CHAPTER Algebraic Structures and Coding Theory The structure of algebra, Algebraic Systems, Semi Groupe, Monoiés, Groups, Homomorphism and Normal Subgroups, and Congruence relations, Rings, integral Domains and Fields, Coding theory, Polynomial Ringe and Polynomial Codes, Galois Theory — Field Theory and Group Theory. 4 92 94 95 96 97 98 99 9.10 att 912 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 Algebraic system... i “ 2 Se Properties of binary operation... pier #0 me ss ‘Semi-group .. ss a a eines 93 Monoid .. Abelian group... Subgroup ‘Solved examples... ‘Addition and muttiplication modulo 9.9.1 Examples Based on Addition and Muttiplication ModUlO .. Permutation group 9.10.1 Example Based on Permutation Group Complexes of a group... Coset.... Order of an element of a group oat CYCLIC QFOUP sess O11 Normal subgroups... 912 GQ. Define Normal Subgroup. a2 Quotient groups. a297 9.18 9.19 9.20 Group codes... 921 Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-COMP-SEM 3) 8.16.1 Examples Based on Quotient Groups. Homomorphism of groups. Isomorphism of groups 8.18.1 Examples Based on Isomorphism of Groups. Rings, integral domain and felds.. 8.19.1 Rings 9.19.2 Commutative Ring 9.19.3 Ring With Unity 9.19.4 Properties of A Ring... 9.19.5. Subring. 9.196 9.19.7 9.19.8 9.19.9 Ring Homomomphism... 8.19.10 Examples Based on Rings, Integral Domain and Fields.. 9.20.1 Error Detecting Codes 9.202 9.20.3 9.20.4 9.20.5 8.20.6 Hamming Error Correction Code 9.207 Examples Based on Group Code . Cyclic code. 9.21.1 Example based on Cyclic Code. . Chapter Ends...Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-COMP-SEM 3) Introduction In this chapler, we study the additional structure with set, called a algebraic system induced by one or more binary operations on the elements of set. Algebraic system obey a set of rules which are similar to the rules of addition and multiplication of numbers in elementary algebra In first section we study a general algebraic system and i's properties such as semigroup, group, ring and fields. In her section we discuss the application of group in coding theory where techniques are developed for detecting and ‘correcting errors in transmitted data, m1 9.1 ALGEBRAIC SYSTEM ‘An tary operation on a non-empty set A is a function f: A" A, A" being the product set of A. Algebraic system is defined as, itis an ordered pair (A, *), where A isthe set of elements and +" is set of m-ary ‘operations such that forVa,be A, abe A Note that, here ‘s’ is not multiplication if the set of m-ary operations like (A, +), (A, +, #) ete eg. (1) Let E = (0, 2, 4, ......) then set E along with binary operation ‘+” (addition) is an algebraic system ive. (E, +) is algebraic system. Set of integers Z with operations “+” and % is the algebraic system ie. (Z , +, ) 9.2 PROPERTIES OF BINARY OPERATION @ 1 Commutative property : A binary operation ‘*" is called as commutative if a * b = b + a, for all elements abeA. eg. (1) Binary operation of addition on set of integers is , but subtraction operation is not commutative, 2) Binary operation multiplication on the set of integers is commutative. (2) Associative property : A binary operation * is called as associative if a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c, for all abe A eg. (1) Binary operation addition is associative on set of integers but operation subtraction is not associative on set of integers. (2) The binary operation multiplication is associative 93 Algebraic Structures and. ‘A binary operation * on set A ty : (3) Idempotent property af oe is called as idempotent if it satisfy atazaforallae A e.g. consider lattice L with two operations join (v). Then ” and v are the binary operations such meet (A) and that for all a A aaaza and avaza therefore both and v operations satisfy the idempotent property (4 Identity Element : An element ¢ € A is called as identity element for the operation *, if ate =eta=a,forallac A (5) Distributive property : For a, b, ¢ € A and the operation * and +, the operation '* distributes over +, if a*(b+c)=(a*b)+ (ae) Similarly operation + distribution over * if a+(b*c)=(a+b)*(a+c) (©) Cancellation law : For a, b, ¢ € A and operation * satisfies the cancellation law (property) then atb =asc=b=c (1) Diverse element : For each element a € A, there exists an element b € A such that a*b =e, where eis identity element > 9.3 SEMI-GROUP ‘An algebraic system (A, *) with a binary operation + on A is sai to be a semigroup if * is associative. a#(b+c) =(arb)ee for all a,b,c © A ee (1) If R is set of real numbers then (R, +) and (R, x) is semigroup. This is also commutative therefore it is also called commutative semigroup. 