grading Criteria:
Your report will be assessed based on the following criteria:

Criteria Marks
Understanding of the five-layer model: Demonstrating a clear and 20
accurate understanding of each layer and its functions.

Depth of analysis: Providing detailed explanations and examples for 20

each layer.

Clarity and coherence: Presenting information in a well-organized and 15

logical manner.

Use of diagrams: Effectively using diagrams to support and enhance 15

explanations.
Referencing: Properly citing all sources of information. 15
Report format 15
Total 100
 10/06/2024

Layer
Protocols
GDSE 67

DASUN NIRMAL
2301671031
Application Layer Protocols:

❖ FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between a client and a server over a
network.
❖ SSH (Secure Shell): Provides secure access to a remote computer over a network, enabling
secure command-line interface (CLI) access and file transfers.
❖ Telnet: Provides remote access to network devices or servers for administrative purposes,
but it's less secure compared to SSH.
❖ SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending and relaying email messages
between email servers.
❖ DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP
addresses and vice versa.
❖ HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transmitting hypertext documents, such as
web pages, over the internet.
❖ HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): An encrypted version of HTTP, providing
secure communication over the internet.
❖ TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol): A simplified version of FTP, commonly used for
bootstrapping devices over a network.
❖ DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Assigns IP addresses dynamically to
devices on a network, along with other network configuration parameters.
❖ NTP (Network Time Protocol): Synchronizes the time of network devices to a reference
time source.
❖ SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Used for managing and monitoring
network devices and their functions.

Transport Layer Protocols:

❖ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-oriented

communication between applications by ensuring data delivery and sequencing.
❖ UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A lightweight, connectionless protocol that offers faster
communication but with no guarantees of delivery or sequencing.

Internet Layer Protocols:

❖ IP (Internet Protocol): Provides logical addressing and routing functionality to facilitate

packet forwarding across networks.
❖ ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for diagnostic and error messaging
between network devices, such as ping and traceroute.

Network Access Layer Protocols:

❖ Ethernet: A widely used LAN technology that defines how devices communicate over a
shared physical medium.
❖ Fast Ethernet: An enhanced version of Ethernet that offers higher data transmission speeds.
❖ Token Ring: A LAN technology where devices share access to the network through a token-
passing mechanism.
❖ FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface): A high-speed LAN technology that uses fiber optic
cables for data transmission.
Acknowledgements.

My profound thanks goes out to Ama Kulathilaka, my professor, for all of her help, advice, and
knowledge during the writing of my report. Their constructive criticism and support have been
extremely helpful in forming the outline and substance of this document.

I express my gratitude to the subsequent websites for furnishing invaluable resources and
information that aided in the composition of this report:

❖ JavaTpoint www.javatpoint.com
❖ GeeksforGeeks www.geeksforgeeks.org
❖ Medium www.medium.com
❖ Wikipedia www.wikipedia.org
 Introduction .............................................................................................................13
Application layer protocols. .............................................................................13
Transport/Host to Host Layer Protocols. .......................................................26
Internet. ..............................................................................................................30
Network Access. ................................................................................................ 33
References ................................................................................................................34

DASUN NIRMAL
2301671031
Process/Application
i. FTP
ii. SSH
iii. Telnet
iv. SMTP
v. DNS
vi. HTTP
vii. HTTPS
viii. TFTP
ix. DHCP
x. NTP
xi. SNMP

