Eape 411 Notes

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EAPE 411 Notes
Bed science (Egerton University)
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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes
EAPE 411: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT
Lecture Notes by Dr. Noah Murumba Kiveu
THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION ADMINSTRATION

INTRODUCTION
Administration is generally considered as consisting of the administration
tasks which are performed by administrators. It is the process through which
decisions are made in an organization. Most scholars agree on the following
basic definition of administration.
Administration is the process of directing and controlling life (or human
behavior) in any social organization, such as industry, a government
department or a private firm, a family or a school. In the administration of a
school for example, the head makes decisions and takes action to achieve
the desired goals. The administrator whose goal should be quality education
will ask himself how can I organize my school to achieve this goal.
Management
While administration is concerned with directing and controlling life in a
social system, management is the process of working with and through
individuals and groups of people to accomplish organization goals. Another
difference between the two terms is that administration deals with
establishing a policy that will guide decision-making enacting laws and
regulations while management will deal with the implementation of the laws
and regulations.
ADMINSTRATIVE PROCESSES
Major processes:
The concept of administration grew from that of management, which is still
preferred in industry. It refers to administrative thinking and planning and
involves both major and minor processes. The four major processes are
planning, organizing directing, and controlling
1. Planning
This is forecasting. It is the method that is used in setting goals and
objectives and devising ways and means to achieve them.
2. Organizing
This is the aspect of collecting and putting together both human and
material resources.
In order to achieve organizational goals, personnel need to be hired
and materials obtained
3. Directing
This includes the various methods used in order to motivate and
influence hired personnel to defective work. One could motivate
workers or students by providing rewards for work well done in the
form of promotion and increased enrolments.
4. Controlling
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This is the method used in assessing the result of a plan. One assesses
or evaluates in order to know whether the personnel and the system as
a whole have helped in achieving the goal that was set to be achieve.
The feed back obtained is the most important source of information for
personnel manager in the controlling process.
Minor process
Henri Fayol, one of the earliest administrators focused his attention on what
he preferred to label as elements of management. These elements include:
planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling (POCCC).
These elements were applied first to industrial production. They are also
applied in public administration.
Two other propagators of administration Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick
applied Fayol’s theory. Luther particularly, suggested that the functions of all
administrators should be organized a long the principle of POSDCORB. This
means: planning organizing, stafÏng, directing, coordinating, reporting and
budgeting.
The word POSDCORD is an acronym, which was designed to call attention to
the general duties of a chief executive or a personnel manager.
APLICATION OF THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION ADMINSTRATION IN

SCHOOLS
In order to do an effective job, the public administrations have to perform the
following functions competently:
a) Planning
In this processes, administrators decide in advance what is to be done,
for instance, they may define and objective of the organization. Within
the planning process public administrators set long goals which are
further broken down to medium term and short term goals.
b) Organizing
This is where the head teacher devises the method of fitting together
people and other resources. To provide quality education, for example,
one will need to deploy qualified teachers to teach their best subjects
as far as possible. One will also need to schedule the teaching
assignments on the school timetable, eliminates clashes in the use of
special rooms, workshops, laboratories and personnel.
c) StafÏng
This function is similar to that of organizing since it deals with
identifying, employing and assigning human resources needed to
pursue an objective and fulfill institutional goals. The success of a
school will depend on the kind of teaching and non-teaching staff
employed and deployed.
d) Directing
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This function (task) is concerned mainly with authority. It involves

consulting as well as issuing directives and general orders in order to
attain organizational goals. It involves commanding and leading. Those
elements are both used in our modern school system.
For instance, a school head may command, direct, influence or lead his
staff members to work to improve the school mean score. Whatever
the method used, the purpose is always to organize school activities as
efÏciently as possible.
e) Coordinating
This process involves relations with staff and student body. Its main
function is that of unifying the activities of the various components of
the school community in order to attain the desirable objective. A
school head ensures team work among his staff so that all the various
school activities may be included in the timetable and the whole
process may run smoothly.
f) Reporting
This is how the school manager keeps the authorities, the board of
governors and the parents informed of the progress of the school.
Some reporting is necessary because of the public demand
accountability. In this case, reporting will provide some feedback. Each
member of the organization must know who to report to from whom to
get orders.
Every piece of information, good or bad concerning the plan must be
made available; all policies implemented and all errors corrected.
g) Budgeting
This task deals with expenditure. It deals with both inputs and outputs.
Financial resources must be allocated for the purpose of accomplishing
the organizational goals and objectives. The organizational budget
calls for planning; all expenses must be accounted for and audited.
Public administration must plan how to use the money available either
on activities of on necessary items of equipment.
PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINSTARTION

The development of educational administration can be understood in the
context of its historical development. Educational administration has its
beginning in the field of business administration and public administration
which had developed much earlier. The development of concepts, theories of
administration approaches and techniques of business management
influenced the field of educational administration.
To understand the conceptual base of educational management and

administration, its important to underscore the development of
administrative theory discussed in historical perspective. The administrative
theory is analyzed through three administrative theories, commonly known
as approaches to administration. They include:
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- The classical or scientific management movement

- The human relations movement
- The social science movement
THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGMENT MOVEMENT

Fredrick Taylor (1956-1915) Father of Scientific Management
Frederick Taylor an engineer at Midvale and Bethlehem steel works in
Philadelphia developed a theoretical approach to management. The
approach was popularly known as the scientific management.
The approach was based on five principles which if applied to management
would maximize the use of available human and material resources in
achieving the goals of an organization.
1. Time study principle: this principle stipulated that all times work
done must be measured by accurate and standard observation, in a
certain school situation, for instance, a teacher should report to work
at 8.00a.m and stay on the school compound until 5.00pm.
2. Piece-rate principle: that is salary (wage) must be proportional to
the work done (output). That is to say a fair day’s pay for fair day’s
work. The more the work the more the pay. Workers, teachers,
included should be motivated by extrinsic rewards
3. Separation of planning from performance principle: Managers
have the ultimate authority and decisions. That is, planning should be
done by the management and not by the workers.
4. Scientific method of work principle: management takes over from
the decisions on methods of working; determine scientifically the most
efÏcient and train workers accordingly.
5. Management control principle: Managers should be trained in the
art of scientific management so that they can train workers effectively.
This means that management should be trained to apply scientific
principle of management of control.
These principles emphasis maximum production through maximum
use of resources (a belief that workers are motivated by economics
and limited by physiological constraints. Direction of workers make the
work as efÏcient as machines).
6. Functional management principle:

This means that the organization should be designed in a manner that it
best serves the purpose of improving the coordination of activities among
the various specialists. Under any circumstances the needs of the
organization are given precedence while the individual needs must be
kept outside the organization. (use workers as tools for management,
ignoring their personal needs e.g. when sick, bereaved).
Taylors principles were popular in organizations as they aimed at lowering

the unit of cost of production by increasing the efÏciency of the
management.
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 Taylors ideas led to time-and –motion studies, rigid discipline on the

jobs concentration on the task to be performed with minimal
interpersonal contacts between workers and strict application of
incentive pay systems.
 These ideas had impact upon Educational administration of schools till
1940’s:
Note shortcoming – man-machine model.
NB: Others for your study are:

Fayol: he developed 14 principles and five functions of administrations
planning organizing, commanding coordinating and controlling all these
constituted his theory of administration.
Luther Gullik and Lydall Urwik

The two focused on higher level of personnel, they adapted Fayol’s analysis
and defined the job of the manager as indicated by the letters posdcorb:
planning, organization, stafÏng, directing coordinating reporting and
budgeting.
Administration as Bureaucracy
Max Weber 1984-1920
Max Weber a, German sociologists who focused on the structure of
organizations. His concern was an establishment of ideal organization for
purposes of efÏciency. He developed a theory of organization design known
as Bureaucracy. He considered a bureaucratic form of administration
management capable of attaining the highest degree of efÏciency and
through which it was possible to exercise imperative control over human
being (through possible control of human beings) He advanced five principles
of Bureaucracy.
1. Hierarchical structure of authority

2. An ideal organization should have a well defined Hierachy of authority ,
whereby authority is distributed in a pyramidal configuration or
manner from above and each ofÏcer in a chain of command is
responsible for his/her subordinates actions and decisions (what do you
think about this principle Bureaucracy is present with us today. School
Headteacher, Deputy head teacher (Senior teacher) or H.O.D) Ministry
Minister, Assistant Minister , P.S Secretary , under secretary.
The chart below explains the hierarchical structure found in school

administration.
Head Teacher
Deputy Head Page | 5

Teacher

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3. Division of labour
Varied tasks of an organization has varies complex for everyone to
perform with equal competence, it is ideal for individuals to be
assigned tasks as per their training. This would guarantee greater
effectiveness in performance.
This principle ensures greater efÏciency because:
- Tasks or duties are divided into specialty areas and
- Individual employees are assigned tasks according to their training,
skill and experience
4. Control by rules
Codified rules should govern ofÏcial decisions and actions, to ensure
uniformity predictability and stability. Rules also help in the
coordination of activities in the hierarchy and provide continuity of
operation when there are changes in personnel (rules and regulations
make employees know their rights and responsibilities)
5. Impersonal relationships
The working atmosphere should provide the dominance spirit of
formalistic impersonality without hatred, or passion. Employees are
expected to make decisions based on the part of and not feelings
(impersonality on the part of administrators and teachers assures
equality of treatment and facilitates rationality).
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Members of the organization must be subject to strict and systematic

discipline and this will eliminate personal, emotional and irrational
elements among the members.
6. Career orientation
Max Weber stated that:
a) Employment is based on expertise or specialization
b) Promotion is given according to seniority and/or merit
c) Salary is tied to rank in the hierarchy
d) Individual (employees) are free to resign and then
e) Retirement provisions do exist.
Criticism of Weber’s model of Bureaucracy
 Division of labour and specialization can increase production but it can
produce boredom which can reduce production.
 Impersonality improves rationality in decision making, but it may
produce a sterile atmosphere where people don’t interact leading to
low morale.
 Rules and regulations are to provide continuity, but they can produce
rigidity and goal displacement, employees may become goal oriented
and forget that rules are meant to achieve goals and are not ends on
themselves.
 Career orientation is healthy it produces a sense of loyalty and
motivates employees to maximize their efforts. Promotion based on
seniority and achievement which is not necessarily compatible e.g.
Rapid promotion of high achievers often produces discontent among
the royal hard working senior employees who are not so creative.
RESULTS OF THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

1. The scientific management approach was centralized. Authority flowed
from the top downwards.
2. It used the principle of dehumanization where by workers were
regarded as:
- Products to be manipulated around
- Machines to be compelled to work fast and be efÏcient at the same
time.
3. Human needs were neglected
4. The approach was only concerned with high productivity and a result it
became task oriented.
2. THE HUMAN RELATIONS MOVEMENT

(Mary Parker Follet – 1868-1933)
This movement was initiated by a social psychologist known as Mary parker
Follet. She was against the scientific movement approach with its principles
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on high productivity, efÏciency and other physical factors including wages as

a means to motivate workers. Follet who lived in London worked hard to
bring about a better ordered society in which people might live a more
satisfying life. To be able to do this, she proposed four major principles.
These include:
1. Employers and employees should solve their differences through
conferences and cooperation. This democratic way of solving problems
should be done by:
a) The two parties involved listening to each other’s different views on
the situation
b) Those parties accepting each other’s view points and understanding
each other better
c) Those parties integrating their view points and becoming united in
the pursuit of the common goal.
2. Coordination must be achieved in the early stages. This principle
stipulates that in order to run well, any organization must have its
duties coordinated from the very beginning.
3. Coordination is the result of the reciprocal understanding of all factors
in the situation. This is to say that both employers and employees
should share in the organization tasks: this will effect better
relationship
4. Coordination is a continuing process. That is the sharing of ideas and
working together between the administrators and workers should
continue for the betterment of the administration and the workers.
N/B: By proposing those four principles, Follet emphasized what the

fundamental concern for any social organization should be. This
fundamental concern is the building and maintenance of dynamic, yet
harmonious, human relations.
ELTON MAYO (1880)

Mayo was born in 1880 in Adelaide Australia. He accepted and disseminated
follets’s principles and became the strongest contributor of the human
relations movement. Between 1923 and 1926, he carried out experiments to
test the physical conditioning of workers productivity. The experiments
reveled that wages and physical working conditions did not motivate
workers, rather, they revealed that the determination factor which affected
job productivity was what went on inside the worker.
His data revealed therefore that sociological and psychological factors were
the strongest elements in influencing workers productivity rather than
physical and wage factors.
These sociological and psychological factors were based on three elements
including:
1. Morale: in every group, there are rules which influence the morale for
example creative a conducive workplace.
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2. Job satisfaction: over production and underproduction were both

discouraged since it lead to the danger of dismissal
3. Team-spirit: this was encouraged.
The human relations movement according to Mayo had two major

principles. These were:
1. Satisfaction: this principle stated that the organization with the
most satisfied workers would be the most efÏcient.
2. Democracy: this principle pointed out that democracy must prevail
in any organization through:
a) Employee participation in decision making
b) Delegation of responsibilities to the workers by the
administration
c) Open channels of communication between employers and
workers as well as among workers.
d) Administration and workers could solve their difference
democratically through conference and cooperation.
RESULTS OF THE HUMAN RELATIONS MOVEMENT
There were four effects brought about by the human relations movement.
These included:
1. Decentralization of responsibilities by the administration. In other
words workers were given some responsibilities to plan in the running
of the organization:
2. Managers made it easy for workers to cooperate in the attainment of
the organizational goals
3. Workers were provided with opportunities to enhance their personal
growth and development;
4. The human relations movement was an employee oriented approach.
That is, it was concerned with people and their needs.
3. THE SOCIAL SCIENCES MOVEMENT (1950-1970)