2) Z is set of imegers and (Z, +) is commutative semigroup. (3) For a non-empty set A, (P (A), U) is a commutative semigroup (P(A)) is a power set of A) (4) Z, -)is not semigroup as subtraction operation is not associative. » 9.4 MONOID A semigroup (A, *) with it 9 ?) with an identity element is called Example (1), +)is a monoid where 0 is the identity element, 740 =0+7=7 ‘on the set of integers. 5 - Beko =A SACHIN SHAH VentureDiscrete Mathematics (SPPU-COMP.SEM 3) (2) @x)isamonoid where 1 is the identity element TX1 =1x7=7 » 9.5 GROUP An algebraic system (A, has following properties (1) Associative teas (b*c)=(a¥b)*c, foralla,b,c eA ie. semigroup) (2) Ithas identity element (monoid) ave setaza forallac A eis identity element (3) Tehas inverse element Foreach a€ A there exists b € A such that atb=be where e is identity element. » 9.6 ABELIAN GROUP 9) is said to be a group if it An algebraic system (A, *)is called as abelian group if it is group and if it satisfies the commutative property such that atb=b*a, forallabe A [Algebraic system (A, *) (1) Associative semigroup 2) Identity element ela] Monoid 3) Inverse Element Group (4) Commutative Abelian group >» 9.7 SUBGROUP Let (G, *) be any group then (H, *) is called as subgroup of group (G, +) if the following condition are satisfied. (1) His subset of G (2) © H where e is identity element of (G, *) (3) Foranya¢ H,a'e H (4) Fora be Ha*beH Note that (H, #) itself a group with same identity ‘element as that of (G, *) All properties of G are inherited by H. (Le), *) is a trival subgroup. Ex. 9.8.2 : Consider binary operation * on set A, where A is jc Structures & ™ 9.8 SOLVED EXAMPLES Ex. #.8:1 : Consider the binary relation * defined on the sep ‘A= (a,b, 0,4) by the following table, Is * commutative ? Associative ? © sotn.: + snot commutative as arc =b and * is not associative as at(b¥c)=a¥b=c but, (a*b)*c=crc=a a*(b*c)#(asb)tc Hence * is neither commutative nor associative ctazc (b*e=b) set of rational numbers defined by atb=at+b-ab, WabeA Find whether * is associative © son. arbre) i =a+(b+0e—be)—a(b+e—be +b+c-be-ab-ac+ abe =a+b-ab+e-(a+b-— a+b~ab+e—ac—be+Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-COMP-SEM 3) Now x x'#(xty) and (cls wtysetysy For a group, associ xla(xey) 00 * x) * yorx It shows that, each ‘a" in G has unique inverse 3) Now, we have to prove that atb = atc, impliesb=c IConsider a' * (a * b) ie, a'*@*b) {Proved} {a, b}, which of the following tables defines a semigroup on A ? Which defines a monoide on A? @ *lad Gi) b b a ala aja b bla bib b & soin. : For the table (i) b*(b*b)=bea=a and (b*b)*b=a+b=b Associativity property not satisfied for table (i) but associativity property is satisfied by table (ii) as (b*b)*b=b*b=b So, table (i) does not define semigroup but table (ii) defines semigroup For table (ii) has an identity element a as defines monoide but table (i) does not define Ex. 9.8.5 : Le G be a group for fixed element of G Let: G,= (ae G:ax=xa} ‘Shot that G, is subgroup of G, Vx € G © sot. : Let ¢ be the identity element of G ox x as xeG <. €€ G, and e is also the identity element of G, Let us see whether G, is closed. Let a,b G, z — TSE 95 Al Then we have to prove that for every a, b € Gy abe G, xa =ax and bx=xb (ab) x = a (bx) = a (xb) = (ax) b = (xa) 8 a subgroup of G. x (ab) abe G, Ex. 9.8.6 : Consider group (Z, +). LetH = (3n:me€ Z) show that H is a subgroup of Z. © soin. First we have to show that it is closed under + 3x and 3y € H 3x+3y =3(x+y)eH 3x € H then it’s inverse ~ 3x also belongs to H. His subgroup of (Z, +) enim st Ex. 9.8.7 : Write properties of Binary operations. M1 sotn. (@® Closure property Let G be any non empty set. An operation * is said to be close on G if Va,beGo>atbeG +.—. x are closed on R, Z, C Associative property Let G be any non empty set. An operation * is said to be associative on G if for all a, b, ¢ in G such that ax(b*c) =(a*b)*e e.g. +, X are associative on R, Z,C Existence of the Identity Element Let G be any non empty set and * be binary operation on G. For any a € G there exist e € G such that ate =ctaza ‘The element ¢ is called the identity element of G with respect to *. €-g. Ois the identity element in R, Z, C wart. t Existence of Inverse Element Let G be any non empty set and * be binary operation on G. For all a€ G there exist be G such that a*b=b*a=e, where e is the identity element of G wort. * Commutative property Let G be any non empty set and * binary operation on G. * is said to be commutative if V a, be G atb=bea ©.8. +, X are commutative on R, Z, C eg. Gi) (ii) Gy) w 4 SACHIN SHAH Venturea Blocone waren Asi