Transport/Host to Host
i. TCP
ii. UDP

Internet
i. IP
ii. ICMP

Network Access
i. Ethernet
ii. Fast Ethernet
iii. Token Ring
iv. FDDI
Image 1 .............................................................................................................. 13
Image 2 .............................................................................................................. 14
Image 3 .............................................................................................................. 15
Image 4 .............................................................................................................. 16
Image 5 .............................................................................................................. 17
Image 6 .............................................................................................................. 19
Image 7 .............................................................................................................. 20
Image 8 .............................................................................................................. 21
Image 9 .............................................................................................................. 22
Image 10 ............................................................................................................23
Image 11 ............................................................................................................25
Image 12 ............................................................................................................28
Image 13 ............................................................................................................29
Image 14 ............................................................................................................30
Image 15 ............................................................................................................32
FTP - File Transfer Protocol.
SSH - Secure Shell.
Telnet - Telecommunication Network.
SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
DNS - Domain Name System.
HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol.
HTTPS - Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure.
TFTP - Trivial File Transfer Protocol.
DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
NTP - Network Time Protocol.
SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol.
TCP - Transmission Control Protocol.
UDP - User Datagram Protocol.
IP - Internet Protocol.
ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol.
Ethernet - Ethernet.
Fast Ethernet - Fast Ethernet.
Token Ring - Token Ring.
FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data Interface.
Introduction

Application layer protocols.

The application layer is the topmost layer of the TCP/IP model and serves as the interface
between user applications and the network. This layer encompasses the functionalities of the
session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI model, making it a critical component for
facilitating user interactions and network services.

❖ Function of the Application Layer

i. User Interface : It provides network services directly to end-users, offering an
interface for users to interact with the network.

ii. Data Representation: Ensures that data is presented in a readable and

understandable format. This includes tasks such as data translation, encryption, and
compression.

iii. Session Management: Establishes, manages, and terminates communication

sessions between applications.

iv. Service Advertisement: Advertises the services provided by the network to users
and other applications.

Image 1
1. FTP

Over a network, devices can transfer files to one another using the File Transfer Protocol
(FTP). With this protocol, devices can communicate with one other across the internet
and exchange files as long as both parties agree.

Image 2

FTP operates in a client-server architecture, where a client establishes a connection to an FTP

server and can then upload or download files from the server. The client and server exchange
messages to initiate transfers, manage data transfers, and terminate the connection. FTP supports
both active and passive modes, which determine the way the data connection is established
between the client and the server (Patil, C., 2023.).

FTP is generally considered an insecure protocol, as it transmits login credentials and files
contents in cleartext, which makes it vulnerable to eavesdropping and tampering. For this reason,
it’s recommended to use SFTP (Secure FTP), which uses SSL/TLS encryption to secure the data
transfer (Patil, C., 2023.).
2. SSH

Commands can be safely transmitted to a computer over an insecure network by using the Secure
Shell (SSH) protocol. SSH uses cryptography to make sure that device connections are encrypted
and authenticated. Furthermore, SSH allows port forwarding or tunneling, which allows data
packets to travel across networks that they would normally be unable to. File transfers,
infrastructure management, and remote server management are common uses for this
protocol.Port 22 is the default port for SSH. Sometimes, firewalls may block access to certain
ports on servers behind the firewall, but leave port 22 open.

Image 3
❖ What Does SSH Do ?

i. Remote encrypted connections: SSH sets up a connection between a user's device

and a faraway machine, often a server. It uses encryption to scramble the data that
traverses the connection. An intercepting party would only find something like
static random data that means nothing unless it is decrypted (Cloudflare, n.d.).
 ii. The ability to tunnel: In networking, tunneling is a method for moving packets
across a network using a protocol or path they would not ordinarily be able to use.
Tunneling works by wrapping data packets* with additional information — called
headers — to change their destination. SSH tunnels use a technique called port
forwarding to send packets from one machine to another (Cloudflare, n.d.).

3. Telnet

TELNET protocol is also known as Remote login protocol. This protocol is used for accessing
the remote end protocols. TELNET protocol allows the users client to interactively log in to the
server host. TELNET defines a device that is known as NVT(Network Virtual Terminal). This
NVT device provides with a standard network representation of a terminal. TELNET protocol
also consists of features for the client and server for negotiating the options that can enhance
their communications. Once the client and server agrees upon certain condition they can initiate
their communication. When the connection between client and server is established successfully
it is being presented to the Operating System of telnet server (GeeksforGeeks, n.d.).

Image 4
Telnet operates on the Application Layer of the OSI model and uses a client-server architecture.
The client program, which is typically run on a user’s computer, establishes a connection to a
Telnet server, which is running on the remote system. The user can then send commands to the
server and receive responses (Patil, C., 2023.).