This movement is also referred to as the behavioral movement. This
movement was opposed to the scientific management movement which it
criticized as being too harsh in its approach to workers. It also criticized the
human relations movement as being too soft on the workers to the detriment
of the organizational objectives. The social sciences movement advocated
the view that both approaches should be used appropriately to effect
satisfaction for both the organization and the workers.
CHESTER BARNARD (1940s)
Barnard initiated the movement in the 1940s. He stressed the need for a
systematic conceptual scheme of administration behavior within a social
science framework. In other words he advocated the recognition of workers
as psychological-social beings. Barnard seems to use this since he utilizes
human behavior for both organization and the workers.
To achieve this imperative understanding, administrators or managers
should be equipped with some knowledge of social sciences disciplines
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including psychology, sociology, government and economics. A good

administrator/manager has a good insight of the working situation, the job
and the worker himself.
THE RESULTS OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCE MOVEMENT
This movement has two important effects namely:
1. It sees administration emerging from different disciplines and not
necessarily from education institutions
2. It reveals that today, those who train as school administrators are also
expected to have some knowledge of social science like economics and
governance.
N/B This approach is considered thorough understanding of first, the
worker as social being: second, of the situation surrounding the workers
and third, of the job worker does within the given situation.
THEORIES OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINSTRATION
A theory is regarded as a hypothesis which has undergone verification and
which has potential for explaining and predicting events, thus generating
new knowledge.
According to F.N. Kerlinger, a theory is a set of interrelated propositions
which explain and predict a given phenomena
According to J. Nwankwo, a theory is that which makes a confusing situation
clearer.
A theory in educational administration gives the most accurate mental

picture of how an organization works and it helps to explain the phenomena
of organization behavour that would be incomprehensive.
Theories are developed for purposes of understanding what is. Or the
mechanism of what is happening behind what you see in an organization.
In educational administration, theories are used to guide action and look for
solutions to problems affecting the workers.
Thus for administrators to manage their organizations efÏciency and manage
their workers effectively there is need to study a few theories.
The theories in educational administration include:
 The organization theory
 The human theory
 The needs hierarchy theory
 The motivation hygiene theory.
1. THE ORGANIZATION THEORY

This theory is used in analyzing the social human behavior of an individual
in a social system such as a school, or a church or a family. A social
system has two major dimensions. These are:
a) The institutional dimension and
b) The personal dimension
a) Institutional dimension
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This is made up of role and expectations. A role is a position, identity

or what is expected of a person in a certain position or job.
Expectations are the responsibilities that an individual’s obligations
imply.
b) The personal dimension
This dimension is made up of personality and need dispositions.
Personality is a dynamic organization within an individual. Disposition
are tendencies. This simply means that any society or institution has
roles which it assigns to members or workers to play or do. A long with
roles. there are expectations which members or workers are expected
to fulfill. A teacher for instance has the role of teaching. The school,
parents and students expect him/her to teach well and effectively on
the other hand these the teachers have personal needs which they
would like to fulfill.
It is the duty of the school administrator to understand the human
behavior of each of his individual teachers in order to help them. In
order to do this he has to know both his role expectations and his need
dispositions. One task of the school administrator is to integrate the
demands of the institution and those of the staff members. He must do
this in such a way that these demands of the institution and those of
the staff members are addressed. The administrator must do this in
such a way that these demands are organizationally productive and
individually fulfilling.
As an educational administrator, describe how you would apply the

organization theory in your institution.
2. THE HUMAN THEORY

This theory was advanced by Douglas MCGregor. He studies people’s
attitude towards work. His study revealed certain assumptions or beliefs
that people or workers have towards work. He categorized these
assumptions or beliefs that people or workers have towards work. He
categorized these assumptions into two groups which she called theory X
and theory Y.
Theory X
According to Douglas McGregor, people grouped in theory X held the
following assumptions about work
1. Work is distasteful to most people (Human beings hate work and will
avoid it if possible)
2. Most people lack ambition and have little desire for responsibility and
prefer to be directed
3. Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational
problems.
4. Motivation occurs only at physiological and safety levels
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5. Most people must be closely controlled and threatened with

punishment to achieve organization objectives (those who dislike work
must be threatened to work)
Implications of the application of Theory X

Rigid patterns. Theory X in rigid patterns of control. This type of control is
applied in many ways. First the theory advocated close and careful
supervision. Second , it relies on many detailed directions such as
demanding complete compliance from the workers. Third, if employers feel
the workers do not perform their duties they threaten them. Two major
threats are used: firing and withdrawing of pay.
Wrong attitudes: administrators who use this theory X approach have
adopted wrong attitudes towards the workers. They consider workers to be
unreliable, irresponsible and immature. They use external control as means
of dealing with workers.
Problem: the major problem with theory X is its insistence on centralized
power. All decisions are made and channeled from the top. The workers do
not have any say in matters which affect them. When this attitude is
extended to a school, it shows up in teacher dominated classroom. In a
situation where a teacher dominates, students do not have any say. The
teacher does whatever he chooses to do. He might arbitrarily decided to
punish a student by giving them underserved low grades
The second problem with theory X is that it concerns itself exclusively with
the high productivity of the organization. This is done at the expense of the
workers. They are exploited and their morale becomes low. The
management or administration treats workers as if they were mere tools.
This kind of treatment fails to motivate the workers who do not feel that they
have any reason to try to achieve the organization goals.
Characteristics of managers or administrators who accept theory ‘X’

assumptions
 Closely control and supervise employees as a way to deal with
workers who they consider to be irresponsible and immature
(authoritative and coercive centralized rule)
 Administrators threaten to withhold pay or terminate those who
perform poorly.
 Administrators emphasize production at the expense of the workers
feelings.
Characteristics of employees under theory X

Low morale, poor quality performance, poor relationship with employers.
Theory Y
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According to McGregor, people under theory “y” have the following

assumptions.
1. Work is as natural as play only if the conditions are favorable
2. Self control is important in achieving organizational goals
3. The capacity for creativity in solving organization problems is widely
distributed in the population.
4. Motivation occurs at the social, psychological as well as psychological
and security levels.
5. People can be self directed and creative at work if properly motivated
Implications of the application of Theory Y

Analysis of the application of McGregor theory Y revealed that most
administrators were supportive of and facilitating to their workers. They
supported and sought information from their workers. For example a school
head who was Y oriented was concerned with the welfare of his teachers and
willingly listened to their problems.
On the other hand the teacher was student oriented. That is like the school
head, the teacher gave students freedom to express their ideas. He gave
them support in their class work.
Decentralization of activities. Theory Y revealed that the organization not
only applied the principle of the decentralization of power but also delegated
authority to the workers. That is responsibilities within the organization were
shared among the workers. Besides, the workers were given authority to a
certain extent. For example, the workers were delegated (given) a large
measure of self control, self direction, freedom to act or participate,
responsibility and recognition for achievement. Because of this they were
highly motivated. There are many ways of doing that. For example teachers
allowed the students enough freedom to exercise considerable control over
their own work. On the other hand teachers facilitated the learning process
as much as possible. They did not assume exclusive control over the learning
process.
Another important thing as regards decentralization of activities was that
people were treated as mature people. The administration shared the
organizational responsibilities with the workers because it regarded them as
responsible and mature.
Characteristics of administration who apply Theory Y

 They listen to their employees ideas
 They give employees chance in decision making and to participate in
organizations management
 Work together as a team with employees to solve problems and meet
organizations responsibilities
 Decentralization of activities – employees are given opportunity to
exercise self control and direction
 The managers avoid excessive external control and treat workers as
mature and avoid use threats.
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Characteristics of employees under theory Y

 Supportive attitudes encourages workers to work hard and be loyal to
achieving organizational goals
 Have high morale and thus increased productivity in their
performance.
 They promote positive employers and employees relationship
3. THE NEEDS HIERARCHY THEORY OR HUMAN MOTIVATION

THEORY
This theory was developed by Abraham Maslow. He wanted to
understand the factors which motivated people to work. He looked at
the needs people have. He came up with five needs which he said were
commonly considered most important by people. These five needs are:
1. Physiological needs: these are the basic needs for survival and
include food, air water, sex, and sleep.
2. Safety or security needs: once a person’s survival needs are
fulfilled he is basically satisfied. However, he then longs for security
or safety. This is the second need according to Maslow. The
individual wants more assurance of job security and protection from
physical danger. This is the need for self preservation. The
individual is concerned about the future. For instance a school
teacher wants to keep his teaching job in order to provide food and
shelter for his family.
3. Social (afÏliation) needs: once safety needs are satisfied, the
individual longs for the third group of needs: the social needs.
Human beings need social company. They need other people with
whom they can interact and relate their problems to. In other words
people have a desire for association and belonging; they want to be
accepted by others and have their approval. For example a school
teacher naturally wants to make friends that is why he joins certain
clubs such as debating society.
4. Esteem needs: once the third group of needs is fulfilled, the fourth
group of needs set in this group is referred to as esteem needs.
People feel a desire of recognition of work well done: they seek love
and respect from others. Once this group of needs is fulfilled, the
individual have self confidence, power, prestige and control. A
teacher must feel that his services are recognized and he is
respected as a social human being. If this need is not satisfied, the
teacher may become destructive. He might engage himself in work
restriction and unnecessary arguments with his co-workers or the
head teacher or the students.
5. Self actualization: This is the final group of needs. It is felt
immediately the needs for esteem are fulfilled. People who have
satisfied their other needs now have the desire to acquire
competence in their professions. They want feel important and
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confident. For example, a school teacher wants to feel happy about

and conversant with his teaching job when he feels satisfied, eg.
Want undertake further studies (masters, PhD), drive a nice car etc,
to be the leader in a social grou…. then as Maslow puts it, “he has
maximized his potential”.
Question:
 How can Need Heirachy theory be applied in a school setting
by the head teacher?
 As a principal of a high school, how would you apply the
heiracy of needs theory to motivate students and teachers in
your?
4. MOTIVATIONAL HYGIENE THEORY

This theory was developed by Fredrick Herzberg. He studied the work
motivation of people and came up with two categories of factors: hygiene
factors and motivating factors, simply called motivators.
Hygiene factors: These are the factors which describe people’s

environment. According to Herzberg, when people feel dissatisfied with their
jobs, they get concerned about the environment in which they work. The
environment in this situation includes the following factors.
- Policies and administration
- Supervision
- Working conditions
- Interpersonal relations
- Money, status and security
Motivators: The following motivating factors are most important since they
spur workers to achievement. That is when people feel good about their jobs,
this is felt in the performance of the work itself. These factors are.
- Achievement
- Recognition for accomplishment
- Challenging work
- Increased responsibility
- Growth and development.
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LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

INTRODUCTION
In the previous lecture, you have been introduced to some theories of
Educational Administration. In this lecture, we are going to learn about
leadership as applied in Educational Administration. The lecture is divided
into four sections, namely:
1. Introduction: leadership defined
2. Theories of leadership
3. Styles of leadership
4. Factors Hampering efÏciency of leadership
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lecture, you should be able to :
1. Define the concept of leadership
2. Identify and discuss three theories of leadership
3. Name and describe four styles of leadership
4. Discuss factors which hampering leadership efÏciency
LEADERSHIP DEFINED
Leadership – ability to influence the opinions, attitudes and behaviour of
others.
A leader – a person who is able to influence other in order to pursue certain
goals
A manager – one who performs managerial functions to attain
organizational goals – planning, organizing, directing controlling
What then is the difference between leadership and management in an
organization? Are the two the same since they deal with people?
Management is ‘working with and through individuals and groups to
accomplish organizational goal’’, leadership is working with and through
people to accomplish goals.
The difference is in the phrase organizational goals. While management
involves exclusively fulfilling the goals of the organization, leadership does
not confine itself to organizational goals. It involves the fulfillment of both
organizational and personal goals and may even a friend’s goals.
The head teacher, for instance , may encourage his teachers to work hard
not necessarily to have many students pass the examination. His sole
purpose may be to be considered as an efÏcient administrator in order to
keep his job, feed his family and send his children to high cost secondary
schools.
Attributes of a leader
 A leader has to have followers. The essence of leadership is followership.
Followers who accept and follow his supporting authority – willing not due
to fear. manager have formal authority to manage.
 Leadership has to have emotional appeal – A leader is expected to be a
charismatic person with great vision which can alter the mood of their
followers and their hope and expectations.
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 A leader must meet the needs of his followers – a leader is more expected
to meet the need of the followers. Manger more concerned in meeting
organizational goals
A manager uses both leadership and managership in the process of
managing employees. Managership gives him formal authority while
leadership gives him means of securing voluntary compliance.
THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP
There are five theories of leadership, these are:
1. The trait theory
Traits are physical and mental characteristics of a leader. The theory
therefore postulates that leadership are born not made. They have a great
ability to communicate, they are more intelligent than ordinary people; they
have a commanding voice and an imposing personality. A leader can easily
influence and even control decision- making. In other words, you can tell a
leader by his appearance and personality impact.
Personal traits – managers should have personal traits such as attitudes,
motivation and personality – that influence their behaviour as leaders. A
manager who trust other people will communicate freely with subordinates
2. The situation theory