Algo res & Coding Thea Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-COMP-SEM 3) raic Struct Ex. 9.8.8 A= (0,1), Is closed under (1) Mutiptication (2) Addition © soin. : 0*0 =06A Ox1 =0€A 1x0 =0€A Ixl=lea + Set Ais closed under multiplication, 0+0=06A O+l=lea 1+0=6€A 141 = 2not belongs to A, Hence not closed under addition, Ex.9.89:In the set R of real number. Decide weather following composition is associative a,b, ce R: (1) a*b=a+2b Q)a*b=a AS © som. : (a+2b)*c fl) 0) From (1) and (2) atb = a+2bis not associative @) ath =a (atb)tc=ate ©. a*D= a is associative Ex.9.8.10: What is monoid, show that the algebraic structure (A, +) is a monoid, where A is set of integer and +s a binary operation giving addition of two integer © soin. (@) A Monoid isa semigroup with an identity element, i) Here A is set of integer + Here closure property holds as for every pair (a, b) € A, (a+b) is present in the set A. eg lt2=3€A (iii) Associative property also holds for every element abces (arb)te=ar(b+e) eg. (14243-14243) Pn Identity property also holds for every element a& A, (ate)=a 2+ here identity element is 1 Ex. 9.8.11 : Let R= (0, 60, I 240, 300) and « ishinary operation so that for a and b in Ra * bis overat angular rotation corresponding, to successive rotations by g and by b show (R, *) is @ gr0Up. et because when you rotate (i) *) algebraic system uu % Ge cad 120° combined we shall et 80°. ii) (R, +) is a monoid because 0° is identity element (iii) Inverse also exits because inverse of 60° is 300° » if (R, #)is an Algebraic system, monoid and inverse clement also exits then (R, *) is a monoid ee ae Ex. 9.8.12 : Explain following terms (i) Monoid (ii) Sub- group. 1 soln. : () Monoid Itis a semigroup with identity element Gi) sub-group Let (G, *) be a group. A non empty subset H of group Gis said to be subgroup of G if (H, # itself isa group. eg. @) — (,+issubgroupof(R+) Gi) (R,#)is subgroup of (¢, +) all positive integer determine whether A is. ee . H somn.: A =[1,3,5,7,9, 1x3 =3€A 3x5 =15€Aatb)tes (A,#)i8 semigroup LetG, be a cyclic group, # for each n, me z such that a=g' and b=2"VabeG, aniG,=V ge, but G, isa group “XY¥EG, VXYEG, fab = gig wifes =b-a VabeG is a commutative group OO Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-Cony SEM 3) ‘Algebraic Structures & Codi © son (A, is Algebric System (arb)tc=bec 4 2 4g, aa + imverse axiom is true ab (iv) atb= 2 ba_ab bea = BW nebo bee Commutative axiom is true (G, *) is an abelian group Ex. 9.8.17 : Consider the binary relation * defined on Set A= {a,b,c,d} by the following table fill empty cell. © soin. : e b c e alb bib c cle clela 9.9 ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION MODULO (1) Addition modulo Let 2 be the set of integers and n be any number then ‘Addition modulo of zis denoted by (2, +,) and itis given as Consider x,y €Z then Letn € Z be an integer Let Z, be the set of integers modulo n, 2 =10, X-+ ny equals to remainder after x + y has been divided (ii) Let e be the identity element of then, by definition byn. " mre movana (2) Multiplication modulo ate == Let n€ Z be an integer : Let Z, be the setof integers n ona Z= (01 : The operation of e=2€G, Zum Hence identity axiom is true ; ‘cay equals the emtindr aftr xy has ben divided by n (iii) Let a 'be inverse of a then by definition Let 2= (jee ata! =a'ease a Tech-Neo Publications..Where Authors inpire innovation "A SACHIN St aesrac & Mathematics (SPPU-COMP-SEM 3) sructures e x. 20.2: Let Z= (0, 1,2, 3.45) prove that multiplication is anabeli G+) |1 2 —Asc+t)mod2=0 — | modulo (z, x. is an abelian group. poe oa (1+2)mod2=1 | 1 sotn.: modo 2 |1 0 alae cae cbse @x) [12 Asdxtymod2=1 Addon V}1 0 (ix2)med2=0 eee” and so on % 9.9.1 Examples Based on Addition and Multiplication Modulo From the above table 1 is an identity element Ex. 99.4 :LetG= (0, 1,2,3,4,5,6, 7) and operation “sy | asxx 1 = 1xx=x; forall x€ z addition modulo 8 than show that (G, +,) is an abelian For each element it is observed that no inverse element groups exists there (2, %) is not a group and therefore it is not a © soln, : Addition table for +, = (G, xq) an abelian group ? 