INTRODUCTION ‘As we know separation of charges produces electric field, whereas the motion of charges generates current and hence the magnetic field. When these fields are time varying they are coupled with each other through Maxwell's equations. With the Maxwell's equations we can derive wave equation, based on which the propagation of electromagnetic waves can be investigated in different medium. Electromagnetism is one the most important interaction occurring in nature. From the engineering point of view we can hardly find an area where the effect of electromagnetism is not observed. This chapter gives mathematical skills to understand electromagnetism. FIELDS: The field or space, in which the physical quantity depends upon the coordinates of the point of the observation is called field of that physical quantity. According to the nature of physical quantity, fields are of two types: 1. Scalar field 2 ‘Vector field ‘SCALAR FIELDS: That field or space in which a scalar quantity depends upon the coordinates or the point of observation, is called a scalar field. fa scalar quantity at a point having coordinates x,y andz is then = y,2) Physical quantities such as electric potential, gravitational potential, temperature, density ete. are expressed in the form of scalar fields. Scalar quantities are graphically represented by drawing surfaces at which the value of the scalar quantity remains a constant. Since one point in space corresponds to only one value of the scalar quantity i., scalar fields are single valued functions, hence these surfaces, called equiscalar surfaces and do not intersect with each other. For example : If we put a point charge in any place, then the electric potential around it will depend on the position of the point. Since electric potential is a scalar quantity, the field around the charge will be known as scalar potential field. If all such points at which the potential is constant are joined by a surface then such a surface is called equipotential surface.VECTOR FIELD: Ifthe magnitude or direction or both of a vector quantity change with the change in position of tthe point of observation ina field, that is the vector quantity depends on the coordinates of the point of observation, the fields is called vector field. eg. A= A(xy,x) Vector fields are graphically represented by lines. These lines are called field lines or flux lines. ‘The tangent at any point of the line gives the direction of the vector field at that point. The magnitude of a vector field at any point of the field is equal to the number of field lines going out of unit rea taken normal to the direction of the vector at that point. Suppose the number of field lines, or flux going out of an area element da perpendicular to the field lines at any point is d¢ then the magnitude of the intensity of the vector field will be: = 3 «vector field 4] = (38) a ‘Where fis the unit vector perpendicular to the area (da) sfida= da ‘Taking the dot product of unit vector A with the vector field A =n at Afi= GQ aia= a Or dp = (A.f)da = Aida Fux=dp = Ada DEL OPERATOR: ‘The del operator is the differential operator, which is represented by Vand is given by @= Gr ahaa ee eg. Watley +ky The del operator can act in different ways‘When del operator acts on a scalar function F, the resultant VFis called the GRADIENT OF SCALAR FUNCTION. When it acts on a vector function A via the dot product, the resultant is ¥.Ais called the divergence of A. ‘When it acts on a vector function A via the cross product, the resultant 0 x A's called the curl ofa vector A. GRADIENT: If we think of the derivative of a function of one variable, gradient tells us how fast the function varies if we move a small distance. It means the gradient is the rate of change of a quantity with distance. ‘Suppose in a scalar field two surfaces with constant scalar quantities and + dq respectively. The position vector of any point A on S1 relative to the origin O is (#) and the position vector of another point Bon S2is (7 + 67) Displacement of B with respect to A is AB = 67 ‘And the rate of change of the scalar function in the direction of aB = (a) Now we draw a normal AC from A on surface $2. ‘The minimum distance AC =5n between the surfaces $1 and S2 will be in the direction of