This theory denies the claims made by the trait theory. It advances that
traits alone do not make or cause a person to be a leader. It afÏrms that
leaders are made not born. A particular situation or environment will dictate
the kind of leadership suited to it. Therefore, a person may be an effective
leader in one situation, or environment, but an ineffective one in another.
It is the needs and demands of people in certain environment that dictate
the kind of leadership. Beginning teachers for instance, need forceful leaders
who are task- oriented. Experienced teachers are indeed, different.
Situational factors – environment in which a manager operates may
influence his behaviour. Most common situational factors include group
tasks, group members and organizational practice eg formal authority
granted to a manager.
3. The functional theory

This theory holds that leadership is a shared process. That is, teachers have
needs which they want fulfilled or satisfied. On the other hand, the
organizational has expectations which it wants performed in a satisfactory
way. If the teachers are to do a good job, their needs must be well met.
Similarly, teachers must perform their given tasks very well if the
organizational needs are not be satisfied.
4. The contingency theory

This theory holds traits, situations and the tasks to be performed all combine
to determine leadership that is to say leadership is a combination of those
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three elements. For example, in a school situation (environment) the head

teacher may make the most stubborn students a perfect. He is also expected
to give the work of teaching music to teacher who has specialized in music.
Leadership behaviour reflect their own personal traits and situational
demands. Common leadership behaviour include directive, supportive,
participative and achievement oriented
5. The group Dynamics theory

This theory holds that leaders a rise out of the compatibilities of group and
task. That is people in a given group will be given tasks according to their a
ability to do those tasks.
Some tasks to be done may demand people of great experience; some
others may require strength and endurance. The latter tasks may not require
people with experience at all. Younger people will be needed. Each type of
work and each group of people will require different leadership.
Leadership matches
To function effectively as a leader, a manager has to demonstrate a
leadership behaviour that is suitable to his personal traits and organizational
practices.
A leadership match can be realized by
- Leadership situations that are suitable to managers personal traits and
behaviour
- Modify situational factors to suit manager traits and behaviour
- Increasing versatility of leadership styles to match varying situations
Leadership effectiveness
Effectiveness of leaders behaviour is expected to increase when there is a
match between leadership style sand situations.
Leadership effectiveness can be measured by the degree to which mangers
meet both organization goals and satisfies employees needs.
STYLES OF LEADERSHIP
There are a bout seven styles of leadership. These are:
Authoritarian leadership
Leadership holds all authority and responsibility in organization with
communication exclusively from top to bottom’
i. Managers assign workers specific tasks and expect orderly
and precise result.
ii. Exercise close supervision
iii. Subordinates are not free to make independent decisions
iv. Similar to autocratic/dictatorial leadership
v. Involves forcing or threatening employees
2)
3) The nomothetic style
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This kind of leadership emphasizes the role of the work and the
organizational goals. It is tasks oriented. Its workers are expected to be
solely concerned with accomplishing the goals, objectives and tasks of the
organizational. It ignores the needs of the workers. It does not hesitate to
use compulsion and close supervision to achieve the goals of the institution.
This style has one advantage. Task is accomplished on time. It also has its
own disadvantages. First the human relationship between the superior and
the workers is minimal. Second, the morale o the workers are low. Third the
productivity is low.
4) The idiographic style
This style considers the needs and personalities of the workers. Authority is
delegated to workers according to their personal capability to perform the
job.
Individual workers are expected to be self- directed and to be free in their
participation in organizational goals.
The advantage of this style is that individual workers are enthusiastic and
motivated to work. Its disadvantage is that organizational requirement are
not always fulfilled.
5) The transactional style

This style combines the two styles above: the Nomothetic and the
idiographic. In other words, it balances, personal needs with organizational
demands within a given situations. It does this by matching the task of the
institution with the needs and personality of the individual.
Its advantages are that both tasks accomplishment and human welfare are
recognized. Its disadvantage is that there is also task of direction since the
organization is leaderless.
6) The Autocratic style
This style is similar to the Nomothetic style.
It centralizes power and authority in the management.
Its purpose is to achieve high productivity in the organization
It does not involves individual workers in decision making policies
Being task-oriented, the management uses workers as machine to effect
productivity. It dictates in order to attain the determined goals and get the
workers to perform the roles they are given.
The advantages of an Altercative style are that first it does not initiate to use
rewards in order to motivate the workers. Second, it impels the workers to
work quickly for high production. Its disadvantages are that since the
leadership is authoritarian and power is centralized, the work to be done is
strictly structured. Secondly close supervision is exercised and resented by
the workers are frustrated and, therefore their moral is low. It is not
surprising that conflicts between the administrators and workers arise
constantly.
7) The democratic style
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This style considers first the needs, interest’s rights and freedom of the
workers or subordinates.
These subordinate are given a substantial amount of freedom and are
involved in decision-making. The management influences. The subordinates,
but it does not dominate their thinking. It offers suggestion rather than issue
orders. The management acts as facilitator and provider of information
rather than being authoritarian. It praises workers instead of criticizing them.
Its advantages are: high morale among workers; they have freedom to
exercise their responsibilities and finally them, have high job motivation. Its
disadvantages are first that it may take long to involve workers in decision
making. They may get lazy. Second those workers may start taking things
easy.
8) The laissez-faire style
This style implies the attitude that everybody may do what he wants. There
is no real leader in an organization which adopts this style. This kind of
organization avoids the use of power and the management’s role is limited.
Besides, it binds itself to no code of regulations.
It makes extensive use of unnecessary committees. These committee set
goals which no one feels bound to adhere to since there is no hierarchy of
authority, the leader is merely a symbol.
There are three advantages to this type of style. First mature people feel to
do what they want to do. Second, the conscientious employees provide their
own motivation. Third, decisions are easily accepted. Ion the other hand,
lesser faire has its disadvantages. First, it has no clear leadership. Second
there is no control and chaos and conflicts often arise due to unguided
freedom. Third, there is a high rate of unhealthy competition among its
members.
- The leader waives responsibility
- Workers are allowed to work as they choose with minimum
interference
- Employees are given freedom/authority to make decision to determine
cause of action
- Manager may be consulted but not directly involved in making
decisions
- Manager indicates what to be done and when to be accomplished and
employee divide how to accomplish it
- Communication flows horizontally among group members
9) Charismatic style
This style of leadership is based, on the leaders’ magnetic personality and
influence on this subordinate. The leader commands love. Faith, respect and
devotion because of his personal attributes, such as attractiveness, good
posture, eloquent speeches and warm personality.
The advantages of this style is that the leader exert an unchangeable
influence; he is loved and respected and his leadership easily accepted by its
followers. It has it disadvantages as well. First the subordinates tend to be
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devoted to the charismatic leader rather than to be organizational is

disrupted and the successor finds it hard to be accepted.
Question: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the

leadership styles
FACTORS HAMPERING THE EFFICICENCY OF LEADERSHIP

There are at least ten factors which hampering efÏciency in leadership.
These are :
1. Lack of devotion in leaders
2. Task or position center policies
3. Unpopular programmes administered
4. Conflict between style (need) and expectation
5. Failure to get feed back
6. Failure to satisfy the need-disposition of the followers
7. Reliance on fear in opposition to inspiring enthusiasms
8. Inflexibility in decision making
9. Job incompetence on the part of the leaders
10. Unwillingness to accept criticism
Suggestion for remedy
The following are suggested remedies against leadership inefÏciency
1) Have a sense of humour
2) Be responsible
3) Be competent
4) Be willing to listen to others
5) Be receptive to criticism
Further reading
Campbell, R.E. Introduction to Educational Administration. Boston: Alleyn and
Bacon, 1975
Mbiti, D.M. Foundation of school Administration Nairobi: Oxford University
press, 1974
The style that is most effective depends on:

- Interaction among surbodinates
- Characteristics of the work situation
- Amount of time available
- Nature and type of workers
- What to be accomplished
- Expectations of the organization
- Tradition of the organization
Characteristics of successful leaders

They process some if not all of the following qualities
- a strong desire for task accomplishment
- persistent pursuit of organizational goals
- creativity and intelligence to solve problems
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- initiative applicable to social situation

- willingness to accept behaviour consequences
- Low susceptibility to interpersonal stress
- High tolerance for ambiguity
- Ability to influence and motivate other people
- Ability to structure social interactions
Ineffective leadership is associated with
- aggression
- depression
- disorganizations
- paranoia
- neurosis
- procrastination
- Attitudinal factors – over concern with morale
- practicing polarization
- failure to mention objective attitude
- idealistic in decision making
- anxiety to do the right thing
Effective leadership
Can a single leader make a major difference in organizational performance?
A manager can apply the following for effective leadership
- General supervision rather than close, detailed supervision of employees
- Devote more time to supervisory activities rather than doing production
work
- Pay more attention to planning work and special task
- Willingness to permit employees to participate in decision making
- Use of employee centred approach – showing sincere interest in needs
and problems of employees
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AUTHORITY AND POWER IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Introduction
You have, in lecture 6, learned about leadership. Let us now consider
authority and power in Educational Administration. We will divide this lecture
into major sections.
a) Authority and
b) Power
OBECTIVES
At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Discuss both authority and power
2. Identify and describe the two bases of authority
3. Differentiate between line and staff authority
4. Identify and discuss four sources of power.
AUTHORITY : DEFINITION
Authority connotes the rights conferred on to an administrator in a given
position. For example, the head teacher is given authority to command and
to enforce obedience among his staff and students. Authority also connotes
power in decision –making and coordinating activities towards the
achievement of the goals of organization. Authority, therefore, involves two
people the super ordinate(superior) and the subordinate. In a school
setting, this means the headteacher and the teacher. The former makes
decision ( of course with the help of the teacher). The latter carries out those
decisions.
Authority is, therefore, power.
Bases of authority
Authority is derived from bases: position and personal. An administrator
utilizes both bases (dimension)n to effect the achievement of the
organizations goals
Position
This is authority that comes from above: in lecture 10 I will call it invested
authority. That is, it is an authority that is given by the session administrator
to the junior administrator for example, the provincial Education OfÏcer gives
authority to the head teacher of a given secondary school. What is being
suggested here is that authority is delegated downward in an organization.
In an organization, the flow of authority, therefore, is downwards one thing
you need to remember is that the process of delegating authority downwards
is not irreversible; the boss can take it back.
The best example of this last point is when a head teacher ‘s job is suddenly
taken away from him by P.E.O or the TSC.
The amount of authority one has depends on one’s place in this hierarchy.
This means, therefore, that the basis of authority in a formal school
organization is the relationship between line and staff authority.
Line authority
In line authority, the flow of authority is channeled directly from the top
administration. This is to say that line ofÏcials can direct commands to their
subordinates. This line authority must relate to the performance of the
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organization. In other words the subordinates being given a responsibility is

expected to fill the position adequately.
Line authority is not therefore absolute, and delegation of it must be done
with discretion.
It is not because someone is put in authority that he acquires abilities.
Abilities should be present already in the person to be endowed with
authority
STAFF AUTHORITY
Staff authority is mainly concerned with assisting as well as advising. It is
used where line authority becomes inadequate. For example, specialized
skills are used in directing these activities which the line administrators
cannot effectively perform
While line authority contributes directly to the organization, staff authority
contributes indirectly to the achievement of establishment policies.
There are two basic categories of staff position these are:
a) Specialist. specialist staff include :
1. Advisors
2. Technician’s services
3. Controllers and
4. Facilitators
b) Personal: personal staff usually serves in a general non-supervisory
administrative role. Here, the authority is derived from the position of
the person the staff reports to. That is, he acts by and through the
authority delegated to him by the supervisor.
POWER DEFINITION
As mentioned above, a person who induces another individual to do a certain
job because of his positioning the organization is considered to have position
power on the other hand, when he derives power from his followers the
power may be used to effectively control another person.
Power is the force behind authority in administration. Without power there is
a little authority and no possibility of getting things done. Power is, therefore,
the ability/energy to influence a person to act. Power is control. It may
include the right to impose sanctions on an individual.
Source of power
There are five source types of power that may be used in any administration.
These sources are:
1. Reward power:
This is the type of positive power which the manager or the school head uses
to withhold, grant or increases rewards. Among the positive rewards which
the executive can withhold or increase, we can include money, protection,
praise and fringe benefits. The head teacher, for instance can help a teacher
to be promoted by recommending him to the TSC,. In the same way, he can
withhold his teacher’s promotion by refusing to give him a positive
recommendation.
2. Coercive power
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This source of power include visa Vis his subordinates negative responses of
the leader. Theses negative responses may include: dismissal, reprimands
and interdiction.
The workers will obey for fear that the leader will impose punishment on
them if they disobey- his orders or frustrate his aims. The school head, for
instance, can recommend the dismissal of an indiscipline teacher from his
school. A head teacher can cane a disobedient student or suspend him
temporarily.
3. Legitimate power
This kind of power is perceived by the subordinates as essential to the
potential leader. It is a value internalized in the leader. The leader is
acceptable because he has legitimate right to influence others. The
subordinates perceive themselves as having an obligation to accept his
influence and to follow him because of the position of the leader in the
organization, the subordinate may, for example, agree to work beyond the
normal working hours.
A teacher may accept to teach extra hours in response to the head
teacher’s request to help with examinations candidates.
4. Association power
This source of power is based on the identification of people with their
proposed or actual leader. What the leader stands for or symbolizes
influences the subordinates and they want to be like him. Charismatic
leaders, for instance, draw many followers because of what they are good
speakers, very influential and commanding personalities such leaders have
power which is admired by their followers because of those attractive
qualities subordinates show respect and admiration to their leader. They
may agree to contribute hard-cash money for a bereaved college in order to
comply with request from their boss.
5. Expert power
Any leader who acquires a substantial amount of experience and knowledge
has a chance to be respected by his subordinates. They perceive him as
being competent and knowledgeable in the area in which he influences them
and respect his opinion on may subjects. They accept that he is more
experienced than they are : for example, a head teacher who has served in
that position for many years may have his requests or demands fulfilled
unquestioningly because he is considered an expert in administrative
matters.
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GROUP BEHAVIOUR
When in a group the behaviour of individuals is more than the sum total of
each member acting on his own. In a group individuals behave differently
than when they are alone.
A group is composed of two or more individuals, interacting and
interdependent, who come together to achieve some common objectives.
Types of groups
1) Formal and informal
2) Open and closed
3) Reference group
Formal and informal groups