1,2,3,4,5,6) ; 2.36 but Baked. Hence (G, x.) is not group Thus (G, x,) is not abelian group 01ers where G = (1,2, 3,4, 5,6} 7 From above table, ‘The element 0 is identity element as 0-+,x=x Where x€ G Associativity property is satisfied. For every element x € G there exist inverse x"! if x =0 then x'=0 as 04,0=0 x =3 then x'=S as 34,5=0 x =6 then x'=2as 6+,2=0 and a4yb =b4ya for alla be G as 3444 =44,3=7 and 3,466 Hence itis commutative ‘Therefore (G, +,) is an abelian groupDiscrete Mathematics (SPPi COMI EM 3) Pah cineos ne anes g Existence or inverse From table oe Lis inverse of 1 X4=4x, 1 2is inverse of. ; is inverse of an vice verse, As 3%)5=5x,3 1 in hed ont AS 6x,6=1 Hence inverse exists for all (8) Commutative pro From the table for all a, be G axb=bxa #-%i8 commutative in G -. Therefore (G, inverse of 5 and vice versa 6 is inverse of 6 aeG 7) is an abelian group Ex. Prove that set of 2 of ‘operation * defined by A «b= abelien group. © son. : Here * is defined on z by a+b @ Letabez ‘Then a, b are integers Since sum of any integer is also an integer +: +b +1 is an integer, +. a* bis an integer. natbez Hence closure axiom is true Gi) @*b)¥c=(atb+1)ec (@*b)*c=(atb+ Iter all integer with binary a+b+l Vabe 2isan =a+bel (atb)*c=a+bec42 oC bec =bec+i as(bec (b+e41) ar(b¥c)=at(b+cH 141 a*(b*c)=atbec+2 *1.Q) From (1) and (2) at(bec) a*btc hence associative axiom is true (iii) Let e be the identity element of z then, by definition pean order of 6 =6+6=0 ate=a oes Tech-Neo Publications... Where Authors eee 99 —<————— Algebraic Structures & Coding Thee’ This implies ate+l =a e+1 =0 e=-lez hence identity axiom is true (iv) Let a” be the inverse of a then, by definition asa! =a ata! =e avg! =-1 ata'+i=-1 a! =-2-a #!=-@+aez (since a and 2 are integers) Hence inverse axiom is true. () Letabez a*b=a*b+l ab =bta+l arb =bea hence commutative axiom is true ++ 2 (set of all integers) is an abelin group under * 6 : Let z, {0, 1, 2, 1), In 24, what is the order of 3, 6 and 8, © som. : Zxa= (0, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, 10, 11} “4 is defined in Z, as a+b= (a+b) %n tel oyy ofolt tafe 2lels ats[a afals sisl[e elel7 7[7[e elele ete foln 10 [10 [11 nfoDiscrete Mathematics (SPPU-COMP-SEM order of 8 = 8+8+8 order of 8 =3 Ex. 997 : Let z= (0,1, 2... a= 1) Let * be binary ‘operation such that a * b = reminder of (a +b) divided by n. Construct table for n = 4 is (zy, *) a monoid, semigroup, ‘group and abelian group, © som: % = {0,1,2,3) aed =(a+b)%n ae since @ here(0*1)*2= 14223 0*(1#2)=003=3 +: From (1) and (2) (*1)*2=0+(1+2) <: (2g, #) isa semigroup (Gi) _here 0 is the identity element en) (2) 0=0 =0 Gi) here 1#3=341=0 22 =0 «+ Inverse element also exists ++ @y*) is a group (iv) here 1#2=2*1=3 + Itholds the commutative property + @y *) is a abelian group > 9.10 PERMUTATION GROUP + itis a monoid @ Lets ={1,2,3, -..n) be a finite set with n distinct elements. If R : s+ sis a bijective function then R is called a permutation of degree n. Let R (a,) = by, R (8) = by, flay) = by ‘Then the permutation is denoted by ; (t % ) — Elements in domain rm 1 soon (&) =D, 9-10 Structures, (At) The permutation corresponding tothe identity function is called as identity permutation then product of two permutations A By Ay vee te(2 Go ) 3 9.10.1 Example Based on Permutation Group Ex. 9.10.1 : Show that the set of all permutations on. s={1,2,3) forms a group w.rt. permutation multiplication, © sotn.: Let P, = {fifi permutation degree 3} re (a (123) (123) (123) (123) (123) ) > = \(123) (132) 213) 231) G12) G21) Lp tipple 4 iyo Consider following table ;(4) Existence of the inverse From table, identify the identity element I, Tol ‘er As ar fof, =1>%, fof, =I >f, =f { fof, f,of, =f, '=fyand fy fof, =I=f, | =f, <. Every element of P has inverse in P, Hence, (Py, +) is a group fof, #f, and fof,=f, f, of, # f,0 f,> It is not commutative (Py, 0) is not abelian group (P,, 0) is the smallest non-abelian group But, = => > >| 9.11 COMPLEXES OF A GROUP Let (G, *) be a group then any non-empty subset of group G is called a complex of G e.g. Hy={1,2,3,4,5), H,=(1,2,3,. are complexes of group (R, +) 9.12 COSET D Haz Let (G, *) be a group and H be any subgroup of G. Let a € G be any element, then the set Hea =((h*a)!V he H) is called aright coset of Hin G and a*H =((a*h) | VheH) is called a left coset of eleiatieisiaias i+ Note (1) H*aanda+H are subsets of bia (2)_1(G, +) is an abelian group then H=a=a*HinG eg. (1) Let (Z, +) is a group and H={....~10,-5,0,5, 10, } is a subgroup of G = z + For le Z,H+1= —9,-4,1,6, 11, 22) 3€2H+3= T,~2,3, 8, 13, s20-) $€2,H+5=(....-5,0,5,10,...