While Telnet was widely used in the past, it has largely been replaced by more secure protocols
such as SSH (Secure Shell). Telnet is not considered a secure protocol, as it sends all data,
including passwords, in plain text. This makes it vulnerable to eavesdropping and interception. In
addition, Telnet does not provide any encryption for data transmission, which makes it
vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks (Patil, C., 2023.).

4. SMTP

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a TCP/IP protocol used to transmit and receive emails.
Many email applications, including Gmail, Outlook, Apple Mail, and Yahoo Mail, use it
extensively.Email clients utilize SMTP primarily for sending emails, but it can also handle
receiving emails. Owing to its shortcomings in receiving message queuing, Post Office Protocol
3 (POP3) or Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) are frequently used in conjunction with
SMTP.

Image 5
❖ How SMTP Works ?

i. The client connects to the server and establishes a secure connection (Patil, C.,
2023.).

ii. The client sends the recipient’s email address to the server and specifies the message
to be sent (Patil, C., 2023.).

iii. The server checks if the recipient’s email address is valid and if the sender has the
proper authorization to send emails (Patil, C., 2023.).

iv. The server forwards the message to the recipient’s email server, which stores the
message in the recipient’s inbox (Patil, C., 2023.).

v. The recipient’s email client retrieves the message from the server and displays it to
the user (Patil, C., 2023.).

5. DNS

DNS stands for Domain Name System. DNS is a decentralised naming system used by the
computer system and other devices over the internet. It translates the domain name into IP address
and IP address into domain name. The advantage provided by DNS is that the user need not to
remember the IP address, but Domain name is sufficient. Once the user searches for particular
website using domain name, this DNS query is being sent to DNS server that maps the IP address
against domain name. When it gets the address an HTTP session is then built with the IP address.
The protocols supported by Domain Name System are TCP and UDP. These domains are
classified into three types namely generic domain, country domain and inverse domain
(GeeksforGeeks, n.d.).

❖ How DNS Works ?

From the user’s point of view, entering a website address into the browser results in an almost
instant content display. To go one level deeper, when the user requests a website (for example,)
the DNS resolver gets the IP address from the web server, and then returns the information to the
user’s device (GCore, n.d.).

Image 6

6. HTTP

HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. This protocol is majorly used for exchanging the
hyper text on different systems. HTTP is a request response protocol. With the help of Uniform
Resource Locators(URLs) HTTP resources are identifiable on the networks. HTTP is considered
as a base of World Wide Web(WWW). For example, HTTP is used for transferring the web
pages. HTTP protocol transmits the data in MIME-like format. A HTTP request consists of
HTTP version type, a URL, an HTTP method, HTTP request headers and optional HTTP body.
HTTP request carries a sequence of data that is in encoded format (GeeksforGeeks, n.d.).
 Image 7

7. HTTPS

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure is referred to as HTTPS. It is an addition to the HTTP

protocol, which is used to transfer data between your browser and the website you are now
connected to. The last 'S' represents 'Secure,' signifying that all correspondence between your
web browser and the website is secured using encryption. The purpose of this encryption is to
provide a secure connection and prevent unauthorized parties from intercepting sensitive data,
like credit card numbers, login passwords, and personal information. For safe online
communication, HTTPS is frequently utilized, especially for sensitive data handling websites
like social media, e-commerce, and online banking.
 Image 8

❖ The Difference Between HTTPS and HTTP

HTTPS adds encryption, authentication, and integrity to the HTTP protocol:

Encryption: Because HTTP was originally designed as a clear text protocol, it is vulnerable to
eavesdropping and man in the middle attacks. By including SSL/TLS encryption, HTTPS
prevents data sent over the internet from being intercepted and read by a third party. Through
public-key cryptography and the SSL/TLS handshake, an encrypted communication session can
be securely set up between two parties who have never met in person (e.g. a web server and
browser) via the creation of a shared secret key (SSL.com, n.d.).