their normal ‘The rate of change of scalar function gin the direction of AC = 2 If the distance dr is very small then AABC can be right angle triangle. Suppose the angle between 67 and dit & @ then, AC = AB cos8 én = Srcoséor ér= putting this in equation (1) ‘The rate of change of the scalar function in the direction of AB ‘The maximum value of cos 6 is 1 So the maximum rate of change of p= (52) = max @) Inthe limit 6r +0 the maximum rate of change of # = (2#) = (22) ‘So the rate of change of a scalar function is maximum in a direction normal to the equiscalar surface. Ina scalar field, the maximum rate of change of the scalar function in space is known as the gradient of the scalar field. is a vector quantity and its direction is normal to the equiscalar surface i.e. the direction in which rate of change is maximum. GRADIENT OF SCALAR IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES Since we know the definition of gradient: grad $= (38) f ttl Let a displacement vector d? = idx +fdy+ kaz cern] taking the dot product of equation 1 and 2 (grad $).d# = ($8) &.dF Here angle between d? and fi s @ therefore f.d? = drcos@= dn ale W 8 & (grad $).d? = ($2) an (grad $).d? = dp -_ 1)Now since we know w= (er(FarGa ——# AB = (tay +7 Ay +h A,). (EB, +7 By + By) A.B = A,B, + AyBy +A,B, ‘Comparing with equation 4 ap = (22 +/B+k es), (lax + jay + kaz) ag = (128 +/3+k 28) ae ab) From equation 3 and 5 & VO =(12 1B +k Z) = ores PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF GRADIENT: DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD: ‘The vector flux per unit volume emerging out of the closed surface is enclosing a volume element placed ina vector field is known as the divergence of a vector field. ‘Suppose a closed surface enclosing a volume dV is situated in vector field A (x, y,z). The flux emerging ‘out of the closed surface will be: o=G Ada ‘Therefore, the divergence of the vector A at the position of the element will be defined as Hereg, represents integration over a closed surface. The divergence of a vector field is a scalar ‘quantity. ‘As explained earlier divA= OA divA= (#2 +Igtk 3): (te +94, +A)Divergence of vector field may be positive, negative or zero. PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR FIELD: To understand the physical significance or physical meaning of divergence of a vector field, at point O the divergence of vector field is #ve as the vector spread out As it is clear from fig. that the vector converges and so the divergence at point O is negative. ° ss es cS lee Se ee ee ‘As shown in fig. it is clear that the divergence of a vector, > ——$ > —$ —— > SS SS oS field is zero as the magnitude of vector remains same. —— = SSS Bs shown in fig. the magnitude of the vectors get SE SE = = increased as move towards right. Hence the SE SE FS > avergence of such vector field is not zero but SSS sitive. Clearly we can say that curl is a vector quantity, je. it has magnitude and direction both. Also we can say that the curl of scalar field is meaningless since cross product of scalar with vector W is meaningless. So curl of any vector field is defined as the line integral per unit infinity small area enclosed by the path.curt = as" 0 (8) 0 The direction of curl can be determine by the right hand thumb rule i.e. perpendicular to the plane in which line integral along the surface element is maximum. PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF CURL: ‘The term curl is a measure of how much a vector field A curl around the point of observation. Curl of any vector field comes from its rotational motion. ‘To understand this let assume flow of water in some water body as shown in fig. ‘At point P where A (Area vector) is same at all position, we put a wooden block and look for its motion. Wooden block will show linear motion and doesn’t show any rotational motion, so we can say curl at P will be zero. For vector 7 (previously took A) Curt? =0 ‘While putting the same wooden block at point Q. wooden block start rotational motion in dockwise direction since area field vectors are ot equal, so the Curt 3 #0 Pp ‘Similarly at point R wooden block shows maximum rotational motion in clockwise direction so can say Curt # = maximum LAPLACE AND POISSON’S EQUATION: Since we know the electric