A formal group is defined by organizational structures as a group with
designated work assignments and established tasks. Informal groups are
alliances that are neither structured nor organizationally determined. They
are natural groups/functions in the work environment that appear in
response to the need for social contact.
Formal and informal groups are further classified as – command group,Task
groups, Interest groups and Friendship groups.
Command group is determined by organizational chart and is composed of
subordinates who report directly to a given manager such as department in a
school. E.g. the COD and teachers under him/her.
Task group is organizationally determined. People working together to
accomplish a given task.
Interest groups – people who afÏliate to attain specific objective with which
each is concerned.
Friendship groups develop become people have one or more
characteristics in common.
Informal groups satisfy members social interests. Interactions in a group
affect individuals behaviour
Open and closed groups

An open group is in a constant state of change – have changing group
membership, frame or reference and time perspective and the equilibrium.
Closed group – are quite stable in membership
Reference group: Any group in which individuals belong or aspire to belong
and which he refers to as a standard for self evaluation or source of personal
values and attitudes.
Reasons for joining groups

 Different groups provide benefits to their members. One or more of the
following
 Security – people get reassurance from interacting with others and
being part of the group eg trade unions. Management may create work
environment in which the employees may feel insure which may result
to trade unions.
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 Status – if one belongs to a group that is viewed as important by others

provide recognition and status for the member
 Self-esteem – groups can increase peoples feeling of self-worth feeling
of self esteem which is realized when people gain acceptance in highly
valued groups
 AfÏliation – people enjoy regular interaction that comes with group
membership for example job interactions from basic Means of fulfilling
them need for interaction.
 Work groups contribute to fulfilling need for friendship and social
relations.
 Power – groups present groups in that what often cannot be achieved
individually becomes possible through group action.
 Informal groups provide opportunities for individuals to exercise power
over others.
 Goal achievement: Sometimes it may require more than one person to
fulfill a task. In this case there is need to pool talent, knowledge, power
and resources to get a job completed can be a formal or an informal
group.
 Social comparison – compare with other members
 Social validation – evaluate – attitudes beliefs values
Group development
Groups pass through a standard sequence of four stages
1. Forming 1st state of group development
Characterized by uncertainty about the group purpose, structure and
leadership members tests what behaviour are acceptable. Then members
start to see themselves as members of the group.
2. Storming Inter-group conflict stage
Members accept existence of the group but resistance to the control that the
group impose on individuality. Who will control the group. Stage completed
with clear hierarchy of leadership.
3. Norming: Develop close relationships. Group demonstrate
cohesiveness sense of group identity develop group structure solidifies.
Common set of expectation that defines current member behaviour.
4. Performing – the final stage. Group structure is fully functioning and
by now members know and understand each other and get to performing the
tasks.
Group cohesiveness
Groups differ in the way they solve problems and make decisions.
Group-decision-making process can be classified into four categories
- Interacting group process
- Nominal group process
- Dolphin technique
- Creative decision process
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Making group effective

Managers need to consider the following to make group effective.
- Proper clarification of an employee’s role in his work group
- Expectations should be made clear
- Authority relations should be clarified
- Managers should monitor group norms
- Managers should strive to promote cohesiveness among their work
groups
- Managers should strive to align the groups goals with those of the
organization
- Managers should consider formal hierarchical rank and informal group
in the allocation of status items so as to minimize incongruence.
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CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATIONS
Organizations employ different groups of people who have to be coordinated
in the best way possible in order to achieve both individual and
organizational groups. Management creates an environment in which
member can cooperate with each other. However groups have a tendency to
compete for limited resources, power and status to the extent of disputing
the cooperative effort.
Conflict is the struggle between incompatible or opposing needs, wishes,
interests or people. Conflict arises when individuals or groups encounter
goals that both parties cannot obtain satisfactorily. Conflict can be either
internal or external.
External conflict – when management faces conflicts from external forces –
government, trade union, economic conditions etc.
Is conflict desirable or undesirable?

Conflict can be considered undesirable only when
1) It produces stress and anxiety for those experiencing it
2) It causes discontent and frustration
3) It threatens harmony and unity within the social groups in an
organization.
Traditionally conflict has been considered destructive. However, conflict can
be positive and produce undesirable efforts, its absence can be dysfunctional
to an organizations effectiveness.
Conflict can be valuable in strengthening effectiveness.
Conflict can be valuable in strengthening organizational change – help
stimulate need for change
People dissatisfied with status quo, concerned about doing things better,
thus the organization benefits from renewed improvement.
Interpersonal conflict
Interpersonal conflicts resulting from personality variables eg dislikes,
distrust, prejudice. Interpersonal conflict usually hinder group performance.
People are more concerned with gaining advantage over others than with
task performance.
Conflict can lead to employee dissatisfaction and poor job performance if it
becomes excessive and unmanageable. If not resolved conflict can lead to
high absenteeism and labour turn over.
Inter-group conflict
Causes of inter-group conflict
1) Difference in group goals – when groups perform different functions
they develop their goals and norms. Conflict arise when reward system
is based on group performance rather than organizational
performance.
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2) Task interdependence – pooled, sequential, reciprocal - When one

group is unable to meet the expectation of the other group, inter-group
conflict occurs
3) Difference in work environment – eg when people with different
functional and technical background are forced to work together -
Status differentiation can also bring conflict
4) Competition for limited resources
5) Competitive reward system – when tasks require high level of
interdependence, competition can hurt cooperation among members
and work groups.
6) Reward system based on the departmental performance can cause
inter-group conflict
Consequences of inter-group conflict

The following important changes can occur within each group
- Group cohesiveness increases – closely knit and greater loyalty among
members.
- The group become task oriented – in order to deal with any external
threat
- Leadership becomes more directive – as the group become task
oriented the leader becomes more authoritarian.
- Organizational structure becomes more rigid – authority and
responsibility among and between members become more clearly
defined.
- Group unity is stressed – group demand increasing loyalty and
conformity from its members
Unresolved conflict can cause the following

a) Groups become antagonistic towards each other – perceiving the other
as an enemy.
b) Perceptions can be distorted with each group developing positive
perception toward itself and negative perception toward the other.
c) Communication may cease to exist, one group avoid interaction with
other group. If forced to interact, the groups may tend to show hostility
and aggression towards each other
d) Groups tend to apply double standards – perceiving the other
negatively.
Positive effects of conflict

 conflict clarifies real issues
 conflict increases innovation
 inter-group conflict solidifies the group
 Conflict serves as a catalyst for change and improvement
 Conflict resolution solidifies inter-group relationships
 Conflict stimulates creativity and diversity in problem solving
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Managing inter-group conflict

Conflict management involves both stimulating functional conflicts and
resolving dysfunctional conflicts. Before resolving conflict one has to be
certain that the conflict exist.
The following are indicators that conflict stimulation is necessary
 The organization is filled with ‘yes men’
 Employees being afraid to admit ignorance
 Compromise being stressed in decision making
 Managers putting too much stress on harmony and peace
 People being afraid of hurting the feelings of others
 Popularity being considered more important than technical
competence
 New ideas not forthcoming
 People showing great resistance to change
 A lot of tension in the work environment
Management may adopt the following techniques to stimulate conflict
 Use a minimal group process which will encourage members to
generate diverse view points
 Increase individual competition
 Provide threatening information
 Crate role conflict
 Change the organizational structure
Strategies for reducing unproductive conflict

 Locating a common enemy
 Finding super ordinate goal
 Individualizing visual groups
 Restructuring the organization
Preventing unproductive conflict
 Maintain a balanced orientation
 Group people according to interaction requirements rather than
occupational similarity
 Place emphasis on subordinate goals
NB: Certain organizational characteristics encourage inter-group conflict

 Division of labour
 Functional specialization
 Task dependence
 Limited resources
 Performance appraisal
(but all these are inevitable in an organization)
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School discipline in Kenyan secondary schools

According to Dettman (1972) discipline is a state of order in a given
institution it consists of exerting and controlling of ones faculties in order to
achieve an objective deliberately chosen or set standards.
Traditional concept of discipline - Submission of children in utter obedience
to the adults.
……………… in this perspective the learner was totally passive and entirely
dependent on the elders judgment for approval.
Modern concept of discipline

The control of someone’s emotions and actions for the development of
desirable attitudes according to acceptable standards. In this case, the
individual becomes a self guiding person.
Indiscipline
It is an attitude of unwillingness to make an effort to follow the set rules or to
achieve the set objectives. As a result of indiscipline the student becomes a
deviant person (in a local market instead of class, smoke, drink, drugs,
stoning, set school property on fire, bully other students). Students who are
deviant are hard to control since they would want to do things their way,
they avoid to listen to anyone and they often display rebellious behavior.
Importance of school discipline

A state of order among students is a pre-requisite for effective teaching and
learning. Consequently it creates a favourable atmosphere for administration
(when learners are not contained by the administration they resort into
chaos)
Causes of indiscipline
 Maladjusted behaviour, a mentally disturbed person who is unable
to adopt to the environment socially and occupationally
 Frustration due to lack of environment stimuli which distorts a child’s
learning (eg lack of learning facilities)
 Attraction to deviant behaviour, at times students imitate behaviour
judged as unbecoming at school this is common with adolescence eg
smoking (peer pressure)
 Frustration caused by (social) economic (psychological factors).
 Poor administration - this happens when the administration gives out
arbitrary and unexplained rules. Rules perceived as s unreasonable or
harsh to students
 Denial of students freedom
 Lack of proper communication between students, teachers and
administrators causing poor coordination in administration of rules.
 Conflict between school and home rules
 Lack of proper guidance by parents on issues as sex, leaving the role
to the teacher who alternatively expects the parents to do it
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 Teachers inefÏciency in teaching

 Loss of a parent or close relative
 Poor academic performance causing frustration and aloofness
 Use of drugs and acohol
 Inequality among students cases of special uniform
 Gifted students get bored and can be indiscipline
Strategies to improve school discipline

 Effective communication between students and teachers
 Regular dialogues, open discussion forums where learners open up on
issues affecting them.
 Effective body of students leaders
 Create conducive learning and boarding environment.
 Monitoring of communication between students and outside
environment
 Promote effective intelligent gathering system within the school.
 Promote good relation between students, teachers and school
management.
 Fairness in punishment
 Promoting effective and reliable guidance and counseling in the school
 Deal with cases of indiscipline firmly, effectively, fairly and
immediately but within the set regulations.
 Work closely with parents to address indiscipline problems in the
school.
 Effective school administration and management
Effects of school indiscipline?
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ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOL FINANCE

School finances would be analyzed from the three facets. Budgeting, financial
accounting and auditing.
School Budgeting
A school budget is an educational programme which is expressed in financial
terms. A budget for a school has an educational plan with an estimate of the
amount of money to be received (receipts) and the amount of money to be
spent (expenditure) in order to achieve the educational objectives. The
estimated expenditure is based on the expected revenue. However, the
expected revenue may be more or less the amount initially estimated and
this will offset the expenditure. In such a situation, the budget has to be
reviewed so as to either increase or reduce the expenditure in various terms
or vote heads.
A budget plan is made for a period of time usually one year
- A well formulated school budget should consist of an educational plan,
an expenditure plan and revenue plan.
- The school budget enables the school to determine the quality and the
quantity of both human and material resources required to enable the
school to achieve the purpose for which it was established.
Purpose of the school budget