}=H are right cosets of H in G 4 braic Structures & Codi > 9.13 ORDER OF AN ELEMENT oF A GROUP Let (G, -) be a group. The smallest called the order of an element a € G, if a" =e (identity element in G) It is denoted by O(a) =n If no such positive number exists, is of infinite order or zero order. = Note (1) For the order of the group is the number, distinc element in G. ~ ‘The order ofthe identity element is 1 Le, of) = 1 In a group G, 0 (a) =0 (a"'); vae g In a group G, O(a) < o(@) Examples @>G= (1112) een = element in G and 0(G) =" STOMP | = identity Positive integer is then are say that ‘a* (2) (3) (4) OM) =1 OCD =2 as C1 OCD =4 as (ity OC) =4 as (tay @) ©, +) is « group of infinite order ‘ot element 0 (0) = 1 we +ntimes = ns #0 the identity have Se zand S"=5454.. {he generation of G => Gis cyclic group "=i, Ci =- 1, CP ai, Ci =1 ~. ~ iis also generator of G - ics G ==<-i> Tech-Neo Publications__..Where duthors inspire innovation a ie | = SACHIN SHAH Venture csDiscrete Mathematics (SPPU-COMP-SEM 3) 9.15 NORMAL SUBGROUPS ‘A subgroup H of group (G, *) is said to be a normal subgroup of G if for all g € G and forall h € H etheg'ceH — (ieghg'e H) en eur |G poasesses at least two normal ‘subgroups namely (e} and G. These groups are called improper normal subgroups, . ie *= Simple group AA group G is said to be simple group if it has only two normal subgroups (e} and G. (= Note Examples : (2, t) is an abelian group 22, +) and (32, +) are normal subgroup of (2, +) &Q_Define Normal Subgroup. : Normal Subgroup : A normal subgroup is a subgroup that is invariant under conjugation by any element of original group : His normal if and only if gHg”' = H For any ge G. > 9.16 QUOTIENT GROUPS Let (G, #) be a group and N be a normal subgroup of G. Let G/N be the collection of all cosets of N in G. GIN =(N*alaeG) (G/N, *) is called as quotient group or factor group. % 9.16.1 Examples Based on Quotient Groups Let Ex. 9.16.1 : Give an example of a finite abelian group which is not cyclic. © soln. : Let G be the set ofthe four eal matrices. 10 ie oy iv 0 ele rh As see haem sant =1 py c -| 0-1 It can be easily observed that G is an abelian group with respect to multiplication of matrices, ‘The identity element of this group is the identity matrix I. Let us find the order of each element of G. Wehave,0(1) =I Ex. 9.16. om subgroup of multiplicative group {1,—1,i—i) Soin. : ji Structures & (0©)=2) Now, G is a group of order 4 and G contains ng clement of order 4. Therefore G is not a eyclic group. Hence finite abelian group which is not cyclic. 7 Show that the multiplicative group {1,~1) is a H=(1,-1) andG=(1,-1.i,-i), He G consider composition table Closure property : All elements of table belongs to H. Hence it is closed w.r.t multiplication e « “Multiplication of complex numbers is associative Existence of identity : 1 € H, is identity element. Existence of inverse : We have (I)'=1 and G1ts-1 : ik Therefore, (H, x) is subgroup of group (G, x)0 17 BRoUPS 4» and Gz 0) be (0 groups. a function pet Grr G,, 0) is said to be homomorphism if i Gr op forall a,b € G, ie. a* bin G, > fra) fit in Go i 1 eporhism from Gt itself is called as A 0h f group homomorphism, oa _+ G, be group homomorphism and (G,, *) 6, Bo Sanne @ for) = FO) s jaa € G, and fla) = G, and e, is the identity element @ inG; = fla) = fare) fa)oe = fla) 0fe,) fe) = & @) Letae G,thena 'e G fia) 0% e, =f(e) =f(ata') e; = fla) ofa!) = fe =[faT' 9.18 ISOMORPHISM OF GROUPS aad Let (G,, *) and (G,, 0) be two groups. A function £:G,,*) > G,, 0) is said to be isomorphism. ' () fis homomorphism from G, —> G, (i) fis bijective function of f: G, — G, is an isomorphism of groups then G, 4 oY as are called as isomorphic groups and denoted by +D¢ 1 ay Let G be a group with identity © show that a function f : G + G defined by fla) = ¢ Va € Gis a homomorphism (endomorphism) © son. Wehave f:G-»G and fla)=6, Vae GO Let, a,b G = fla), f(b) € G flab) te = f(a) + f(b) + fis homomorphism Let _a,be G, then (gof)(a%,b) = gf (a,b) =8 (fla) + flb)) = g (fla) *; (f(b) = (g 0 f) (@) *3(g 0) ) ++ 8 of is homomorphism from G, to Gy Ex. 9.18.3 : Let G be the group of real numbers addition and G’ be the group of positive real numbers under multiplication. Let: GG’ be defined as f(x) =e" Show that fis an isomorphism. © som.: ae Tar LER BLG aOR Be anoxia ae ++ The mapping f:G—>G' is ahomomorphism jince the mapping f(x) = e* is one-one onto we can that ates nomeDiscrete Mathematics (SPPU-COMP-SEM 3) or abab = aabb = ba = ab +. If fis homomorphism then G is abelian. x. 9.18.5: Explain isomorphism and homomorphism of two semigroups. Soin, : (@_ Let(G,,*) and (G,, ) be two semigroup A function f: (G,,*) + (Ga, )is said to be homomorphism if fla, *b) =f(a)-f(0) Va, be G, ie a binG,—+f(a)- f(b) in G, (ii) Let G,, *) and (G,, +) be two semigroup A function f : (G,, *) > (G,, :) is suid to be isomorphism if (@__fisa homomorphism from G, > G, (ii) fis bijective function If: G, + G, is an isomorphism of groups then G, and G, are called as isomorphism group. Ex. 9.18.6: Explain’s Isomorphism and Automorphism © sotn.: Isomorphism : Let (G,,*) and (G,,- ) be two groups A function f : Gt) + Gy») is said to be isomorphism