Semester 1_Physics Honours and UG__Ch 2: Mechanics of Single particle

Central Forces
Suppose that a force acting on a particle of mass 𝑚 is such that
(a) It is always directed from 𝑚 toward or away from a fixed point 𝑂
(b) Its magnitude depends only on the distance 𝑟 from 𝑂
Then we call the force a central force or central force field with 𝑂 as the center of force. If 𝐹⃗ is a central
force 𝐹⃗ = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̂ = 𝑓(𝑟) 𝑟⃗/𝑟
✓ The central force is one of attraction toward 𝑂 or repulsion from 𝑂 according as 𝑓(𝑟) < 0 or
𝑓(𝑟) > 0 respectively.

Some important properties of central force fields:

If a particle moves in a central force field, then the following properties are valid.
a) The path or orbit of the particle must be a plane curve, i.e., the particle moves in a plane. This
plane is often taken to be the 𝑥𝑦 plane.
b) The angular momentum of the particle is conserved, i.e., is constant.
c) The particle moves in such a way that the position vector or radius vector drawn from 𝑂 to the
particle sweeps out equal arears in equal times. In other words, the time rate of change in area is
constant. This is sometimes called the law of areas.

Equations of motion for a particle in a central field:

By property 1, the motion of a particle in a central force
field takes place in a plane (consider xy plane) and
coordinates of the particles as polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃), the
equations of motion are found to be
𝑚(𝑟̈ − 𝑟𝜃̇ 2 ) = 𝑓(𝑟)
𝑚(𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇) = 0

Prove of properties: Solved Problems

Q. Prove that if a particle moves in a central force field, then its path must be a plane curve.
➢ Let 𝐹⃗ = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑟̂ = 𝑓(𝑟) 𝑟⃗/𝑟 be the central force field. Then
𝑓(𝑟) 𝑟⃗
𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × =0
𝑟
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣 ⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣
or, 𝑟⃗ × 𝑑𝑡
=0 [Since, 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 ]
𝑑
or, 𝑑𝑡 (𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗) = 0 ⃗⃗
Integrating, 𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗ = ℎ ⃗⃗ is a constant vector.
here, ℎ
Multiplying both sides by, 𝑟⃗.
⃗⃗
𝑟⃗. (𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗) = 𝑟⃗. ℎ
⃗⃗ = 0 [Since, 𝑟⃗. (𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗) = (𝑟⃗ × 𝑟⃗). 𝑣⃗ = 0]
or, 𝑟⃗. ℎ
Thus, 𝑟⃗ is perpendicular to the constant vector ℎ ⃗⃗, and so the motion takes place in a plane. We shall
assume that this plane is taken to be the 𝑥𝑦 plane whose origin is at the center of force.

Q.Prove that for a particle moving in a central force field the angular momentum is conserved.
Ans: We have, 𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗ = ℎ ⃗⃗ or, 𝑚 (𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗) = 𝑚ℎ
⃗⃗
Since the let side of the equ. Is the angular momentum, it follows that the angular momentum is
conserved, i.e., is always constant in magnitude and direction.

Q. Show that 𝒓𝟐 𝜽̇ = 𝒉, a constant.

Ans: one of the equation of motion under central force field is,
𝑚(𝑟𝜃̈ + 2𝑟̇ 𝜃̇) = 0

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Semester 1_Physics Honours and UG__Ch 2: Mechanics of Single particle

𝑚
or, 𝑟
(𝑟 2 𝜃̈ + 2𝑟𝑟̇ 𝜃̇ ) = 0
𝑚 𝑑 𝑑
or, 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
(𝑟 2 𝜃̇ ) = 0 Thus, 𝑑𝑡 (𝑟 2 𝜃̇ ) = 0 and so 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ = ℎ
where ℎ is a constant.

Q. Prove that 𝒓𝟐 𝜽̇ = 𝟐𝑨̇ where 𝑨̇ is the time rate at which area is swept out by the position vector
⃗⃗.
𝒓
Ans: Suppose that in time ∆𝑡 the particle moves from one position
to another position. The area ∆𝐴 swept out by the position vector
in this time is approximately half the area of a parallelogram with
sides 𝑟 and ∆𝑟
1
∆𝐴 = 2 |𝑟⃗ × ∆𝑟⃗|
Dividing by ∆𝑡 and letting ∆𝑡 → 0,
∆𝐴 1 ∆𝑟⃗ 1
lim = lim 2 |𝑟⃗ × ∆𝑡 | = 2 |𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗|
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0
i.e., ⃗A⃗̇ = |𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗| = 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ is often called the areal velocity.
1 1
2 2
Since, 𝑟 2 𝜃̇ = ℎ = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑛𝑡. Then the areal velocity is a constant vector.
i.e., If a particle moves in a central force field with O as center, then the radius vector drawn from O to
the particle sweeps out equal arears in equal times.