Authentication: Unlike HTTP, HTTPS includes robust authentication via the SSL/TLS protocol.
A website’s SSL/TLS certificate includes a public key that a web browser can use to confirm that
documents sent by the server (such as HTML pages) have been digitally signed by someone in
possession of the corresponding private key. If the server’s certificate has been signed by a
publicly trusted certificate authority (CA), such as SSL.com, the browser will accept that any
identifying information included in the certificate has been validated by a trusted third party
(SSL.com, n.d.).
8. TFTP

The network is made up of various devices. These devices are either connected by ethernet or by
any wireless means. The communication for transferring files takes place between these
connected devices. Therefore network protocols are required. Network protocols are defined as
rules that describe the format of data, sending and receiving of data between the devices
connected in a network. The below article covers in detail the Trivial File Transfer
Protocol(TFTP) (GeeksforGeeks, n.d.).

Image 9

❖ Advantages Of TFTP

i. TFTP Protocol makes use of User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

ii. TFTP requires less amount of memory.
iii. TFTP is simple to implement.
iv. TFTP is supported by many network devices such as routers, firewalls, and
switches.
v. TFTP has low overhead as compared to other protocols and therefore can be used
for low-bandwidth networks.
vi. TFTP can transfer small files such as boot files, and firmware images more fastly
(GeeksforGeeks, n.d.).
❖ Disadvantages Of TFTP

i. TFTP does not provide any security features.

ii. TFTP does not provide any approach for error checking.
iii. TFTP can be used for limited functionalities only.
iv. TFTP servers do not allow the renaming and deletion of files (GeeksforGeeks, n.d.).

9. DHCP

DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. DHCP is a network management
protocol at the application layer of TCP/IP model. The Internet Protocol can allocate IP address
to the devices connected in network so that they can communicate with each other with the help
of Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. DHCP assigns a unique IP address to all the host
connected in the network. It aslo assigns other network address such as subnet mask, router
address and DNS address. For example a network consists of 10,000 devices in the network.
Assigning a unique IP address to each device manually is a difficult and time consuming task.
Therefore DHCP protocol is used to assign IP address and other related information to all the
devices connected in the network.

Image 10
❖ The DHCP service offers three advantages:

i. Simplified Operational Tasks : DHCP reduces operational overhead by doing away with the
requirement for network managers to manually configure each client.
ii. Effective IP Addressing : DHCP improves the IP addressing strategy, guaranteeing effective
use of the addresses that are available, by recovering unused IP addresses and assigning
them to new customers.
iii. Simplified User Mobility Management: DHCP provides smooth user mobility management
without needing manual involvement from administrators by automatically reconfiguring
clients when their network access points change.

10. NTP

The acronym for Network Time Protocol is NTP. It's a technique that enables devices connected
to a network to synchronize their clocks to a single point in time. By guaranteeing that every
device connected to a network is in agreement with the current time, NTP makes precise
timekeeping possible. Applications ranging from transaction coordination to event recording and
timestamp-based communication protocol security depend on this synchronization.
 Image 11

❖ Why is Clock Synchronization Important ?

The synchronization of clocks holds significant importance within a network environment for
various reasons:

i. Network management heavily relies on precise time synchronization to effectively

analyze logs obtained from diverse network devices. Inconsistencies in system time
across devices can hinder the accurate correlation of log files, making it challenging
or even impossible.
ii. Billing systems are reliant on accurate time information across all network devices
to ensure precise billing services. Failure to maintain consistent time across devices
can lead to billing inaccuracies, resulting in user doubts and complaints.
iii. Collaborative processing among multiple systems necessitates synchronized clocks
to ensure proper sequencing of operations when processing complex events
collectively.
 iv. Certain applications and services require accurate time to timestamp user login and
transaction data, ensuring traceability of events.

In summary, maintaining a unified standard time across the network is crucial. The Network
Time Protocol (NTP) serves as a protocol specifically designed to synchronize the clocks of
network hosts to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). NTP offers high precision, achieving
synchronization within 1 millisecond on a Local Area Network (LAN) and within tens of
milliseconds on a Wide Area Network (WAN) (Howard 2024.).