if @ fis homorphism from G,— G, (ii) fis bijective function Automorphism : An isomorphism from G, to itself is called automorphsim of group G,. > 9.19 RINGS, INTEGRAL DOMAIN AND FIELDS In this section we discuss the algebraic structures with two binary operation such as rings, integral domain and fields. % 9.19.1 Rings Let R be a non empty set equipped with two binary operations called addition and multiplication and denoted by “+ and *° respectively. ‘An algebraic structure (R, +, - ) is called as ring if it satisfies following axioms. (1) @,+)isan abelian group ie. (Closure property : for a, be R,a+be R Gi) Associatvity : for a, b,c € R, a + (b +0) =latbjte 914 Such that a+e=e+a=a ‘Then, ¢ is called as additive identity element Existence of inverse : for each ac R3(-a)ER such that a+(-a) =Ca)+a=0 ~ ais called as additive inverse of a (v) Commutative property : For a be R, atb=bea 2) (R,+)isa semigroup ie. (i) Closure property : Va, be R,a-beR Gi) Associativity :V a,b, c€ Ra (b-c)=(a-b)-c (3). Multiplication distributes over addition Va, b,c © R () a-(b+c)=a-b+acc ... Right distribution law dy) ) operation defined asatb=atb-ab VabeQ, Determine whether (Q, #) is a group. © sotn. : @) — a*b=atb-ab (arb) tc =(at+b—ab)ee + bab +¢—ac + be~ abe *(b+0-be) =atb+c-be-ab—act be s(a*bj¥c=as(b*e) ar(b*c) «associative axiom is true. ) Lat ebe the identity element of Q. then by definition ate va ate =a hie ke ate-ae =a ‘ Subtract a from boa cadet Mek ame waA ring (R, +, © ) is called as commutative ring if Vabe Ra-beb-a ru b ‘ent! %® 9.19.3 Ring With Unity go ap-ard-l A ting (R, +, +) is called as ring with if VaeR, 6 ene = o+b-D8e AIER, such that a» 1 = 1 on OO” vv atbec-1-1 og. eatb+e-2 (1) (2.+,+) is commutative ring with unity. pac) 22 @te-1) (2) Qz, +, ) is commutative ring without unity when 1000 satbte-1-1 24.= set of even integers, catbto-2 _.eyissemigrun 9.19.4 Properties of A Ring woe are fields. 2. (Z+,-)is integral domain but not field. %& 9.19.9 Ring Homomorphism — Let(R, +, *) and (S, +, *) be two rings. = A function 6 : RS is called a ring homomorphism. - Foranya,b,eR @ O@+b)=o@+o0) (i) 9 (@*b)=9 @)* oO) — Of @is bijective then itis called as ring isomorphism. = The kemel of ring homomorphism is defined as the set {ae RIO@)-O} — Its denoted by Ker (9) or Ker 6 % 9.19.10 Examples Based on Rings, Integral Domain and Fields 1 sotn. : 1. (@+by2)-1=a4bY2 =1-(@+by2) c. Lis the identity element. 2. (a+b2) (© +d-2)= (ac + 2bd) + (be + ad) V2 = +43) *@+by2) 2+ (6,*) is commutative, S is a commutative ring with unity 1 to prove that $ does not have divisors of zero we proceed with, (a+bV2)*(c+dy2) = 0 or (ac + bd) + (ad + be) 2 = 0 See Ex. 9.194 : Let Z,= (0, 1,2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7}. Let R be the raic Structures & 9-16 For the above quaton to be true. (ac+bd) =Oand ad + be =0 ac+bd =0 1. wand b are zero. 3, cand bare zero. act+be =0 a and b are zero. and c are 2210. dand b are zero. 1. dand.c are zero. Now we conclude that ei dare zero. : «. Bither a+ b/2 is zero orc + d-V2 is zero. ». (a+by3)*(e+dV2) = 0 => (a+by2) = 0 Or (c+dy2) = 0 ‘The given ring ‘S’ is a commutative ring. without divisors of zero and hence itis an integral domain. 2. aand d are zero. 4, cand d are zero, jther a and b are zero or ¢ and relation under operation addition modulo 7 and ‘multiplication modulo 7. Does this system form a ring ?is it, ® : Stands for multination modulo 7. "= Table for ®hon-zero elements 7 ‘or the ring is equal to the zero element of ng. AB is ring with zero divisors. Ex, 9.19.6 : Prove that the set E or all even integers is a j¢ an abelian BrOUP a8, ao" a@b =b@aforallabe Z, ‘. semigroup. It can be verified from the isa w® le thats commutative ring with respect to usual addition and Bot y@e =A@ (0c) forall a,b,c, € Z, ‘multiplication, but it has no unit element. Co gion ® is distributive over ®, Soin, : ' mre ore that the remainder of a + (b + c) will be Let 22 be the set of all even integers, then (f) for any i ret) ge remainder of ab + ae when divided by any tion @ is commutative as it can be verified he fr two element 2m, 2n € 22, m,n 2. 2m+2n =2 (m+n) € 2zand 2m+2n =2mn€ 22.and 2m+2n =2mn€ 22 Since m+ ne zand2mn€ Gi) Since @Z, +) (Z, -) are associative and commutative table of @. Heeb =b@aforcvay ane ms system forms a ring and it is commutative ring, gy98: Prove tha (R, is 22 € 1 0 (2z, +) and (22, +) are also associative and & i . ‘commutative. Bi 2? mal a (iii) For any 2m € 2z -2m = (— m) € 22 € 2, 50~" is siplication operative. distributive on “+” over 22. Di soln. = (iv) O€ 2z such thata +0 =0+a,¥ ae 22 pe (aset of 22 matrices} Hence, (2z, +, -) is a commutative ring but it is not a First we show that (R, +) is an abelian group sing with ones wk docs ehcaeeds TOE OR {p Closure : Since the sum of 2 x 2 matrices is also a set ofall even integers), 2x2 matrix closure is satisfied. (@ Associative : If A, B and C are 2 x 2 matrices then, (Aaya + Baca) + Cox2= Arx2 + (Box2 + Cy x2) always axis. oo (entity: The identity clement | mu wradas| ? 