 Accurate estimates of receipts and expenditure
 Forms basis for accounting.
 A plan for attaining purposes
 Confirmation of authority
 Economic administration of an educational organization
 Ensure prudent financial management.
 It projects the proposal school program and educational plan for the
next financial year
 It shows the funds expected, their sources, anticipated expenditure
and allocation of authority for administering the budgetary items
 It serves to inform the public about the educational programme for the
school and the need for funds to manage it
 It provides the motivation for careful planning and establishing a wise
and effective control of funds
Accurate estimates of receipts and expenditure

- A school budget enables the school to obtain accurate estimates of the
anticipated receipts and expenditure.
- A well informed school budge should enable the school management to
have accurate forecast of the expected receipts and expenditures
always a definite period of time.
- Estimates of receipts and expenditures also helps in balancing the
budget which prevents budgetary deficits.
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Comprehensive and equitable allocation of financial resources to all

services
- A school budget enables school management to have a comprehensive
view of all services regardless of their magnitude. By analytically
looking at all the services equally, the budget thus enables an
equitable allocation of financial resources in all the services of the
school
Forms basis for accounting

Accounting for funds spent to achieve educational objective makes it
possible to ascertains whether funds have been spent efÏciently. The
budget plan should therefore help in ensuring efÏciency in the
accounting procedure
The accounting effectiveness helps in stimulating confidence among
parents educational ofÏcials and the school community as a whole.
Determining the quality and quality of services.
Budgeting facilitates a systematic plan for evaluating the quality and
quantity of services needed in the school. Quantity and quality of these
services changes with the curriculum changes. The educational needs of
the society must thus be constantly appraised in keeping with changing
needs of the society.
A plan for attaining purposes
A school budget is a plan for attaining the purpose of an institution
The purpose for which the school was founded must be stated in clear
terms.
A good school budget as part of financial management enables the
school to achieve its purpose in the manner desired by the society
Conferment of authority
A budget plan which has been approved by the responsible bodies
provide the school with authority to charge fees and other levies and
to spend the monies on the approved items.
Schools can only collect monies as stipulated in the approved budget
and spend such monies as authorized in the plan budget.
The confidence of the parent and the school community in a school’s
financial management depends on the meticulous adherence to the
budget plan.
Economic administration of an educational organization
- A well planned and executed budget enables a school to be managed
in an economical manner. Wastage in financial management
overestimates the cost of education and in turn affects overall
provision of all educational services
- Therefore a good budget plan should ensure prudent financial
management
Principles of budgeting
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Vosecky in his study outline eleven principles for appraising school

budgetary practice
1. The headteacher and the board of governors should be responsible for
the budget
2. The budget document should be the result of the cooperative efforts of
all who are concerned with the education needs of the students
3. The budget information should be a continuous process with the
annual budget being a part of a long-range programme
4. The first step in the preparation of a school budget should be the
formulation of a definite educational plan
5. The second step in budget formulation and construction should be
the preparation of the spending or expenditure plan, which translated
the educational plan into estimated costs
6. The third step in the preparation of the budget document is the
preparation of the financing or revenue plan
7. It is the responsibility of the headteacher to present and interpret the
budget to those affected by it
8. The budget should be adopted before the begging of the final year for
which it is to serve but only after the legal boy-board of governors
having power to adopt it was had time to analyze and review it
9. After the adoption, the budget should be accurately and carefully
recorded in the ofÏcial minutes of the body adopting it (BOG, PTA,
AGM )
10. The administration of the budget is the responsibility of the
headteacher on behalf of the BOG/BOM
11. There should be provision for continuous appraisal of the budget
document and the budgetary procedure
Budget plans
Two budget plans are commonly used in the school budget
i. The traditional budget plan
ii. The ideal budget plan
The traditional budget plan
For many years, traditional budget plan has been considered as a document
for providing strong fiscal accountability to the public for their funds. Here
the income is identified as the first component in school budgeting. However
the educational managers are challenged to justify their financial requests in
terms of educational programme rather than the cost, if education has to
compete equitably for public funds.
Income plan 1 Expenditure plan 3
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Education
Educational plan 2
Disadvantages of traditional budget plan

1. The budget plan is structured in order to mainly facilitate income
accounting and the educational programmes are relegated to the
second level
2. It considers income first, followed by educational programme, and
educational expenditure is considered last.
The budget plan does not emphasize on the cost benefit analysis of the
educational programmes which are either on going or intended. It is
important for educational managers to ascertain the validity of financial
allocation to educational programmes (re-allocate financial support
appropriately).
The ideal budget plan
The ideal budget plan was established as a result of the shortcomings of the
traditional budget. The ideal budget plan identifies the educational
programmes as the most important component, followed by expenditure and
then income plan. The ideal budget plan has led to the construction of the
planning, programming, and budgeting systems (PPBS)
The planning, programming and budgeting systems (PPBS)
PPBS – is a budgeting process in which an educational organization weighs
and analyses the various means by which its objectives can be achieved and
an optimum choice among competing alternatives is made.
Advantages of ideal budget plan

1) Directions are given to everybody in the school organization as to what
the overall educational objectives and goals are
2) It is a participatory in nature
3) Evaluation of educational programmes is made using a wide variety of
analytical techniques
4) Emphasis is laid on the output and desired results and so that all
resources are directed towards the designed results
5) Existing and new programmes are continually reviewed and
restructured
Disadvantages of ideal budget plan

It has two main limitations
1. The long range projections are subject to miscalculations because of
lack of appropriate resources and the unforeseen changes in the future
2. The planning and implementation process may require more staff than
the school organization can afford.
The key vote head in a school budget
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 School Equipment and Stores (SES): money for equipment for

tuition and stores for day to day school operations
 Personal emoluments; This is the money paid as salary to the
support staff eg clerks, cleaners, watchmen
 Boarding equipment and Stores (BES); money for equipment
boarding and stores for boarding
 Electricity Water and Conservancy (EWC); money for electricity,
water, conservation, fuel
 Local transport and Travel (LT&T): Money for local transport and
traveling for both teachers and students
 Repair and Maintenance of Equipment (RMI): Money for repairs
maintenance and improvement
 Administrative Costs: Money to meet the administrative costs in a
school.
 Activity Fund: Money for activities such as games, drama, music etc.
 Medical Fund: Money for the school dispensary and medical care for
the students
 PTA Annual Subscription: Money paid by parents voted/passed
during AGMs for school development
 Non-recurrent expenditure; this is the money used to cover special
emergencies eg replacing a blown of roof by the wind.
 Contingencies (petty cash); the money used in the ofÏce for
purchasing newspaper etc
NB: A school may introduce its own vote heads depending on school plan..
eg. Academic improvement, ICT fund, ….. with approval of the MOE.
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Financial Accounting
Accounting is an explanation of how public funds and resources have been
handled in a financial year. The money required in a given year must be
shown in terms of expenditure in relation to various votes
Objectives of financial accounting in a school.

 Ensure that financial resources are used for intended purposes
 Determine the degree of honesty and integrity of financial accounting
ofÏcers
 Ensure proper business management
 Enable quick and effective check on rate of expenditure and proper
financial control
 Protects public funds from loss, careless spending, theft, and
expenditure on wrong purposes
 Records the systematic payment by the school management in all its
transactions
 Provides information for the public and the board of management to
appraise the management of the school system for purposes of
effective support
 It provides information for making reports to the government for
information, review and cost effective analysis
 Provide a systematic way to relate expenditure to the attainment of
educational objectives through the operation of the budget
Books of accounting
1. Cash book: This is a book where all cash transactions are recorded each
day. It gives details of money received and paid out, and its balanced
2. Voucher: This is a document detailing the reasons and authority for
expenditure of financial transactions in the school
3. Logbook for journal: This is a record of all financial transaction on a daily
basis, it indicates the date, purpose and amount spent
4. Vote book – This is a commitment book, which shows the total amount
voted for the item as per the budget. This book should be consulted before
spending is undertaken as it is a safe guard against overspending in any one
given area
5. Petty cash book – This is the money which is disbursed for ofÏcial purposes
in an ofÏce
6. Financial ledgers – These are records of financial gains and the money
spent by the school on particular days. The records emphasis the items in the
income and expenditure sides and the net balance for the date
7. Receipt book – It’s a record of all payments in and out of a school. Receipt
books should be numbered and issued in duplicate for purposes of detecting
any lose of leaves
8. Black book – This is a record of all outstanding debts of the school
9. Trial balance – This is a list of all the accounts used by the school at the
appropriate value and time. Its purpose is to enable the management to
know the balance in each account at a given time of the year. This would
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enable the management to recognize the account which is being exhausted

fast and put control over it to avoid overspending.
10. Balance sheet – this is the financial statement produced at the end of the
year which shows the financial position of the school. This takes into account
what is owned and owed
11.Local purchase Order (LPO) – The LPO is used for identifying and
authorizing local purchases voted for in the school. This is an agreement
made between the school and a supplier that the school is ready to purchase
the item at an agreed price
12.Cheque book – A cheque book is a written order directing the bank or
bankers to pay money as there in stated
13.Invoice – This is an ofÏcial notification from a supplier to a client for payment
of goods and services rendered detailing amount (or quantities produced)
discount given and the total amount of money owed. There is a provision of
E&OE (Errors and omissions exempted which allows the recipient of the
invoice to make collaborative
Auditing
Auditing is a procedure for verifying the financial operations of any given
institution to determine whether the money has been spent in accordance
with the law in the most efÏcient manner and with the desired results. The
process also ascertain whether the budget has or hasn’t been adhered to
Main objectives of auditing in a school.

 Determine the accuracy of the financial statement and determine the
application of the recommended accounting guidelines.
 To determine the use of procedures that comply with the legal frame
work, policies and ministry of education guidelines.
 To identify any operational problems in the accounting procedures so
as to provide remedial recommendations for improvement.
 They verify that all financial operations are authorized and use legal
expenditures
 They verify that all financial operations have been recorded
 They verify that all financial operations are accurately recorded
 They show how well policies and vote heads and guidelines are being
observed according to the budget
 Auditors help the department suggesting or giving recommendations
for improvement of the accounting system
This can be done by showing the adequacy or inadequacy of the
prepared set of books of accounts
Types of auditing in a school

1. Internal auditing: This is a management activity intended to ensure
regular and frequent checking of the organizations financial
transactions and records by an auditor in an organization
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The auditor ensures efÏciency in the day-to-day management of

finances. They also check whether all financial transactions have taken
place as per the budget
2. External audit
This type of audit is from outside of an organization. An independent
body from the school: either by the quality assurance division of the
Ministry of Education or by the auditors from auditor general ofÏce
check on organizational transactions and records as per the budget
allocation.
Who is in charge of auditing

1. The quality assurance division of the Ministry of Education’s auditors
2. An approved firm of accountants sent from the controllers and auditors
generals ofÏce (The auditor general is appointed by the President )
Items to be audited
- Board minutes
- Receipts of transactions
- Ledgers
- Payrolls
- Vouchers, cheques
- Bank accounts records
Auditing procedures
 Observation
 Inquiry
 Confirmation
 Retracing data processing
 Recompilation
 Vouching
 Ratio and trend analysis
Observation – observe existence of entities in question eg. land, buildings,

machinery, computers etc., observe actual operational behavior of the
school, counting money etc.
Inquiry – are pertinent questions to get clarification/further information just
to face/written report.
Confirmation - A type of inquiry in which auditor request for written
statements from companies outside the school or individuals who are both
reliable and knowledgeable on the issue of interest eg. confirm underlined
goods from supplies. Inquire about actual funds in the bank from bank
manager.
Retracing data processing – to discover an error in the accounting
process, and auditor respects the accountings process step by step – cash
book – ledger accurate postings
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Recompilation – recalculating the results of the accounting procedure to

determine the arithmetic accuracy
Vouching – actual examination of documents such as invoices, delivery
notes and comparing them with the accounting records
Ratio and trend analysis – computing of the ratios of financial statements
for the year in questions and company these with those of previous years. If
the ratios differs significantly with those of the previous years then there is
reason for in-depth investigation.
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SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION
SUPERVISION: DEFINITION
The word supervision is a compound term. Thus, super means above, over or
beyond vision is a word derived from video meaning ‘’see’’ supervision, then
means overseeing being watchful, in control, or providing direction. Its
purpose is to advance the work effectiveness of individual employees and
groups. In school it means primarily improving classroom instructions.
Supervision is, therefore, concerned with four elements these are:
1. The teaching- learning situation
2. The improvement of teaching
3. The human relationships between the supervisor and the supervised.
4. The improvement and implementation of educational plans
The role of supervision
1) The primary functions of supervision are to free teachers from controls
which inhibit teaching in learning situations.
Teachers should work in favourable conditions to be able to feel free to
express their ideas and opinions.
This is to say that the head teacher must consider the dignity of each
teacher and appreciate the talents, and abilities of every individual’s
teacher. The supervisor must work closely with his faculty members
and help them see more clearly the problems and needs of the
students.
2) The second role of the supervisor is planning a supervisory
programme. In doing this, the head teacher must have in mind the
improvement of student learning. The essential purpose of a good
supervisory programme is the achievement of improved and enriched
living for both teachers and students.
To be successfully in doing this, the head teacher must, first of all,
involve all teachers in the planning of the programme. Teachers must
feel free to discuss problems that inhibit the improvement of
instructions.
3) The second criterion is that it should be organized around problems
which are real to the teachers. Teachers work best when they identify,
and work out their own problems and are considered as valued
members of a group.
The concern of teachers is the best starting point for initiating a
programme for the improvement of instructions.
4) The third criterion for planning a supervisory programme is shared
responsibility. Teachers should share responsibility with their head
teacher in planning the supervisory programme. They like to be
recognized as competent, and decide on matters affecting them in
schools.
This is to say that the head teacher who over-exercises control over his
staff his administration poorly supported.
This is achieved by granting more autonomy, more decision making
power and more voice ins school administrations to teachers.
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Finally, the fourth, criterion in planning a supervisory programme is

