International Baccalaureate

LECTURE NOTES

MATHEMATICS SL

TOPIC 2
FUNCTIONS – EQUATIONS

2.1 LINES (or LINEAR FUNCTIONS) …………………………………………………………… 1

2.2 QUADRATICS (or QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS) ………………………………………. 7

2.3 FUNCTIONS, DOMAIN, RANGE, GRAPH ……………………………………………… 13

2.4 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: fog …………………………………………………….. 26

2.5 THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1 ………………………………………………………………. 31

2.6 TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS ………………………………………………….. 39

2.7 ASYMPTOTES ………………………………………………………………………………………… 48

2.8 EXPONENTS - THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ax ……………………………… 55

2.9 LOGARITHMS - THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION y=logax ……………………. 62

2.10 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS ………………………………………………………………….. 70

Only for HL

2.11 POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ……………………………………………………………………. 79

2.12 SUM AND PRODUCT OF ROOTS ………………………………………………………….. 91

TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

2.1 LINES (or LINEAR FUNCTIONS)

♦ BASIC NOTIONS ON COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Given two points A(x1,y1) and B(x2,y2)

y2 B

y1
A

O x1 x2

• The gradient or slope of line segment AB is given by

∆y y2 − y1
m= =
∆x x 2 − x 1

This indicates the inclination of the line segment AB. As we are

moving along the positive direction of the x-axis, if the line
segment is
increasing ( ⁄ ) then m>0
decreasing ( \ ) then m<0
horizontal (— ) then m=0
vertical (|) then m is not defined

• The distance between A and B is given by

dAB= ( ∆x ) 2 + ( ∆y ) 2 = (x 2 - x 1 ) 2 + (y 2 − y1 ) 2

• The coordinates of the midpoint M(x,y) of the line segment AB

are given by
x1 + x2 y1 + y 2
x= y=
2 2

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EXAMPLE 1

a) Given two points A(1,4) and B(7,12)

∆y 12 - 4 4
The slope of the line segment AB is m= = =
∆x 7 −1 3

The distance between them is d = (7 - 1) 2 + (12 − 4) 2 = 10

1 + 7 4 + 12
The midpoint is M( , ) that is M(4,8)
2 2
b) Given two points A(1,8) and B(5,8)

It is not necessary to use the formulas. Since A and B have the

same y-coordinate:

The slope of the line segment AB is m=0 (horizontal)

The distance between them is d=5-1=4

The midpoint is M(3,8)

c) Given two points A(1,5) and B(1,7)

It is not necessary to use the formulas. Since A and B have the

same x-coordinate:

The slope m of the line segment AB is not defined (vertical)

The distance between them is d=7-5=2

The midpoint is M(1,6)

The notion of the function will be formally introduced later on, in

paragraph 2.3. However, we will start by presenting two families of
already known functions

Linear functions: y=mx+c or f(x) = mx+c

Quadratic functions: y=ax2+bx+c or f(x) = ax2+bx+c

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ THE EQUATION OF A LINE

Equation of a (straight) line: y=mx+c

m = gradient or slope c = y-intercept

y=mx+c
c

NOTICE:
A horizontal line has equation y=c (slope m=0)
A vertical line has equation x=c (there is no slope)

(in fact, a vertical line is not a function, that is why the

equation x=0 is not a particular case of y=mx+c)

EXAMPLE 2
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=2x and L2: y=-2x

In fact, the slope shows the rise of the line per each unit
Line L1: slope is 2 (y increases 2 units per each x-unit)
Line L2: slope is -2 (y decreases 2 units per each x-unit)

In both cases c=0 (since the function passes through the origin)

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EXAMPLE 3
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=2x+3 and L2: y=-2x+3

Line L1: slope is 2 Line L2: slope is -2

In both cases the y-intercept is 3

EXAMPLE 4
Look at the graphs of two lines: L1: y=5 and L2: x=5

♦ PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES

Consider two lines: L1: y=m1x+c1 and L2: y=m2x+c2

Parallel lines: L1 // L2 if m1= m2

Perpendicular lines: L1 ⊥ L2 if m2=-1/m1

For example,
The lines y=3x+5 and y=3x+8 are parallel
1
The lines y=3x+5 and y= − x+8 are perpendicular
3

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♦ AN ALTERNATIVE FORMULA FOR A LINE

