MACHINE LEARNING

INTRODUCTION:
Well-posed learning problems:
Definition: A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect
to some class of tasks T and performance measure P, if its performance at
tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with experience E.
For example, a computer program that learns to play checkers might improve
its performance as measured by its abiliry to win at the class of tasks involving
playing checkers games, through experience obtained by playing games against
itself. In general, to have a well-defined learning problem, we must identity
these three features:
 The class of tasks
 The measure of performance to be improved
 The source of experience.
A checkers learning problem:
 Task T: playing checkers
 Performance measure P: percent of games won against opponents
 Training experience E: playing practice games against itself
Examples:
1. Learning to drive an autonomous vehicle.
2. Automatic Translation of documents
3. Face Recognition Problem
4. Handwriting Recognition Problem

Designing a learning system:

Steps for Designing Learning System are:

1) Choosing the Training Experience:

The very important and first task is to choose the training data or training experience
which will be fed to the Machine Learning Algorithm. It is important to note that the data
or experience that we fed to the algorithm must have a significant impact on the Success
or Failure of the Model. So Training data or experience should be chosen wisely.
Below are the attributes which will impact on Success and Failure of Data:
 The training experience will be able to provide direct or indirect feedback
regarding choices. For example: While Playing chess the training data will
provide feedback to itself like instead of this move if this is chosen the chances
of success increases.
 Second important attribute is the degree to which the learner will control the
sequences of training examples. For example: when training data is fed to the
machine then at that time accuracy is very less but when it gains experience
while playing again and again with itself or opponent the machine algorithm
will get feedback and control the chess game accordingly.
 Third important attribute is how it will represent the distribution of examples
over which performance will be measured. For example, a Machine learning
algorithm will get experience while going through a number of different cases
and different examples. Thus, Machine Learning Algorithm will get more and
more experience by passing through more and more examples and hence its
performance will increase.
2) Choosing the Target Function:
The next important step is choosing the target function. It means according to the
knowledge fed to the algorithm the machine learning will choose NextMove function
which will describe what type of legal moves should be taken. For example : While
playing chess with the opponent, when opponent will play then the machine learning
algorithm will decide what be the number of possible legal moves taken in order to get
success.
3) Choosing a Representation for the Target Function:
When the machine algorithm will know all the possible legal moves the next step is to
choose the optimized move using any representation i.e. using linear Equations,
Hierarchical Graph Representation, Tabular form etc. The NextMove function will
move the Target move like out of these move which will provide more success rate.
For Example : while playing chess machine have 4 possible moves, so the machine will
choose that optimized move which will provide success to it.
4) Choosing a Function Approximation Algorithm:
An optimized move cannot be chosen just with the training data. The training data
had to go through with set of example and through these examples the training data
will approximates which steps are chosen and after that machine will provide feedback
on it. For Example : When a training data of Playing chess is fed to algorithm so at that
time it is not machine algorithm will fail or get success and again from that failure or
success it will measure while next move what step should be chosen and what is its
success rate.
5) The Final Design:
The final design is created at last when system goes from number of examples ,
failures and success , correct and incorrect decision and what will be the next step etc.
Example: DeepBlue is an intelligent computer which is ML-based won chess game
 against the chess expert Garry Kasparov, and it became the first computer which had
beaten a human chess expert.
IMP:See Textbook for designing a learning system using checkers game
Perspectives and issues in machine learning:
One useful perspective on machine learning is that it involves searching a very large space of
possible hypotheses to determine one that best fits the observed data and any prior
knowledge held by the learner. For example, consider the space of hypotheses that could in
principle be output by the above checkers learner. This hypothesis space consists of all
evaluation functions that can be represented by some choice of values for the weights wo
through w6. The learner's task is thus to search through this vast space to locate the
hypothesis that is most consistent with the available training examples. The LMS algorithm
for fitting weights achieves this goal by iteratively tuning the weights, adding a correction to
each weight each time the hypothesized evaluation function predicts a value that differs
from the training value. This algorithm works well when the hypothesis representation
considered by the learner defines a continuously parameterized space of potential
hypotheses.
Issues in Machine Learning:
There are a lot of challenges that machine learning professionals face to inculcate ML skills
and create an application from scratch .