field E in a region using Coulomb's Law or Gauss’s Law when the charge distribution is specified in the region for E = VV. When the potential V is specified throughout the region. However in practical cases neither the charge distribution nor the potential distribution is specified at some boundaries. These types of problems are known as Boundary value problems. For these problems the field and the potential are determined by using Poisson's equation or Laplace equation. Gauss'sequation VBS py Here B= Flux densityElectric Flux c * Electric flux is defined as the number of field lines that pass through a given = surface. Thus electric flux through a small area element da is given by de =#.da The direction of da is the outward drawn normal to the surface. The total electric flux > through a finite area is the integral of this expression over the area, i.e. op =| B.da SsMAXWELL'S EQUATIONS: Maxwell's Equations are composed of four equations with each one describes one phenomenon respectively. Maxwell didn't invent all these equations, but rather he combined the four equations made by Gauss (also Coulomb), Faraday, and Ampere. But Maxwell added one piece of information into Ampere's law (the 4th equation) - Displacement Current, which makes the equation complete. Maxwell’s four equations are: 1. Gauss's law for static electric fields 2. Gauss's law for static magnetic fields 3. Faraday's law which says a changing magnetic field (changing with time) produces an electric field 4. Ampere-Maxwell's law which says a changing electric field (changing with time) produces a magnetic field The combination of equations 3 and 4 can explain electromagnetic wave (such as light) which can propagate on its own. The combination says that a changing magnetic field produces a changing electric field, and this changing electric field produces another changing magnetic field. Thus the cycle continues and an electromagnetic wave is made and propagates through the space.The First Maxwell’s equation (Based on Gauss’s law for electrostatics) According to Gauss’s law of electrostatic field the net outward flux of electric field E through any closed surface S is 1/€, times of net charge inside the volume V enclosed by the surface. awe? ea _@ : ot O, = f E.da=— ae? Pw; £o ...(1) where, €, is the permittivity of the free space. f -unie vector romalto the Let the charge is distributed over a volume V, then charge enclosed is q=Jpdv (2) s where p = volume charge density % From equations (1) and (2) % 3 => & iC Op = $ E.da= +f pav (3) tl Ss &o v Equation (3) is the integral form of Maxwell’s first equation or Gauss’s law in electrostatics. 1»The First Maxwell’s equation.... Now applying Gauss Divergence theorem fE.da= | (¥.2)av (4) From equations (3) and (4) [(@2)av == | oav £0 Vv A v 22 =V.E=— Eo (5) i.e. this equation states, that the source of electric field is an electric charge distribution, particular we can have an electric charge monopole to produce the electric field. =V. (2) =p AsD = £9 E = Electric flux density Note: e+? WP a ee © VE= = for points inside the charge distribution ‘0 + V.E =0 for points outside the charge distribution inThe Second Maxwell’s equation (Based on Gauss’s law for magnetism) According to Gauss’s law of Magnetostatics the net outward flux of magnetic induction B through any closed surface is always zero. 0s = §,B.da=0 w(L) ict" vines This is an integral form of Maxwell’s II equation a Applying Gauss- Divergence theorem §,8.da = j,(V.B)av 2) NE Oi -unit vector 4a jocmal to the surface f,(7.B)av =0 ds ay itferential area qui From equations (1) and (2) we have ate 373 =>V.B=0 -(3) This is differential form of Maxwell’s II equation. From equation we can conclude that magnetic monopoles do not exist. aThe Third Maxwell’s equation (Based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction) According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction when the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes, an e.m.f is induced in the circuit which is proportional to the rate of change of the flux linked with the circuit. . O95 ive. eS at ald) If B is the magnetic field induction, then the magnetic flux linked with field as 22> (2) Qp= SB .da Using equation (1) & (2) er. 8 (pa et x] 2 The e.m.f. can also be found by calculating the work done in carrying a unit charge completely around the loop. Thus =$o2 al wf4) e f dl 4 Bar magnet nes ot force Direction of ‘movement No current Inthe loop Right-hand rule tor ‘magnetic field direction Current induces inthe loop $ Magnetic Held due to Inauced currentThe Third Maxwell’s equation... 