A more general formula for a line is

Equation of a line: Ax+By=C

If B≠0, we can solve for y and obtain the form y=mx+c

If B=0, we obtain a vertical line of the form x=c
If A=0, we obtain a horizontal line of the form y=c

EXAMPLE 5
• From Ax+By=C into the usual form
The line 2x+3y=5 may be expressed as 3y=-2x+5 and finally
2 5
y=− x+
3 3
• From the usual form into Ax+By=C
a) The line y=-3x+7 may be expressed as
3x+y=7
1 2
b) The line y = x+ may be expressed as
2 3
1 2
- x+y=
2 3
We usually require the coefficients A,B,C to be integers.
Multiplying by 6 we obtain
-3x+6y=4
c) The line y=5 may be expressed as 0x+y=5
d) The line x=5 may be expressed as x+0y=5

♦ GIVEN: A POINT AND A SLOPE

The line which
• passes through point P(x0,y0)
• has slope m
is given by

y-y0 = m(x-x0)

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EXAMPLE 6
The line which passes through point P(1,2), with slope m=3 is
y-2 = 3(x-1)

• Express in the form y=mx+c

y-2 = 3(x-1) ⇔ y=3x-3+2 ⇔ y=3x-1
• Express in the form ax+by=c or ax+by+c=0
y=3x-1 ⇔ 3x-y=1 or 3x-y-1=0

♦ GIVEN: TWO POINTS

The line which passes through the points P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2)
has slope
∆y y2 − y1
m= =
∆x x 2 − x 1

and its equation is again given by the formula

y-y1 = m(x-x1)

EXAMPLE 7
Find the line which passes through the points P(1,2) and Q(4,7).
Express your answer in the form ax+by=c where a,b,c∈Z (integers).
Solution
∆y 7 − 2 5
The slope is m= = =
∆x 4 − 1 3
The equation of the line is
5
y-2 = (x-1)
3
⇔ 3y-6 = 5(x-1)
⇔ 3y-6 = 5x-5
and finally
-5x+3y = 1

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

2.2 QUADRATICS (or QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS)

♦ BASIC CHARACTERISTICS

Equation of a quadratic: y=ax2+bx+c

The graph of a quadratic is a parabola

y-intercept

roots

vertex

1) It must be a≠0

If a>0 the graph looks like If a<0 the graph looks like

(concave up) (concave down)

2) Discriminant: ∆=b2-4ac. It determines the number of roots

∆>0: 2 roots ∆=0: 1 root ∆<0: No real roots

-b± ∆
3) x-intercepts (or roots): x1,2= , (only if ∆≥0)
2a
4) y-intercept: for x=0 we obtain y=c

-b
5) Vertex is always at x= (this also the equation of
2a
the axis of symmetry)

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6) According to ∆, the graph looks like

∆>0: 2 roots ∆=0: 1 root ∆<0: No real roots

EXAMPLE 1
Consider y=2x2-12x+10

• a=2 (+tive), so the graph looks like U (concave up)

-b± ∆
• ∆= b2-4ac = 64>0, thus two roots: x1,2= = 1 and 5
2a
• y-intercept: y=10
-b
• vertex at x= =3. Then y=-8. Hence, the vertex is (3,-8)
2a

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NOTICE: (mainly for HL)

If we are given that

ax2+bx+c >0 for any x∈R
or ax2+bx+c <0 for any x∈R

the graph does not intersect the x-axis, that is the quadratic has
no real roots. Thus, ∆<0

EXAMPLE 2
Let f(x)=2x2-6x+k. Find the values of k in each case below:
a) f(x)=0 has exactly one root (or two equal roots)
b) f(x)=0 has exactly two roots
c) f(x)=0 has no real roots
d) f(x)=0 has real roots
e) f(x)>0 for any x R
f) f(x)≥0 for any x R
Solution
All cases depend on the discriminant ∆=36-8k
a) ∆=0.
Hence, 36-8k=0 ⇔ 8k=36 ⇔ k=4.5
b) ∆>0.
Hence, 36-8k>0 ⇔ 8k<36 ⇔ k<4.5
c) ∆<0.
Hence, 36-8k<0 ⇔ 8k>36 ⇔ k>4.5
d) ∆≥0. [in this case we have either one or two roots]
Hence, 36-8k≥0 ⇔ 8k≤36 ⇔ k≤4.5
e) Since f(x) is always positive, it has no real roots. Thus, ∆<0.
Hence, 36-8k<0 ⇔ 8k>36 ⇔ k>4.5
f) Since f(x) is always positive or zero, it has either exactly one root
or no real roots at all. Thus, ∆≤0.
Hence, 36-8k≤0 ⇔ 8k≥36 ⇔ k≥4.5