11. SNMP

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is a standard protocol used for managing and
monitoring network devices, such as routers, switches, servers, and printers. It provides a
common framework for network management and enables network administrators to monitor and
manage network devices from a central location. NMP provides a flexible and scalable way to
manage and monitor large networks, and it’s supported by a wide range of network devices and
vendors. It’s an essential tool for network administrators and is widely used in enterprise networks
and service provider networks. (Patil, C., 2023.).

Transport/Host to Host Layer Protocols.

In the TCP/IP model, the Transport Layer is the second layer; in the OSI model, it is the fourth
layer. It functions as an end-to-end component that makes it easier for messages to be sent to
hosts directly. It creates a point-to-point link between the source and destination hosts, as
opposed to hop-to-hop transmission, to guarantee dependable service delivery. Data is separated
for transmission into segments within the Transport Layer. This layer is responsible for ensuring
the reliable transmission of data between devices on a network. The two most common transport
layer protocols are:
 ❖ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
❖ User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

1. TCP - Transmission Control Protocol

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a transport layer protocol that facilitates the
transmission of packets from source to destination. It is a connection-oriented protocol that
means it establishes the connection prior to the communication that occurs between the
computing devices in a network. This protocol is used with an IP protocol, so together, they are
referred to as a TCP/IP (JavaTpoint, n.d).

The main functionality of the TCP is to take the data from the application layer. Then it divides
the data into a several packets, provides numbering to these packets, and finally transmits these
packets to the destination. The TCP, on the other side, will reassemble the packets and transmits
them to the application layer. As we know that TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, so the
connection will remain established until the communication is not completed between the sender
and the receiver (JavaTpoint, n.d).
 Image 12

❖ Key Features Of TCP

i. Reliability.
ii. Connection-oriented.
iii. Flow control.
iv. Congestion control.
v. Ordered delivery.
vi. Full-duplex communication.
vii. Checksum.

2. UDP - User Datagram Protocol

The User Datagram Protocol, or UDP, is a core computer networking protocol that was created
in 1980 by David P. Reed and outlined in RFC 768. Being a part of the TCP/IP suite, it is a
common protocol used for online communication. UDP is connectionless, as opposed to TCP,
which means that data transmission occurs without the creation of a virtual circuit. Alternatively,
UDP enables computer programs to transfer datagrams, or messages, across IP networks between
machines. Before being encapsulated into IP packets for transmission, UDP packets contain data
along with their own header information (JavaTpoint, n.d.).

Image 13

❖ Key Features Of UDP

i. Connectionless Protocol.
ii. Low Overhead.
iii. No Reliability Mechanisms.
iv. Fast Transmission.
v. Support for Broadcasts and Multicasts.
vi. Simple and Stateless.
vii. Header Structure.
Internet.

The Internet functions as a vast network connecting billions of computers and electronic devices
worldwide. Its capabilities encompass accessing a wealth of information, communicating with
individuals globally, and performing numerous tasks. By connecting a computer to the Internet,
commonly referred to as going online, users can leverage its extensive resources and
functionalities.

1. IP

IP, or Internet Protocol, is a core protocol for communication on computer networks like the
Internet. It assigns unique addresses, called IP addresses, to devices, enabling them to exchange
data packets. IP defines how data is formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received
across networks. It comes in two main versions: IPv4 and IPv6, with IPv6 providing a larger
address space to accommodate the increasing number of connected devices.

Image 14
❖ What is IPv6 and Why it was introduced as a successor to IPv4 :

IPv6 is the newest version of internet protocol formulated by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF), which helps identify and local endpoint systems on a computer
network.Introduced to address the limitations of IPv4, including the exhaustion of available IP
addresses.

IPv4 addresses were getting depleted due to the rapid growth of internet users, high usage of
devices such as mobiles, laptops, and computers, inefficient address use, and always-on devices
like cable modems. IPv6 offers these improvements over IPv4 :

i. More efficient routing without fragmenting packets.

ii. Built-in Quality of Service (QoS) that distinguishes delay-sensitive packets.

iii. Elimination of NAT to extend address space from 32 to 128 bits.

iv. Network layer security built-in (IPsec).

v. Stateless address auto-configuration for easier network administration.

vi. Improved header structure with less processing overhead.