that the head teacher must be well aware of the best- known
procedures for working cooperatively with his staff. Theses are based
on the four basic psychological principle enumerated below.
a) Recognition and promotion of individual interest.
The head teacher should not only recognize but also promote each
teacher’s, special interests, talents and strengths.
b) Providing positive motivation
The head teacher should encourage and reward each teacher’s
achievement. One way of doing this is for him to praise at least
personally and on occasion politely his teacher’s efforts for work well
done. For innovation realized and for the time given to school work
above and beyond the call of duty.
c) Providing opportunities for problems solving
The discussed at staff meeting problems should reflect the head
teacher interest the concern of his teacher and the community.
He should give his teachers opportunities tow work in as many areas
of problems solving as possible. In this way, the head teacher provides
opportunities for individual initiative and encourages teacher to
experiment and work within their own areas of interest.
d) Recognition and support of individuality
It is always good for the school head to let the team (group) elect a
chairman or leader for a specific length of time.
This provision will eliminate the danger of one of the group members
assuming the decision- making role for the group and unofÏcially
dominating his colleagues.
The school head should study each teacher character and abilities in
order to be able to support that teacher indivuality.
As he studies each teacher, he will evaluate his weaknesses in certain
areas, his skill in leadership human relations, group dynamics and
personnel administration. Armed with this knowledge, the supervision
will be better place and will help the teacher work towards a higher
level of proficiency.
The third role of supervision head teacher evaluation many teachers
feel uncomfortable during the evaluative process because its purpose
is not clear. Evaluation should prove helpful to teacher and
administrators as well. One of its most positive aims should be to help
individual teachers solve their particular problems.
Here are principle that should help:
a. The first primary purpose of evaluation is the improvement of teaching.
Evaluation should be considered by teachers as means of helping the
discover ways to improve their methods and their success.
b. The evaluations system used in any school should be developed
through the cooperative effort of teachers and administrators.
The purpose of the plan should be to facilitate both self analysis by
teachers supervisory analysis by administrator, and head teacher.
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c. The evaluation of teachers to achieve efÏciency should be viewed for

administrative purpose as detailed below.
It should provide:
1. Counseling for teachers to achieve professional growth and
development:
2. Consideration of probationary teachers for reappointment or
permanent a appointment
3. Consideration for salary increment.
4. Consideration for improved rank classification, from a lower to a
higher grade
d. Teachers or any groups of person subject to evaluation, should be
given the opportunity to study the evaluation and make their
comments on the validity of its findings.
SUPERVISORY TECHNIQUES
In order to provide sound evaluation, some expert techniques should be
studied and applied.
1) The classroom visit techniques
Many teachers have not in the past been happy with classroom visitation
because such visits were unplanned and very often nothing happened after
visitation classroom visits should improve teaching. In this case, they are
desirable. It is not a means of rating the teacher for the purpose of
determining his salary or promotion. It is for improving instruction.
Properly employed, the classroom visits can be of great benefit to both the
head teacher and the teacher. Therefore, in making classroom visitations the
head teacher should observe the following.
a) How the teacher plans and organizes his work
b) How he disciplines and manages the group
c) How he maintain a healthy classroom atmosphere,
d) How he recognizes individuals differences and shows interest in
students
e) How he prepares a adequate reports and keeps accurate to records.
2) Observation techniques
Any head teacher making a classroom visitation must plan specific
procedures to follow. That is , he must have a technique for determining the
degree to which the teacher dominates the learning situations and whether
the students play a major role in the exercise. The head teacher could tape
the lesson to use in group meeting concerning teaching ques.
3) Individuals conferences techniques

One of the things which teachers are not happy about is that they not given
an opportunity to discuss with the head teacher what he saw during his
classroom visit.
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Since the classroom visit is to enhance instructions, teachers should be

allowed to assess that performance and compare their findings with those of
the head teacher. This can be done in private conference and discussion.
The observed teacher should be allowed to hear the comments made on his
classroom teaching. He should also be allowed to express views on the
comments made the head teacher( or inspector).
It is not only the teacher, but also the head teacher who benefits from this
individual conference. He gets an opportunity to become acquainted with the
teacher’s professional ambitions. Fully aware of those the head teacher
should encourage them.
The head teacher should encourage the teacher to do most of the talking. He
can do this by asking questions and making suggestions without being too
direct in his approach. Finally, the conference provides a chance for
commendations and encouragement. The head teacher gets a chance to
give honest praise to the teacher for this achievement.
This becomes a great incentive towards future development. It also improves
the relationship between teacher and head teacher. A sharp reproof may
damage relationship. Great care must be exercised in the use of praise. For
example, to praise in an effort to appear to be a good fellow result in distrust
on the part of the teacher.
Modern system of inspections

The primary purpose of inspections is now a three fold concern. It is
concerned with the teachers growth on the job, his learning of more efÏcient
methods and his better performance and learning on the job. These three
concerns should be realized through the following training activities.
1) In-service training
2) Team-teaching
3) Cooperation in matters pertaining to
 Objectives
 Curriculum
 Methods of teaching
 Sharing and interpreting the programme to the community.
The inspectorate considers as most essential two. Particular activities. The
first is that of inspecting and assessing school programme by visiting
individual teachers. The second activity is that of auditing school accounts.
In order to be most effective in promoting better learning situations for
students, the inspection must.
1. Be creative
2. Offer professional administrative leadership
3. Be oriented towards human needs
4. Provide an atmosphere and defined needs
5. Be adapted to expressed and defined needs.
6. Deals with essentials changes for the improvement of instruction and
assess changes brought about by outside forces.
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7. Be perceived by adults as being geared to the needs of children.

In order to functions most effectively for the growth and development of
teachers, inspection must be also.
1. Help teachers to see more clearly the problems and needs of students
2. Build a strong group morale and secure effective team work,
3. Give guidance to teachers so as to develop great competence in
teaching.
4. Assist beginning, teachers to translate theories learned in teaching
institution into classroom practice.
5. Assist teachers in identifying and analyzing the learning difÏculties of
students.
6. Evaluating the teachers result in terms of students growth.
The inspection section of the Ministry of Education, in Kenya, is mostly
concerned with school inspection, examinations and curriculum
development. It is headed by the chief inspector of schools; under the chief
inspector are several school subject inspectors. They visit schools throughout
Kenya, advising head teasers and teachers on how to improve the quality of
school instructions.
Along with school inspection, inspectorate approves syllabus and
instructional materials to be used in schools.
The inspector is governed by the law which gives school inspectors the
following authority
1. To enter and inspect any school at any time, with or without notice
2. To inspect or audit school accounts, or advises the head of the school
on the maintenance of accounting records.
3. To request the school head to open all the buildings and produces
records, accounts
Note- books, examinations scripts and other materials for inspection or
audit.
ROLE OF A TEACHER IN PRIMARY OR SECONDARY SCHOOL

Introductions
In lecture 9 you were introduce to the functions of the Kenya National Union
of Teachers (KNUT) and the teachers services commission (TSC). In this
lecture, you will learn more about the role of a teacher in both primary and
secondary schools, in Kenya we divide this lecture into main topics. Those
topics are:
1. Introduction-the role of the teacher
2. Job satisfaction.
3. Problems in teaching profession.
The meanings of role
A role is a pattern of behaviour proper and important to a person a role goes
with apposition or an ofÏce. It provides a certain status. A role implies
normative rights or duties called role expectations or norms. Role can also
mean image or position- identity: it is therefore the image behaviour an
individual in a particular position is expected to display.
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On the stage, an actor playing the role of a doctor will be expected to look,
do, talk, behave like a doctor. Role describes what duty a person does in a
given ofÏce or profession for example, you as a student and a lecturer are
both role occupants performs. As a student you listen to the lecturer and
take notes, while I , the lecturer, teach you.
Sometimes other people’s expectations of you, as the teacher, and your own
expectations may not be in harmony. This is referred to as role conflict.
There are three major causes of role- conflict. There are three major causes
of role- conflict.
First, is the attitude people might have towards the teacher. At the same
time, these people may have different expectations from the teacher. A
cause of conflict is that the teacher has many roles to play in his school in
addition to being a teacher.
The third cause of conflict is found when individual expectations are
incompatible with personal needs. For example, you, the teacher, may also
be running a matatu business. You might spend more time on one duty and
less on the other.
A part from teaching, a teacher is expected to do other duties in school.
Teachers may be department-heads, subjects teachers, class teachers,
academic advisors, house masters(or mistresses) or career masters(or
mistresses) some teachers keep pupils and students records in schools.
The advisor of students helps them select careers and fill in application
forms. He is referred to as career-counselor. In some schools, especially
secondary schools, there are people who are employed as full time- career
counselors.
In all these roles, parents, students and community members within and
around the school, expect teachers to a good job.
JOB SATISFACTION AMONG TEACHERS

A teacher is a social human being like any other person. He has needs which
must be satisfied. In your role, as a teacher, your personal expectations and
what others expect of you must be reconciled if you are to be satisfied.
As mentioned in lecture 5 of this book, there are two major categories of
needs. The first are intensive and the second extrinsic
The intrinsic needs spur the teacher, or employee, to greater advancement
and achievement. Because of them the teacher, becomes entirely interested
in academic and practical work. He participates actively in both school and
community activities. This is how he hopes to obtain personal achievement,
recognitions, growth, development and increased responsibility. In order to
fulfilled those needs he will not hesitate to undertake very challenging tasks.
Extrinsic
Needs, therefore, are desirable things which an organization such as a
school, or an individual can provide a person for his own advancement or
satisfactions. For instance, in school setting, teachers may be provided with
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job security, adequate equipment and physical facilities. Satisfactory

administrations, money and good working conditions.
Teachers will usually be satisfied if they have good pay three month holidays
in a year and professional status at the same time, teachers will be
dissatisfied when psychological, physiological and environmental factors are
unsatisfactory. These factors may cause teachers to have low morale and be
ineffective in their teaching.
Some may leave the teaching profession to join other professions. Teachers
are most likely to be dissatisfied when they are not considered as good
teachers. For example, teachers a teacher will feel bad and hurt if his
services are not occasionally praised as work well done. He will also resent
not being promoted and may quit his teaching job. Teachers are also likely to
be dissatisfied if there is no provision for such things as house allowance,
travelling refunds and retirement benefits.
PROBLEMS EXPERIENCE IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION

The teaching profession is similar to any other profession. That is, there is a
salary to be learned, services to be rendered, rules to follow and needs to be
satisfied.
All these come under the heading of terms of services within a school, a
teacher signs a contract, which lists expectations of the school. In the same
way. The school authorities promise to meet the teachers needs.
Like any other profession, teaching has its own problems.
 .There may be lack of commitment on the teachers part. For example,
some teachers join the teaching profession because they have failed to
find more satisfactory employment. Such teachers find the teaching
profession not suitable and so they quit.
 There salary given is not enough according to most teachers. This is so
especially when teachers compare their salary with that of other
professionals.
 The criteria used promotion is considered unsatisfactory. If criteria
used for promotion are not fair and just, teachers will be dissatisfied
and quit.
 Lack of helpfulness, friendliness, love, trust, recognition and respect
from the school heads, many teachers feel neglected and unwanted.
 Large classes and a heavy teaching load will. Obviously be too much
for many teachers.
Teachers must be satisfied with their job. If they are to do good work. They
must also strive to be good teachers the questions are: who is a good
teacher.
1) A good teacher obeys school regulations and follows his time table
conscientiously.
2) A good teacher must keep abreast of new teaching techniques to
satisfy the needs of the minds, hearts and bodies of the students.
3) However, busy or important to do others things may be, he must be
ready to listen to their problems, and sympathize with them.
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4) A teacher education is never complete and he must learn constantly.