0 JA identi yy Inverse : The inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix say A is always ~A which is also 2 x 2 matrix. 4 ) Commutative : The sum of 2 matrices is always commutative. price * (+) is an abelian group. (R, *) is also a ‘emigroup with, ‘multiplication also multiplication “fe wih eset aon He 4)Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-COMP-SEM 3) (1) @,+)is abelian group 2) Ris semi group 3) Multiplication distributes over addition (i) Field : A commutative ring with unity in which every non zero element possess their multiplicative inverse is called field (iti) Integral domain : A commutative ring without zero divisor is called integral domain Ex.9.19.9: Define: (i) Rings ii) Integral domain & son. : Rings and Gi) Integral domain Refer Ex. 9.198 (ii) Field A commutative ring with unity in which every non zero element posses their multiplicative inverse is called field. eg. (R,+,:) isa field bh 9.20 GROUP CODES (iii) Field = Codes are used for representation of digits and alphabets. — They are very sensitive to transmission errors that may ‘occur because of equipment Relive or noise in the transmission channel. 9.20.1 Error Detecting Codes Let us consider a 4 bit BCD codes given by (0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111, 1000, 1001) of an error occurs in the least significant digit of (0010, the code word 0011 results, and since its a valid ‘code word, itis incorrectly interpreted by receiver. = Ifa code possesses the properly that the occurrence of single error transforms a valid code word into a invalid ‘code word, itis said to be a single-error detecting code. — The error detection in BCD code is accomplished by parity check. The basic idea in the parity check is to ‘add an extra bit to each code word or a given code, s0 as to make the numbers of 1's in each code word either ‘odd or even, Even parity mechanism is used in the code of table as follows : 9-18 9 1001 In the above table, number of is in a code word is even, Now if a single error occurs, a valid code gets transformed into a invalid one, Thus the detection of single error becomes taught forward. ‘The distance between two code words is the number of, digits that must change in one word so that the other ‘word results. The distance between 1010 and 0100 is 3, ‘The 2 code words differ in 3 bit positions as shown as, follows : 1fo}1}o of1jojo Distance is 3 if 9.20.2 Hamming Distance ‘The distance between two codes words is 4s hamming distance, The minimum distance of a cod is the minimum of the hamming distances between a pairs of code words in the code, ‘ ‘Example: Let the 3 code words. x= 1001, y=01 iver 1nd Now, the aurics (SPPU-COME M3) 4 mathemal ae Algebraic Structures & Coding The s= 3 examples Deteredl 5 Find the minimum distance of the following Hammin gon 101), 01, O11} 0000), cel we mesage by ang e¥6N Paty check i ing distance ‘ode | Code @) o101 1011 out 1011 oul mi nen SSS hamming distance between code words of out we Even parity code Code word 0000 0101 1011 oun Parity check 1 1,920.2 : Find hamming distance between x and y @ a(x)= 110110, y = 000101 (i) b() = 001100, y = 010110 U son: ® x =110110 y =000101 XX_xXx— Places at bits differ Hamming distance = 4 fi) x =001100 y =010110 XXX € Places at bits differ Hamming distance = 3 2, 5) encoding function e © (00) = 00000 (10) = 00111 €(01)=01110 eqy=atit __** Minimum distance of code = Minimum of all distances = 2 Ex. 9.20.4 : Find the minimum distance of an encoding function ¢ : B*—> B® given as :e (2, 5) © (0,0) = 00000 ©(1,0)=01110 © son. : 4 (00000, 10011) =3 4 (00000, 01110) =3 4 (00000, 11111) =5 4 (10011, o1110) =4 4 (10011, 11111) =2 4 (01110, 11111) =2 ++ Minimum distance of code = Minimum distance of all2. e(, =I % 9.20.4 Error Correcting Code A code is called as an error correcting code if the correct code word always be found from the erroneous word in an error correcting code, an erroneous word can be uniquely associated with only one of the valid code words. ‘A code can correct all combinations of n or fewer errors if and only if the distance of the code is atleast Intl.Discrete Mathematics (SPPU-COMP-SEM 3) % 9.20.5 Group Code Q Definition A group code is a group (G, @) with following] properties : 1. Identity element € = 000, ...., O00. Each element has it's own inverse. © denotes the addition modulo 2 an (0, 1). It is same as exclusive (OR). elo 1 ojo 1 ri ¢ 9.20.6 Hamming Error Correction Code — Lets consider a code word length n, in which there are k parity bits and m information bits. — To each code word, k parity checking bits are added. ‘These parity bits are denoted as, P,, P,.. Py. — The number k must be large enough to describe the location of any of the m + k possible k must satisfy the inequality. “yl 2 >m+k+1 For example, if m is 4 then k must be 3. So that2°2>4+3+1 — Now, we will see how the hamming code is constructed for m = 4 and k = 3 parity bits are constructed in such way that in case of any error, these parity bits can give the position of the error. — The following table gives the seveh error positions and the corresponding values of the position number. praic Structures & Coding The — Parity bit P, is selected to establish even parity in position 1, 3, 5, 7. — Parity bit P, is selected to establish even parity in position 2, 3, 6, 7. — Parity bit P, is selected to establish even parity in positions 4, 5, 6, 7. — Hamming error correction code for BCD is shown in following table. Decimal position pe ates 0 0 |.0 | 0 },0 | On) oO [0 1 1 [ae] 105 [pul Om Ope) Ont fret 2 ofi{[ofifolilo 3 1 [0 [10 {|g0 [eon aie fee 4 L o oO L 1 0 o 5 o 1 0 oO L oO 1 6 ¥ 1 o o L 1 o 7 0_[-0=| S05 [reaes foetan| ood [eet 8 1 [t= 21e Pes oss oa}io 9 0 0 -| aos on[ 1 As shown in above table, 1. x5 (Le. P,) =x @ xz @xy= [x, +2 + x4] mod 2 2. xg=X, @ xy ©, = [Ky +Xy + X4] mod 2 3. x= Ox O%y= Eat hot Kmod2 It may also noted that, 1. [x +x24%,4xg] mod2=0 0 2. Ux +5 +5 +X mod 2= 00 01 3. Py +x) +x, +x,] mod2=0 This table is called as parity check tr operations, given are represented using a matrix. The coefficient matrix Hs given as ine 10 10Os matrix, represents the following set of examples Based on Group Ex, 9.20.6 : A parity check matrix 207 Code 110100 june number of codes generated by the Hs/ 01 fF 0-10 Fin Also find all code words, 1o1001 pec 9 1 0 0 Find the minimum distance of the code generated by H. 011 Onee How many errors it can detect and correct. 101001 © son. : ‘The parity check matrix H generates a code word of weight q if and only if there exists a set of q columns of H such that their k-tuple sum is zero. The minimum weight of the non-zero code words in a group code is equal to it's minimum distance. : Let us take the modulo 2 addition of the first three columns. ()-()-)-O-)-@) The maximum number of columns that have zero: ions? x t%t mths ths a equations can be written as, xy 4% +%6 2m t% aoe xj =X, +X) all mod 2 sl A code word consists of 3 message bits (x), XX) and sum is3, :. Minimum distance of the code = 3. pai its Oy X5s Xo) As the minimum distance of the code is 3, it can detect x,can be found by exclusive or of x, and x, The number of code generated by the matrix = 2” ‘where m is the number of data bits : ae given as follows * The required code x,can be found by exclusive or of x, and x, all 2 or less errors. This code can correct all single errors. Ex. 9.20.7: Define : (i) Group code (ii) Galois theory (iii) Cyclic group M1 son. : @® Group code : Aad soles oe aca operation @ is called group code. e.g. (Sq ®) is a group. ,=set of all binary words of length n. (ii) Galois theory : Galois theory concerns the solution of can be found by exclusive or of x, and x; * {(000000), (001011), (010110), (011101), coor», | (101110), (11001 1), (111000))Discrete Mathematics 3EM 3) 9.21 CYCLIC CODE ~ Acode of length n is called a cyclic code if 1. Every code word is ofthe same length n, 2, Tf Gos Gis «= Gy 2 Gy 1 18 a code word then the sequence gy. 4; dy. is also a code word, For example, if 111000 is a code word then 011100, 001110, 000111, 100011, 110001 will also be codewords, Every binary sequence qy qy s Gy 2 Gy - 1 can be associated with the polynomial, A(R) = q9 #4) G:1° + QX"+. +Q, 9x +Q.x" "eZ" If f(x) is a polynomial then x f (x) will correspond to a code word in the cyclic code, 2 KAR) = QK FQ +. HQ ox 4g, = Qt QQxtQxrtQue ta, px! ‘This corresponds to the code word Qua #40% Ge doi 9-22 tc i 9.21.1 Example based on Cyclic Code f(y=2tt- 110 +33 -1%-6s Given that t = 2 + 3i is one root © sotn.: 243i is a root of f(t). The conjugate 2 ~ 3i will also be arootof ft). ‘The polynomial f(t) will be divisible by, (- 043i) t- 2-39) = P-t2 +3i+2-3i) + (2 +3i) (2-31) = 040413 Dividing 2 — 11 ¢° + 33 - 19 t- 65 by C -4t + 13 2-3-5 P4413 fat-110 +33°-19t-65 2-81 +260° ~30 +71 -19t-65 ~3 P4120 -398 -50'+201-65 =5t420t-65_ (eS Now, 2¢-3t-5 =2°+21-5t-5 leak instal f