34 Ofa=a VW Hence e=9E.dl=——| B.da = ot Ss ‘ S, fea OB aa (5) > 7 =— f -——. ae. | ot Equation (5) is an integral form of Maxwell’s III equation. According to Stoke’s- curl theorem, fiaiz{(#x?).aa 6) c 5 From equations (5) and (6) > 22> 0B | (¥x2).da=- a (7) s s As two surface integral are equal only when their integrands are equal. Hence Vx E = _ 3B (8) ie. A changing magnetic field at induces a circulating electric field. This is differential form of Maxwell’s III equation.The Third Maxwell’s equation... For static field OB _o ot a) > VxE=0 i.e. curl of electrostatic field is zero. As electric field directed straight from +ve charge to -ve charge, therefore doesn’t have any rotation and called irrotational field.The fourth Maxwell’s equation (Based on Ampere’s circuital law with Maxwell correction ) According to Ampere’s circuital law the line integral of magnetic field around any closed loop is equal to the product of j1, times the total current passing through closed loop. on $, B.dl=uUyI (1) ‘Amperean loop A Total current can be written in terms of current density ) ) I, Yi=fj.da (2) From equations (1) and (2) we have §,B.di = uo f,j.da (3) This is an integral form of Maxwell’s IV equation. Applying Stoke’s- Curl Theorem, §,B.di = {,(0 x B).da AA)The fourth Maxwell’s equation .... From equations (3) and (4) we have SO x B).da = yu, J,j.da 3 [0 xB).da = f,(ugf).da 7xB=uJ (5) This is differential form of Maxwell’s IV equation and called Ampere law. But it holds good for static field only. Taking divergence of equation (5) on both sides 9.(0 x B) = F.(uo) (6) Using vector identity a. a x A) =0 =0.(0 x B) =0The fourth Maxwell’s equation .... So, from equation (6) we have V.(uJ)=0> 0S =0 AT) From equation of continuity 574 90 _ V.j+P=0 (8) Where J = Current density and p = volume charge density Comparing equations (7) and (8) we have % = 0 = p =constant (9) Above relation shows that equation (5) holds good only for static field which does not change with time and not valid for time varying field. This equation does not explain the current passing between two plates of capacitor.The fourth Maxwell’s equation .... a, CHPACHO pesinance (B) +] Ie : At the instant switch S is on or off, the Galvanometer will show SatiNen CHER) deflection. But as we know the current always passes through a closed circuit and there is no medium in between the two plates of a capacitor. ich (S) So, a question arises that how the current passes through the capacitor. i) artery According to Maxwell the current passes through the capacitor due to time varying electric field. This current is known as displacement current. As according to Faraday’s law change in magnetic flux induces current similarly, change in electric flux also induces current (according to Maxwell). That is how current passes through the capacitor. So, Maxwell modified Ampere’s law and introduced the concept of displacement current. So, total current density T=he+Sa Where/,= conduction current density due to flow of free electron in conductor. Ju= displacement current due to change in electric field between two plates of capacitorThe fourth Maxwell’s equation .... So, from equation (7) v.J=0 > 0.0. +Ja) =0 =0f,=-7 Jy (10) From equation of Continuity 7j.+2=0 wa LL) From equations (10) and (11) we have = a, so? a, I j+2=020ja=F (12) From Maxwell’s I equation V.D=p (13) Using equations (12) and (13) we have 37. _9(87 37 _ = aD. VJa=50.D) a0 a=0.G5 j= 8The fourth Maxwell’s equation .... So, Maxwell’s IV equation can be modified as slp 7, 9D. Vx B= pole +5) AsD =&E aug ; ak SV XB= le + Mofo 5, (15) Maxwell modified Ampere law which can explain both static and time varying field. Equation (15) is differential form of Maxwell’s IV equation. i.e, A circulating magnetic field is produced by an electric current and by an electric field that changes with time.Maxwell’s Equations in Some Particular Cases: Maxwell’s equations in charge free