5) He must beware of bias in grading students.
6) He must still find time to participate in community activities.
7) He must be ready to accept criticism.
THE CHAIN –OF-COMMAND ROLE

The head of a school is the hub of both the teaching and the administrations
processed that is, he is the middleman between the staff members and the
schools board. This is say that the head teacher plays a bureaucratic role. He
does the following ways as
a) Organizer
The head teacher is an organizer. He organizes all the school task to be
accomplished. This means.
i. The up keep and cleanliness of the building such as classrooms.
ii. The provision and maintenance of equipment
iii. The distributions of duties among the teachers, such as subject
teachers and heads of department;
iv. The appointment of counselors to advises students with their
problems.
b) Communicator
The head teacher stands in an intermediate position between the central
ofÏce and its teachers, as well as between the community and the entire
school populations in this capacity, the head teacher interprets ofÏcial
policies to the teachers and no-academic staff members.
He also transmits orders from the school board to the teachers request to
the board of governors or the teachers, request to the board of governors or
the school committee. Finally, he relegates decision- making responsibilities
to members of both his teaching and non- teaching staff. For example, he
may delegates to the deputy- head teacher the responsibility of designing
the school time-table.
c) Line ofÏcer
The head of the school is a link in the chain of authority in the school system.
He has two types of authority.
i) Vested and
ii) Entrusted
i) Vested authority
The head teacher is given responsibility over his staff and the students
before the P.E.O. the board of governors or the school committee, the
teacher’s services commission and the members, of the community. This
includes the parents of the pupils.
ii) Entrusted Authority
The head teacher must earn this kind of authority through his merit and
competence. His competence will involve the ability to ;
1. Improve educational programmes in his school
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2. Select and develop personnel

3. Work with the community and
4. Manage the school plant,
In order to do all this, the head teacher must have;
1. Sound educational philosophy
2. High qualifications at least equivalent or superior to those of his staff
members
3. Adequate professional training
4. Proficiency in human relations; and
5. Sound qualities without bias and good self control.
2. THE PROFESSIONAL ROLE

The head of the school is a consultant for his staff members. He gives legal
and professional advice to his teaching and no- teaching staff. He must,
therefore,
Provide a democratic atmosphere where his staff, his students and
community feels at case to expose and discuss their problems. Anything
which will affect his teachers, will indirectly affect the students. His prime
responsibility is therefore to pay attentions to the problems which affect his
teachers. Teachers must in ordinary circumstances, be given more
considerations that the students.
Schools operate along given lines or policies. Even so, there must be
consultations.
He would be wise to use ‘’group thinking ‘’ or’’ group planning’’ to help the
school reach its goals. In the process, he must motivate and aid his teachers
in determining, and achieving these goals. He must always consider the
needs and feelings of his teachers. He will need to be very considerate in his
approach in order to ensure that it involves the ‘’we’’ feeling rather than the
‘’I’’ which is often resented. This to say that:
The head teacher refrains from dominating group discussions. Instead, he
seeks to help the group identify their problems; his role is that of a facilitator
which he fills best when he listens to his staff members during the staff
conferences and encourages them to do most of the talking.
Equally important is that the teachers will be expected to implement the
decisions. The head teacher will also have to go along with his teachers
when a communal decision is taken. He should not give only lip- service to
what is resolved at staff conferences. If he does this, he is likely to destroy
his teachers, morale. The teachers will be unwilling to help further in
problems- solving.
Not only does the head teacher facilitate staff co-operation; he also orients
new(especially newly qualified) teachers who join his school. It is the head
teacher’s responsibility to initiate each new staff member to the context and
content of his role. This means that each member should know what is
expected of him as a teacher and within the total school context. Advice
should be provided about how to achieve success and how the assessment
of both teacher and teaching is done.
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The head teacher is a teacher over both teachers and students. He must
ensure he maintains close contact with the students or pupils in his school.
These learners need to know him well, be aware of what he values most, his
attitudes and his feelings towards them.
In dealing with them, he must be firm, fair and friendly. This is how, he
fosters a rich, emotional and social life based on love respect and
understanding.
The head teacher plays a major role in running his ofÏce. He is often referred
to humorously as an ofÏce-boy. This is so because one of his functions is to
run errands for the school and the teachers. He prepares reports which he
takes to the Ministry of Educations. He keeps school attendants records. He
sells or buys school supplies.
In order to dispose of school property, especially supplies, the head teacher,
must get permission from the D.E.O. and the TSC.
3. ACOUNTABILITY
The head teacher is held responsible for two categories of duties: specific
and general.
a) Specific duties
The specific duties of head teacher include
i) Supervision of teachers and the school plant
ii) Management and development of school
iii) Special services, such as attending meetings both at local and
national levels
iv) Teaching head teachers are expected to do some minimal on top of
their managerial activities.
b) General duties
General duties of the head teacher are three fold.
i) Before the session
That is before school opens, the head teacher plans for the running of the
school. He makes sure he has enough personnel, equipment and physical
facilities. He makes plans to met his staff to get them ready before the
school starts. This is the best to me for him to induct his new teachers
and non- teaching staff into the school system.
ii) During the Session
During this time, the head teacher makes sure that the school is
operating as planned.
He monitors teachings and activities to ensure that the school runs
smoothly and according to the rules set by the Ministry of Educations
(Science and Technology) and the T.S.C
He must check and ensure that physical facilities and equipment are
maintained to the satisfactions of both the staff and the students. Finally,
he must make sure that student activities are running as planned.
iii) Duties at the close of the Session
At the end of the term the head teacher becomes concerned about the
students academic reports, the final examinations and the parents., day
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conferences. He ensures that the school compound is clean before the

school closes.
He makes sure that the students know the opening day of the next term.
Finally, he ensures that school records, such as financial are taken care
of.
In summary the head teacher is accountable for the following
1. Providing in service growth for himself and his faculty
2. Fostering community participations in school decisions
3. Alleviating the pressures that confront teachers and students
4. Providing additional services for all students
5. Directing programmes of continuous assessment of the educational
programmes
6. Providing consultations and resources persons for the instructional
staff.
7. Promoting strong ethical relationships among his students / pupils, staff
and community
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EDUCATION ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE AT NATIONAL LEVEL

NB: The notes in this section are not update to align with the devolved
government (County government and New Constitution). The Education Act
2013 has also proposed some changes in some of the structures. The
student is advised to read the relevant Kenya Constitution, the devolved
government structure, education Bill 2012 and Kenya Education Act 2013.
The education Act of 1968. Is supposed to control education in Kenya. It

provides laws governing education in the nation. Education is under the
responsibility of the Ministry of Education. The Minister is the head of the
Ministry. He is assisted by two or more assistant Minister. You are invited to
study the administrative structure below.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
ASS. MINISTER
MINISTER
ASS. MINISTER
PERMANENT SECRETARY
DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION
DEPUTY SECRETARY CHIEF INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS
DEPUTY DIRECTOR DEPUTY DIRECTOR

(DEVELOPMENT) (ADMINSTRATION)
PROVINCIAL EDUCATION OFFICER
DISTRICT EDUCATION OFFICER
The minister promotes the two aspects of the education system. These are.
1. The quantitative and
2. The qualitative
1. The quantitative aspect
One of the most important responsibilities of the Minister is to ensure the
expansion of education in the country. Each year it is expected that there
will be an increase in the number of pupils and students entering formal
educations at all levels
This means new classrooms and school have to be built, additional supplies
and equipment are needed and additional personnel are required. These
additional demands cost money. It is the Kenyan Government for more
money in order to cater for those additional demands
2. The Qualitative aspect
Not only is the Minister responsible for the expansion of education, but he
must also insure that high standards are maintained in the quality of
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education provided at all levels and throughout the country. He must ensure
that every school from primaries to institutes of higher learning maintains a
high standard of education. To ensure this, the teachers deployed must be
well qualified and they must have opportunity to teach subjects they have
studied. The administrators employed must also be specialized in their areas.
The supplies and the equipment used in schools must be of high standard.
Finally, the school physical facilities must be adequate.
DIVISION OF LABOUR- DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY

In order to do effective work, the Minister delegates responsibilities to
various key personnel within the Ministry. At this point, I invite you to have
another look at the previous diagram.
The permanent secretary
The permanent secretary is the senior civil servant who deals with the
professional aspect of education. He is responsible to the Minister. He is in-
charge of promotion, administration and implementation of education
policies. He is also the chief advisor to the Minister in financial matters:
revenues and expenditure.
The director of education
The director of education is accountable to the permanent secretary. He
advises him on matters concerning the improvement of education. For
example, he ensures that the school curriculum is adequate, promotions are
just, school is inspected efÏciently and examinations are fairly conducted
throughout the country.
The Deputy Secretary
You have learned that the director of education deals with the professional
section in the minister of Education. The deputy secretary deals with the
managerial aspect of the Minister. He is appointed by and, therefore
answerable to, the permanent Secretary.
He ensures that good public relations between schools and the public are
maintained through the Country. He ensures that administration and finance
are controlled in the schools. He advises the permanent secretary on matters
concerning personnel and higher education policies.
The chief inspector of schools
The chief inspector of school is responsible for the Inspectorate section of the
Ministry of education. His duties include school inspection, supervision and
auditing. He deals with curriculum development and examinations across the
nation. He is the chairman of the Kenyan Institute of Education.
Under him, are various subject inspectors. These subjects’ inspectors inspect
schools to ensure that a high standard of teaching is maintained. In addition,
they examine the published. Materials to ascertain their suitability before the
materials are used in schools.
The deputy director of education
There are two deputy directors of education. One is in charge of the
administration, primary, secondary and teacher education. The heads of
these institution and provincial education ofÏcers are directly under him.
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The other deputy direct ordeals with school development. He is mainly

responsible for physical development planning, expansion and control of
education establishments in the country. Under him are planners, namely an
economics, a statistician, a social demographer and an architect.
Within the structure of the Ministry of education, there are also certain
bodies responsible for various functions in the country. These bodies are
Boards of governors ( see lecture 16) the teachers’ services commission(see
lecture9), the Kenya National Union of Teachers(see lecture9) and the Kenya
Institute of Education( K.I.E.)
The Kenya institute of education

The Kenya institute of education was established in accordance with section
(23 1 of the education Act, in 1966. It is governed by the Board of Delegates.
Its Chairman is the Director of Education. The Board( Council) consists of
person representing the Minister, the University, the teacher Colleges, the
teachers services commission, Church organization and the Secondary heads
association. The Council deals with matters affecting the educational
functions of the K.I.E.
Within the Council, there is a committee known as the professional
committee whose chairman is the chief inspector of schools it is responsible
for academic matters.
There are four major functions of the Kenya Institute of Education:
1. The co-ordination of institutions for the training of teachers. Such
institutions include the Universities Colleges and the K.I.E. itself. For
instance, the K.I.E. coordinates the assessment of student doing their
final teaching practice.
2. The conduct of examinations in teachers, colleges.
3. The conduct of research related to the promotion of educational the
country.
4. The preparation of educational materials and training. Subject experts
from schools, college and Universities, review curriculum content and
write material to enhance formal education in the country
STRUCTURE AT PROVINCIAL LEVEL (Currently County Level)

The structure of the Ministry of education, at provincial level, is divided into
two sections.
The first section deals with secondary schools and teachers colleges. The
provincial education ofÏcer(P.E.O) is responsible for secondary and teacher
education in each province. He is assisted by inspector of schools and an
education OfÏcer.
The P.E.O fills a number of roles, as following/ County Director of
Education
a) He inspects schools
b) He appraises the primary school teaching staff
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c) He recommends the opening of private schools.

d) He is an agent of the teachers service commission
The second section deals with the primary schools in each district. This is to
say, therefore, that there is a district Education OfÏcer (D.E.O) in charge or
primary education. He is assisted by Assistant Education ofÏcers (A.E.O.s)
and primary schools inspectors. There is an A.E.O for a number of schools in
each division. The A.E.O is assisted by assistant primary school inspectors
(A.P.S.I)
While the A.E.O. manages the primary schools divisional levels, the A.P.S.I.
manages primary schools at zonal level. Each zone has at least 3o primary
schools. It also has a teacher’s advisory center where teachers go for in-
service meeting and assions. The role of the D.E.O. includes:
a) Approving primary school projects, for example the building of
additional classroom facilities
b) Administering al primary schools in the district
c) Acting as agent of the teacher services commission.
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KENYA NATIONAL UNION OF TEACHERS AND TEACHERS SERVICE

COMMISSION
In the previous lecture, you were introducing to inspection and supervision-
day’s lecture will provide information about the Kenya National Union of
Teachers (KNUT) and the Teachers service commission (TSC).
We will naturally divide this lecture into two major parts under the headings:
1. Kenya National Union of Teachers (KNUT)
2. Teachers service Commission (TSC)
THE KENYA UNION OF TEACHERS