2. ICMP

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer protocol used by network
devices to diagnose network communication issues. ICMP is mainly used to determine whether
or not data is reaching its intended destination in a timely manner. Commonly, the
ICMP protocol is used on network devices, such as routers. ICMP is crucial for error reporting
and testing, but it can also be used in distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks (Cloudflare,
n.d.).

Image 15

❖ In computer networks, ICMP, or Internet Control Message Protocol, performs a

number of crucial functions :

i. Error Reporting.
ii. Network Diagnostics.
iii. Router Discovery.
iv. Congestion Control.
v. Route Optimization.
Network Access.

Network access refers to the method by which a computer connects to a network. This can be
achieved through either wired or wireless means, depending on the type of physical networking
media used.Network coverage denotes the specific area where a signal from the nearest base
station can be received. The extent of this coverage area is influenced by several factors,
including the transmission power of the base station, the placement of neighboring base stations,
and the physical structure of the surrounding environment, such as buildings or campus layouts.

1. Ethernet

Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under IEEE standards 802.3.
The reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, and
maintain, and allows low-cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms
of the topologies that are allowed. Ethernet generally uses a bus topology (GeeksforGeeks, n.d.).

2. Fast Ethernet

In the fast-evolving world of computers, speed plays a vital role in the present and has become
paramount. As the technology is advancing and the demands on the networks are increasing
significantly, the quest for transferring the data at faster rates has become a priority. A very
crucial evolution in networking technology developed to meet the escalating features and
demands head-on – enters the Fast Ethernet (GeeksforGeeks, n.d.).

3. Token Ring

Token Ring is a physical and data link layer computer networking technology used to build local
area networks. It was introduced by IBM in 1984, and standardized in 1989 as IEEE 802.5. It
uses a special three-byte frame called a token that is passed around a logical ring of workstations
or servers (Wikipedia contributors, 2024 ).
4. FDDI

FDDI stands for Fiber Distributed Data Interface. It is a set of ANSI and ISO guidelines for
information transmission on fiber-optic lines in Local Area Network (LAN) that can expand in
run upto 200 km (124 miles). The FDDI convention is based on the token ring protocol
(GeeksforGeeks, n.d.).

References

i. GeeksforGeeks, n.d. 'Application layer protocols in TCP/IP'.

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/application-layer-protocols-in-tcp-ip/

ii. Patil, C., 2023. 'Application layer protocols'.

https://medium.com/@chaituapatil3/application-layer-protocols-62ded821264e

iii. Cloudflare, n.d. 'What is SSH?'. https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/access-

management/what-is-ssh/

iv. SSL.com, n.d. 'What is HTTPS?'. https://www.ssl.com/faqs/what-is-https/

v. JavaTpoint, n.d. 'TCP'. https://www.javatpoint.com/tcp

vi. Cloudflare, n.d. 'Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)'.

https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/ddos/glossary/internet-control-message-protocol-icmp/

vii. GeeksforGeeks, n.d. 'What is Ethernet?'. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-ethernet/

viii. GeeksforGeeks, n.d. 'What is Fast Ethernet?'. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-fast-
ethernet/

ix. Wikipedia contributors, 2024. 'Token Ring', Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_Ring#:~:text=Token%20Ring%20is%20a%20physical,
ring%20of%20workstations%20or%20servers

x. GeeksforGeeks, n.d. 'FDDI Full Form'. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/fddi-full-form/

xi. JavaTpoint, n.d. 'UDP Protocol'. https://www.javatpoint.com/udp-protocol

xii. Howard 2024, 'What is NTP?', FS Community, https://community.fs.com/blog/ntp.html

xiii. SSL.com, n.d. 'What is HTTPS?'. [online] Available at:

https://www.ssl.com/faqs/what-is-https/

xiv. GCore, n.d. 'What is DNS? How does it work?'. https://gcore.com/learning/what-is-dns-

how-does-it-work/

xv. Cloudflare, n.d. 'What is SSH?'.https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/access-

management/what-is-ssh/