1. Poor Quality of Data:

Data plays a significant role in the machine learning process. One of the significant
issues that machine learning professionals face is the absence of good quality data.
Unclean and noisy data can make the whole process extremely exhausting. We don’t
want our algorithm to make inaccurate or faulty predictions. Hence the quality of data
is essential to enhance the output. Therefore, we need to ensure that the process of
data preprocessing which includes removing outliers, filtering missing values, and
removing unwanted features, is done with the utmost level of perfection.
2. Underfitting of Training Data
This process occurs when data is unable to establish an accurate relationship between
input and output variables. It simply means trying to fit in undersized jeans. It signifies
the data is too simple to establish a precise relationship. To overcome this issue:

 Maximize the training time

 Enhance the complexity of the model
 Add more features to the data
 Reduce regular parameters
 Increasing the training time of model

3. Overfitting of Training Data

Overfitting refers to a machine learning model trained with a massive amount of data
that negatively affect its performance. It is like trying to fit in Oversized jeans.
Unfortunately, this is one of the significant issues faced by machine learning
professionals. This means that the algorithm is trained with noisy and biased data,
 which will affect its overall performance. Let’s understand this with the help of an
example. Let’s consider a model trained to differentiate between a cat, a rabbit, a dog,
and a tiger. The training data contains 1000 cats, 1000 dogs, 1000 tigers, and 4000
Rabbits. Then there is a considerable probability that it will identify the cat as a rabbit.
In this example, we had a vast amount of data, but it was biased; hence the prediction
was negatively affected.

We can tackle this issue by:

 Analyzing the data with the utmost level of perfection
 Use data augmentation technique
 Remove outliers in the training set
 Select a model with lesser features

4. Machine Learning is a Complex Process:

The machine learning industry is young and is continuously changing. Rapid hit and trial
experiments are being carried on. The process is transforming, and hence there are high
chances of error which makes the learning complex. It includes analyzing the data,
removing data bias, training data, applying complex mathematical calculations, and a lot
more. Hence it is a really complicated process which is another big challenge for Machine
learning professionals.

5. Lack of Training Data

The most important task you need to do in the machine learning process is to train the
data to achieve an accurate output. Less amount training data will produce inaccurate or
too biased predictions. Let us understand this with the help of an example. Consider a
machine learning algorithm similar to training a child. One day you decided to explain to a
child how to distinguish between an apple and a watermelon. You will take an apple and a
watermelon and show him the difference between both based on their color, shape, and
taste. In this way, soon, he will attain perfection in differentiating between the two. But
on the other hand, a machine-learning algorithm needs a lot of data to distinguish. For
complex problems, it may even require millions of data to be trained. Therefore we need
to ensure that Machine learning algorithms are trained with sufficient amounts of data.
6. Slow Implementation
This is one of the common issues faced by machine learning professionals. The machine
learning models are highly efficient in providing accurate results, but it takes a
tremendous amount of time. Slow programs, data overload, and excessive requirements
usually take a lot of time to provide accurate results. Further, it requires constant
monitoring and maintenance to deliver the best output.

7. Imperfections in the Algorithm When Data Grows

So you have found quality data, trained it amazingly, and the predictions are really concise
and accurate. Yay, you have learned how to create a machine learning algorithm!! But
wait, there is a twist; the model may become useless in the future as data grows. The best
model of the present may become inaccurate in the coming Future and require further
rearrangement. So you need regular monitoring and maintenance to keep the algorithm
working. This is one of the most exhausting issues faced by machine learning
professionals.
Conclusion: Machine learning is all set to bring a big bang transformation in technology. It
is one of the most rapidly growing technologies used in medical diagnosis, speech
recognition, robotic training, product recommendations, video surveillance, and this list
goes on. This continuously evolving domain offers immense job satisfaction, excellent
opportunities, global exposure, and exorbitant salary. It is a high risk and a high return
technology. Before starting your machine learning journey, ensure that you carefully
examine the challenges mentioned above. To learn this fantastic technology, you need to
plan carefully, stay patient, and maximize your efforts. Once you win this battle, you can
conquer the Future of work and land your dream job!
CONCEPT LEARNING AND THE GENERAL-TO-SPECIFIC ORDERING
Concept learning: Inferring a boolean-valued function from training examples of its
input and output.
A CONCEPT LEARNING TASK:
consider the example task of learning the target concept "days on which my friend Aldo enjoys his
favorite water sport." Table 2.1 describes a set of example days, each represented by a set of
attributes. The attribute EnjoySport indicates whether or not Aldo enjoys his favorite water sport on
this day. The task is to learn to predict the value of EnjoySport for an arbitrary day, based on the
values of its other attributes.
let each hypothesis be a vector of six constraints, specifying the values of the six attributes Sky,
AirTemp, Humidity, Wind, Water, and Forecast. For each attribute, the hypothesis will either 0
indicate by a "?' that any value is acceptable for this attribute, 0 specify a single required value (e.g.,
Warm) for the attribute, or 0 indicate by a "0" that no value is acceptable.