Linear Motion of Freely falling bodies:

If an object moves so that the only force acting upon it is its weight, or force due to gravity, then the
object is often called a freely falling body. If 𝑟⃗ is the position vector and 𝑚 is the mass of the body, then
using Newton’s second law the differential equation of motion is
𝑑 2 𝑟⃗ 𝑑 2 𝑟⃗
𝑚 2 = −𝑚𝑔𝑘⃗⃗ or, 2 = −𝑔𝑘⃗⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Q. An object of mass 𝒎 is thrown vertically upward from the

earth’s surface with speed 𝒗𝟎 . Find (a) the position at any time,
(b) the time taken to reach the height point and (c) the
maximum height reached.

Answer: Let the position vector of 𝑚 at any time 𝑡 be

𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂. Assume that the object starts at 𝑟⃗ = 0 when
𝑡 = 0. Since the force acting on the object is −𝑚𝑔𝑘̂, we have by
Newton’s law,
𝑑 2 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣 ⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣
𝑚 2 = 𝑚 = −𝑚𝑔𝑘̂ or, = −𝑔𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Integrating yields, 𝑣⃗ = −𝑔𝑡𝑘̂ + 𝑐⃗
Since the velocity at 𝑡 = 0 [i.e., the initial velocity] is 𝑣0 𝑘̂, so we have 𝑐⃗ = 𝑣0 𝑘̂ so that
𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗ = −𝑔𝑡𝑘̂ + 𝑣0 𝑘̂ or, = (−𝑔𝑡 + 𝑣0 )𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡
1
Integrating, 𝑟⃗ = (𝑣0 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 ) 𝑘̂ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐1
Then since, 𝑟⃗ = 0 when 𝑡 = 0, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑐1 = 0. Thus the position vector is
1
𝑟⃗ = (𝑣0 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2 ) 𝑘̂
2
1
or, equivalently, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑣0 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2
(b) The highest point is reached when, 𝑣⃗ = (𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑘̂ = 0, i.e., at time 𝑡 = 𝑣0 /𝑔
(c) At time 𝑡 = 𝑣0 /𝑔, the maximum height reached is, 𝑧 = 𝑣02 /2𝑔.
Another method: If we assume, as is physically evident, that the object must always be on the 𝑧 axis,
we may avoid vectors by writing Newton’s law equivalently as

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Semester 1_Physics Honours and UG__Ch 2: Mechanics of Single particle

𝑑2 𝑧
𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝑚𝑔
𝑑𝑧
From which, using 𝑧 = 0, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣0 at 𝑡 = 0, we find
1
𝑧 = 𝑣0 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 similarly (b) and (c) can be obtained.