space (where p = 0, ji =0) V.E=0 v.B=0 = 2 OB VxE= Fr —— OE Vx B= toto a, where ¢, is the permittivity and 11, is the permeability of free space. Maxwell’s equations in isotropic dielectric medium p a Bh .B i om! aB ee FE a mm I TxB=pJ+ ak =H +2857) where ¢ is the permittivity of medium and 1 is the permeability of the medium.Displacement Current: The nature of the current flow through a resistor is different from that through a capacitor. A constant voltage across a resistor Alternating { produces a continuous flow of current of constant value. volte v f Tn capacitor there will be current only while voltage is changing. ° Capacitor The current flowing through the capacitor is called displacement current. It passes through capacitor due to time varying electric field. = 40 _ caw Current Jy = ae a (1) . . ‘A ee . Where, C is capacitance = = here, A = Area of plates, ¢ = permittivity of medium & d= separation between the plates eA dv So, la "Fae (2) ea HW 3 Since E = r electric field intensity [y= AS 3)Displacement Current.... Thus, changing electric field within a capacitor is equivalent to a current through the capacitor. Maxwell called this current as the displacement current. From equation (3), we have > 1 @ pk Ja + = a (eB) Ja = 2 Since D = cE 4 Where D is electric displacement vector and Ja is displacement current density.Poisson’s and Laplace’s equation Poisson’s equation is a partial differential equation to describe the potential field due to given charge distribution. As the electric field can be written as the gradient of scalar potential E=-0Vv AL) From Gauss’s law TE=L (2) £0 From equations (1) and (2) we have 0.(-Wv) =2 £0 vy=-2 (3) fo This is known as Poisson’s equation. With the help of this equation, we can find electric potential due to a given charge distribution. In regions where there is no charge, so that p = 0, Poisson’s equation reduces to Laplace’s equation, vv=0 AA)Poynting Vector (Intensity of electromagnetic wave): An electromagnetic wave propagates through space from one point to another and transports energy with it. Pointing theorem establishes a relationship between rate of flow of energy and amplitude of electric and magnetic field. The rate of energy transport per unit area in EM wave is described by a vector, called the Poynting vector. S=ExH or 5-2 Where, B = juH Energy in electromagnetic waves stores in the form of electric and magnetic field. Energy density in form of electric field ( Energy per unit volume) Ug = 5£oE* (1) Energy density in form of magnetic field ci (2) MM = SpePoynting Vector .... Total energy density in electromagnetic waves aly p24 U = 3 e0E? +7 (3) Total energy transported by electromagnetic waves =f (t¢e p24 582 W =f, (Se.B? + z) av AA) Rate of flow of energy passing through a given surface area is -Wo_4y (1, p24 Be dt Sy (Ge0E +z) av ~@) Consider electromagnetic wave travelling in vacuum (charge and current free region). So, o =p =J=0 Using vector identity V.(E x A) = H.(0 x BE) -E.(0 x A) )Poynting Vector .... From Maxwell’s III equation an an UxF =-F=-wo > (7) From Maxwell’s IV equation 7 aE VX B= Uole + Mofo 3 Substituting B= HoH and D = EE, we have 3 a. ; 0E DX (Hol) = Hole + Mofo = In current free region J, =0 za aE VxH= &>- ++(8) Using equation (7) and (8) in equation (6) we have aE. AS ok op oh, EF dH 0.(E x A) = H.-H 5-) - E60 5p) 9 gaan, 5 ar at * at” 2 (a2) = 26. [As A.B = B.A] 2 0E_10 £12) (0) Similarly 72H 22 (42 Hae = za HD (11) Using equations (10) and (11) in equation (9), we have 0.x H)=- Moxa) + ps (E)Poynting Vector .... 3 [18 2 B=nH V.(ExA)= alts deoE?| [As B = 4,4] Taking volume integral on both sides SO. ExAav =-j,2 [:2” +5 zee] av (12) Using Gauss-Divergence theorem J, 0.(E x Hy dv = §(E x A).da (13)Poynting Vector .... From equations (12) and (13) we have 1B? §,(E x H).da = - Lk = From equations (5) and (14) we have aw _ “| 1 p24 2 air dt dt j,\2°°" * 2p, ~T=fExi.aa dt pC pda od av (14) d ExB _4W f “i ).da dt Js* Uo S=ExH represents the amount of energy flowing through unit area, perpendicular to the direction of energy propagation per unit time, i.e. the rate of energy transport per unit area is called the pointing vector.Maxwell's Equations Integral form GE: da= Qe. E ans o6 GE dl =|-J——- da B-da=0 f B-di = Mol enc ues na) &