Teachers in Kenya are involved in two organizations: the Kenya National
Union of Teachers Service commission. The former is trade union for the
profession, while the latter is the employer of teachers in Kenya.
KNUT: BACKGROUND
The white missionaries brought formal education in Kenya and trained their
own teachers. These teachers spread the gospel to Africans across the
nation. They owed their loyalties to their denominations and could be
punished if they acted indifferently.
Later on, Africans were recruited. They faced poor terms and conditions of
service, coming in contact with teachers from other countries, the African
teachers formed teacher’s organizations at both district and provincial levels.
Such organizations included Nyanza African Teachers Union (NATU): Catholic
African Teachers Association (RATA). Although these unions had been
formed, white employers blocked and resisted any interaction between these
unions had been formed, white employers blocked and resisted any
interaction between these unions.
In 1956, president Moi, then nominated, moved a freelance motion for the
government to help teacher’s body. The body was formed and become
known as Kenya National Union of Teachers. It was launched as a trade union
and a professional body by the 14th may, 1959.
The objectives of KNUT
There are four major objectives of KNUT. These are as follows
1. To unite all teachers in Kenya regardless of tribe grade, sex and
religion:
2. To fight for the social welfare of teachers:
3. To defend teachers when they are unjustly victimized:
4. To act as watchdog over all educational matters
Roles of KNUT
There are four major roles which KNUT plays regarding teachers in Kenya.
These are:
1. Uniting teachers in the country under one single trade union and
professional body.
2. Fighting for the improvement of teachers’ socio-economic welfare, for
example the improvement of terms and conditions of service. Among
those are include:
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a) Teachers’ salaries to be fair and comparable to their counterparts in

the civil service:
b) Teachers to be given house allowance;
c) Teachers to be given free medical allowance
d) Both married and unmarried women teachers to be entitled to
maternity leave.
e) Teachers to be granted a pension scheme
3. Defending teachers when they are victimized, besides advising and
finding advocates for teachers in legal cases related to their
profession.
4. Operating as a professional body at several levels with a view of:
a) Improving the material and professional status of its members. It
does this through seminars, special and in-service courses. It also
disseminates information through various publications, such as
Kenya teacher and in some of the dailies.
b) Influencing public policy especially in the field of education. It does
this through the union representation at the Kenya Institute of
Education, on the district Education, on the district education board
as well as the boards of governors and school committees. It also
reviews the public examinations and makes expert
recommendations.
It acts on behalf of parents in such cases as when a parents
organization does not exist and is unable to express an opinion on
education issues.
c) Providing participants at workshop and seminars held at
international level. To discuss matters concerning the teaching
profession. This participation promotes links with other teaching
bodies of the African continent and the world.
LIMITATIONS OF KNUT
Apart from its function (roles). KNUT has its own limitations as seen below:
1. KNUT has failed to present the teaching profession as a noble,
respectable and attractive among other professions such as medicine
and the judiciary.
2. It has failed to secure satisfactory salaries for teachers.
3. It does not provide sufÏcient travelling allowances similar to those of
other civil services.
4. Many secondary school teachers have not joined KNUT.
This is so because they feel their needs have not been adequately
fought for by KNUT.
5. KNUT has lagged behind in its professional roles such as registering
and deregistering its members.
THE TEACHERS SERVICE COMMISSION

The teacher’s service commission is an outgrowth of the Kenya national
union of teachers. The latter strongly recommended that all teachers of
primary and secondary schools together with the teachers of teaching
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training college should have one employer. The TSC was formed in 1966 and
become active under the 1967 TSC Act.
As soon as the TSC was formed, it met problems posed by religious
organizations. These religious bodies were the original employers of
teachers. However, their opposition did not last long.
Why the TSC was formed
There were three causes
1. Posting teachers to far off schools caused problems where no houses
were available
2. Teachers were irregularly paid by certain denominations and some
local authorities. This was so because some local authorities had
irregular sources of income.
3. Local authorities had poor promotion conditions which were either
favoured or disapproved by local religious sects.
FUNCTIONS OF THE TSC

There are five major functions of the TSC. These include:
1. Registering teachers. Teachers who wish to work with the TSC, must
file a formal applications with the commission.
2. Providing terms all conditions for teaching services. This is done
according to the code of regulations which regulates appointments,
promotions, permanency and other benefits, such as leave allowances.
3. Determining the salary structure of teachers. This structure includes
incremental date, promotions requirements and allowances.
4. Cancelling the registration of teachers who misbehave.
5. Delegating to any person, or body, with the consent of the minister of
education, any of its powers.
DUTIES OF THE TSC
The TSC has nine duties.
1. To assign teachers to government and aided schools
2. To recruit and employ registered teachers
3. To promote and transfer teachers
4. To dismiss problematic teachers by either interdicting them or sending
them to remote (hardship) areas.
5. To pay teachers their salaries and all due allowances.
6. To keep proper accounts and records of its financial dealings.
7. To constantly review the review the remuneration of teachers.
8. To keep under constant review
a) The standards of education
b) The training and fitness of persons entering teaching service.
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9. To advice the minister for education on matters concerning education

throughout the nation.
ACHIEVEMENT OF TSC
TSC has realized four broad achievements. It has
1. Standardized the terms and conditions of service of all its employees
(teachers)
2. Set standards of qualifications for different categories or grades, in the
teaching profession.
3. Promoted and transferred teachers without bias
4. Provided, or helped teachers get, free medical services. It has also
granted maternity leave to both married and unmarried women.
LIMITATIONS OF THE TSC
Although the TSC is a government employer of teachers, it has five
limitations in its operation. These limitations are:
1. The TSC loses many good teachers because it fails to provide them
satisfactory rewarding scheme. Good teachers quit the TSC and seek
employment with better rewards elsewhere.
2. Its staff has poor public relations with teachers. This causes teachers to
get frustrated.
3. It does not pay its teachers regularly each month. In facts, it usually
takes three to four months before beginning teachers get their first
pay – cheque.
4. It often subjects teachers to unnecessary and punitive transfers.
5. It does not adequately meet the costs of the teachers travelling
PARENT – TEACHER ASSOCIATION
Formation
A parent –teacher association is an organization composed of parents and
teachers. The two groups meet for the purpose of assessing the running of
the school and finding ways of improving the life and the performance of
both the school administrator and the students in all fields: cultural,
academic, social and ethical.
In Kenya, the parent-teacher association (P.T.A) is not constitutionalized.
P.T.A.s started in 1978 following president Moi’s directive. Of course, prior to
this directive, a few schools had P.T.A.s. Those schools were urged in
president to make their associations more active. It should be noted that the
P.T.A.s have started operating in Kenyan secondary schools.
There were some problems which necessitated the formation of the P.T.A.s.
The most generally felt inadequacies were:
1. Lack of adequate funds for building, maintenance, equipment and
development.
2. Conflicts between head teachers and parents. This happened
especially when some head teachers mismanaged the funds collected
by the parents.
After a school has opened and the parents are identified, the parent-teacher
association is formed. Initially a temporary chairman is chose. He/she
conducts the first few meetings and afterwards a permanent chairman is
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chosen. In most cases, the acting or temporary chairman is confirmed as a

full chairman. The chairman’s ofÏce lasts one year and then fresh elections
are called. This is to say that all ofÏcers stay in ofÏce for at least one year.
They can be selected for yet another period of one year. Apart from the
ofÏce bearers, there is an executive committee which prepares the agenda
for the P.T.A meetings and sees that its decisions are carried out. The
steering committee holds it meeting once a year or oftener if necessary.
Reasons for the formation of P.T.A.s
The welfare and education of the child is the main reason for the formation
of the P.T.A. Parents and teachers study ways and means of bringing up well
educated, co-operative and perfectly behaved young citizens. Both parents
and teachers seek effective ways of developing each child’s potential. They
do this by means of healthy and frank dialogue. They discuss important
issues, such as discipline, student programmes and school development.
Teachers can benefit from this dialogue since the parents furnish them with
relevant information concerning each child’s moral and physical
development. This will, help teachers to decide how best to help the child.
Roles of the P.T.A
In order to help the school realizes its purpose, parents play the following
roles: first, they raise money to help with the running and the activities of
the school.
 Secondly, they explain the role of the school to the community. This is
how teachers and community members come to a more harmonious
relationship.
 Thirdly, they give their points of view to the teachers concerning
academic improvements and moral standards.
 Fourthly, they help teachers and their
staff maintains effective discipline among the students.
Limitations of the P.T.A
Although P.T.A.s helps schools in various ways, they have four major
limitations. These include:
1. Some parents are reluctant to attend meetings for fear that they will
be asked to cont6ribute some money. This hinders discussion on
important matters which affect all the parents.
2. At times, schools serve large areas and the distance to travel prevents
parents from attending meeting;
3. Head teacher do not always provide enough information to parents
about the role they are expected to play in the P.T.A.
4. Some P.T.A executives may not be sufÏciently educated to give sound
academic advice to the school personnel
THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS

Formation
Unlike the P.T.A. the board of governors is an organization whose members
are constitutionally nominated according to Kenya’s education Act of 1970.
The minister is the one who establishes the board of governors in maintained
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secondary schools. On the head teacher’s recommendation, the minister

appoints five members to the Board of governors. The entire board consists
of fourteen members.
1. A chairman is appointed by te minister of education
Science and technology. In church – sponsored schools, the minister
appoints the chairman in conjunction with sponsoring church.
2. The minister appoints three members who represent the community
which is served by the school.
3. The minister appoints four more members who represent the
education board;
4. The minister appoints three other persons whom he considers suitable
to act as board members.
5. The board co-ops three more person
6. The head teacher of the school is the fourteenth member of the board
og governors meet twice a year under normal circumstances. They can
meet more regularly if there is a special reason to do so.
Regulations governing the boards of governors
1. Governors are referred to as board members and hold ofÏce for three
years. However, each governor is eligible for re-appointment.
2. Any vacancy caused by either the resignation or the death of a
governor is filled immediately. Anyone who is appointed in this manner
is supposed to hold ofÏce for the remaining period of time the
deceased was supposed to be in ofÏce
3. Any governor who misses the meetings of the board for a period of a
year, is asked to resign from the board.
4. No governor may hold any interest in any property belonging to the
school of which he is a governor. He should not receive any payment
or be interested in any contract in which the school is concerned
without approval of the minister.
5. The head teacher, who is the board secretary, must be present at the
meetings of the board of his/her school.
6. All claims (financial or legal) against the board must be immediately
reported to the minister who shall advice the board in respect of such
claims.
7. The board must exercise authority over common seal and must have
this signified by the chairman or other governors as the board may so
appoint. In effect this means that a member of the board must be a co-
signatry of any cheque paid by the school.
8. The minister has the right to suspend or dissolve the board of
governors failing to exercise its functions.
Duties and powers of the board of governors.
“Duties’, here, refers to functions which members of the board are expected
to carry out. Some of them are:
1. Ensuring that the personnel employed by the board of governors is
paid. This is particularly important in Harambee secondary school;
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2. Providing adequate buildings and accommodation for the students.

Then ensuring that these physical facilities are kept in good condition;
3. Ensuring that fees are paid, buildings maintained, and ethics observes
in accordance with the recommendations of the head-teacher:
4. Recruiting non-teaching and subordinate staff members with the final
approval of the ministry;
5. Ensuring that financial records are properly kept in the school:
6. Ensuring that proper standards of conduct are maintained in the
school;
7. Ensuring that good discipline in the school is maintained for instance,
the board has to decide on the suspension of in disciplined students
and subordinate staff members
Powers
The ministry gives the board of governor’s powers over certain activities.
1. They may provide additional services to the schools, for instance
employ a doctor, a dentist, nurses, or health assistants.
2. They may approve the purchase of additional test-books and other
supplies to be used by teachers and students in the school content.
3. They provide financial support for school activities, such as festivals;
they may also grant scholarships and bursaries.
4. They may recommend to the ministry the expulsion of in disciplined
students and subordinate staff members.
Limitations of the board of governors
Our ten-minute period is over. Let us now complete our lecture. We are still
working on the board of governors. We have seen that the members of the
board have duties to perform and have powers to exercise certain duties.
However, they can exercise these powers only to a certain extent. That is,
they have limitations in their functions. Those limitation are spelt down
below
1. Their funds are limited. The board may not function well because it
does not have enough money. This may be caused by rises in cost of
living but also, unhappily by mismanagement of school funds.
2. Most board members are not qualified administrators. Many lack the
ability to initiate or influence development in the school.
3. Some members have little idea of how a school should be run and what
problems inhibit performance in activities or examinations.
4. Other members of the board show little or no interest in the school.
They lack real commitment to duty. As they are named for three years,
it is not always easy to get them to leave the work to more interested
governors
Page | 64

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EAPE 411 Notes

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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes

EAPE 411: EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

Lecture Notes by Dr. Noah Murumba Kiveu

THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION ADMINSTRATION

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APLICATION OF THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION ADMINSTRATION IN

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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes

This function (task) is concerned mainly with authority. It involves

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINSTARTION

To understand the conceptual base of educational management and

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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes

- The classical or scientific management movement

THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGMENT MOVEMENT

6. Functional management principle:

Taylors principles were popular in organizations as they aimed at lowering

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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes

 Taylors ideas led to time-and –motion studies, rigid discipline on the

NB: Others for your study are:

Luther Gullik and Lydall Urwik

1. Hierarchical structure of authority

The chart below explains the hierarchical structure found in school

Deputy Head Page | 5

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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes

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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes

Members of the organization must be subject to strict and systematic

RESULTS OF THE SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

2. THE HUMAN RELATIONS MOVEMENT

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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes

on high productivity, efÏciency and other physical factors including wages as

N/B: By proposing those four principles, Follet emphasized what the

ELTON MAYO (1880)

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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes

2. Job satisfaction: over production and underproduction were both

The human relations movement according to Mayo had two major

3. THE SOCIAL SCIENCES MOVEMENT (1950-1970)

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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes

including psychology, sociology, government and economics. A good

A theory in educational administration gives the most accurate mental

1. THE ORGANIZATION THEORY

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EAPE 411 Lecture Notes

This is made up of role and expectations. A role is a position, identity

As an educational administrator, describe how you would apply the

2. THE HUMAN THEORY

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