❖ Motion in a resisting Medium

Q. At time 𝒕 = 𝟎 a parachutist having weight of magnitude 𝒎𝒈 is located at 𝒛 = 𝟎 and is travelling
vertically downward with speed 𝒗𝟎 . If the force or air resistance acting on the parachute is
proportional to the instantaneous speed, find the (a) speed, (b) distance travelled and (c)
acceleration at any time 𝒕 > 𝟎.
Ans: Assume the parachutist (considering as a particle of mass 𝑚) is located at distance 𝑧 from origin
𝑂. If 𝑘̂ is a unit vector in the vertically downward direction, then the weight is 𝑚𝑔𝑘̂ while the force of
air resistance is −𝛽𝑣𝑘̂ so that the net force is (𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣)𝑘̂.
Thus by Newton’s law,
𝑑𝑣
𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑘̂ = (𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣)𝑘̂ (1)
𝑑𝑣 𝑚 𝑑𝑣
i.e., 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣 or, 𝑚𝑔−𝛽𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
Integrating, − 𝛽 ln(𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣) = 𝑡 + 𝑐1 (2)
𝑚
Since, 𝑣 = 𝑣0 at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑐1 = − 𝛽 ln(𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣0 )
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚𝑔−𝛽𝑣
𝑡= 𝛽
ln(𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣0 ) − 𝛽 ln(𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣) = 𝛽 ln ( 𝑚𝑔−𝛽𝑣0 )
𝑚𝑔−𝛽𝑣 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
Thus, 𝑚𝑔−𝛽𝑣0 = 𝑒 𝛽𝑡/𝑚 or, 𝑣 = 𝛽 + (𝑣0 − 𝛽 ) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡/𝑚 (3)
𝑑𝑧 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
(b) From (3), 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛽 + (𝑣0 − 𝛽 ) 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡/𝑚 . Then by integration,
𝛽𝑡
𝑚𝑔𝑡 𝑚 𝑚𝑔
𝑧 = 𝛽 − 𝛽 (𝑣0 − 𝛽 ) 𝑒 − 𝑚 + 𝑐2
𝑚 𝑚𝑔
Since 𝑧 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑐2 = 𝛽 (𝑣0 − 𝛽 ) and thus
𝑚𝑔𝑡 𝑚 𝑚𝑔 −𝛽𝑡 𝑚 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔𝑡 𝑚 𝑚𝑔 𝛽𝑡
𝑧= − (𝑣0 − ) 𝑒 𝑚 + (𝑣0 − )= + (𝑣0 − ) (1 − 𝑒 − 𝑚 )
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
(c) From (3), the acceleration is given by
𝑑𝑣 𝑚𝑔 −𝛽𝑡 𝛽 𝛽𝑣0 𝛽𝑡 𝛽𝑣0 −𝛽𝑡
𝑎= = 0 + (𝑣0 − ) 𝑒 𝑚 . (− ) = − ( − 𝑔) 𝑒 − 𝑚 = (𝑔 − )𝑒 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝛽 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

Projectile motion:
Q. A projectile is launched with initial speed 𝒗𝟎 at an
angle 𝜶 with the horizontal. Find (a) the position vector
at any time, (b) the time to reach the highest point, (c)
the maximum height reached, (d) the time of flight back
to earth and (e) the range.

Answer: (a) Let 𝑟⃗ be the position vector of the projectile and 𝑣⃗ the velocity at any time 𝑡. Then by
Newton’s law
𝑑 2 𝑟⃗
𝑚 2 = −𝑚𝑔𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2 𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣
= −𝑔𝑘̂ or, 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑔𝑘̂
i.e., 𝑑𝑡 2
Integrating yields, 𝑣⃗ = −𝑔𝑡𝑘̂ + 𝑐⃗
Assume the initial velocity of the projectile is in the yz plane so that the initial velocity is
𝑣0 = 𝑣0 cos 𝛼 𝑗̂ + 𝑣0 sin 𝛼 𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Since, 𝑣 = 𝑣0 at 𝑡 = 0, we find 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣0 cos 𝛼 𝑗̂ + (𝑣0 sin 𝛼 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑘̂

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Semester 1_Physics Honours and UG__Ch 2: Mechanics of Single particle

𝑑𝑟⃗
or, = 𝑣0 cos 𝛼 𝑗̂ + (𝑣0 sin 𝛼 − 𝑔𝑡)𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡
1
integrating, 𝑟⃗ = (𝑣0 cos 𝛼)𝑡 𝑗̂ + {(𝑣0 sin 𝛼)𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 }𝑘̂
1
or, equivalently, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = (𝑣0 cos 𝛼)𝑡, 𝑧 = (𝑣0 sin 𝛼)𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2
it follows that the projectile remains in the yz plane.
(b) At the highest point of the path the component of velocity 𝑣⃗ in the 𝑘̂ direction is zero. Thus
1 𝑣0 sin 𝛼
𝑣0 sin 𝛼 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 = 0 and 𝑡 = 𝑔
is the required time.
(c) Using the value of 𝑡 obtained in (b), we find
𝑣0 sin 𝛼 1 𝑣 sin 𝛼 2 𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
Maximum height reached = (𝑣0 sin 𝛼) ( )− 𝑔( 0 ) =
𝑔 2 𝑔 2𝑔
(d) The time of flight back to earth is the time when 𝑧 = 0, i.e., when
1 1
= (𝑣0 sin 𝛼) 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 = 𝑡 [(𝑣0 sin 𝛼) − − 2 𝑔𝑡] = 0
2𝑣0 sin 𝛼
Or since, 𝑡 ≠ 0, 𝑡 = 𝑔
[Note that this is twice the time in (b)]
(e) The range is the value of y at the time given by, i.e.,
2𝑣0 sin 𝛼 2𝑣02 𝑣02
Range = (𝑣0 cos 𝛼) ( 𝑔
) = 𝑔
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛼 = 𝑔
sin 2𝛼

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