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ FORMS OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION

1) Traditional form: y=ax2+bx+c

2) Factorization form: y=a(x-r1)(x-r2) [r1,r2 roots]
3) Vertex-form: y=a(x-h)2+k [(h,k) vertex]

NOTICE

• If we know the form y=ax2+bx+c the vertex is at

-b
x=
2a
• If we know the form y=a(x-r1)(x-r2), that is the roots r1,r2
the vertex is at their mid-point, that is
r + r2
x= 1
2

Since we know the x-coordinate of the vertex, that is h, we can

also find the y-coordinate of the vertex, that is k. Thus we can
derive the vertex form y=a(x-h)2+k.

EXAMPLE 3

We consider again
y=2x2-12x+10 (1)

We find the roots: 1 and 5. Therefore, the factorization is

y=2(x-1)(x-5) (2)

- b 12 r + r2 1 + 5
The vertex is at x= = =3 (or otherwise at x= 1 = =3)
2a 4 2 2
For x=3, it is y=-8, hence the vertex is (3,-8)

Therefore, the vertex-form of the quadratic is

y=2(x-3)2-8 (3)

We may easily verify that forms (2) and (3) give (1).

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Indeed,
y=2(x-1)(x-5) = 2(x2-x-5x+5) = 2(x2-6x+5) = 2x2-12x+10

and
y=2(x-3)2-8 = 2(x2-6x+9)-8 = 2x2-12x+18-8 = 2x2-12x+10

♦ JUSTIFICATION OF THE VERTEX-FORM y=a(x-h)2+k

1) The point (h,k) is the vertex, i.e. a minimum or a maximum:

• If a>0, then
a(x-h)2 ≥ 0 (equality holds when x=h)
⇒ a(x-h)2+k ≥ k
⇒ y≥k
Therefore, at x=h we obtain the minimum value y=k.

• If a<0, then
a(x-h)2 ≤ 0 (equality holds when x=h)
⇒ a(x-h)2+k ≤ k
⇒ y≤k
Therefore, at x=h we obtain the maximum value y=k.

2) Any quadratic can be expressed in the vertex form, by the

“completing the square” method.

For example, for the quadratic in EXAMPLE 3 above, we can work

as follows
y = 2x2-12x+10 = 2(x2-6x) +10 [only the first 2 terms]

= 2(x2-6x+9-9)+10 [complete the square]

= 2(x-3)2-18+10
= 2(x-3)2-8

However, it is preferable to obtain the vertex-form as in example 3

above, that is by finding the vertex (h,k) and then expressing the
quadratic as y=a(x-h)2+k.

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EXAMPLE 4

Consider f(x)=3x2+12x+1.

a) Express f(x) in the vertex-form a(x-h)2+k

b) Find the minimum value of f(x)

Solution

- b - 12
a) Vertex at x= = =-2. Then y=3(-2)2+12(-2)+1=-11
2a 6
Thus the vertex is (-2,-11) and f(x)=3(x+2)2-11
b) The vertex gives the minimum value, that is ymin =-11.

♦ VIETA FORM

There is also another form for a quadratic function, the Vieta-

form. Given that the quadratic function has real roots r1 and r2:

y = a(x2-Sx+P) (4)

where

S = the sum of the roots = r1+r2

P = the product of the roots = r1r2

EXAMPLE 5

Consider again the function

y=2x2-12x+10
It can be written
y=2(x2-6x+5)
Hence,
S = r1+r2 = 6
P = r1r2 = 5
The roots are 1 and 5, as their sum is 6 and their product is 5.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

2.3 FUNCTIONS, DOMAIN, RANGE, GRAPH

♦ DEFINITION
Let us formally introduce the notion of the function:

f: X → Y

A function f from a set X to a set Y assigns

to each element x of X
a unique element y of Y

We write: We say:
f(x)=y f maps x to y
f: x a y y is the image of x

EXAMPLE 1
Let X={1,2,3} and Y={a,b,c,d}. The following is a function f: X → Y

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

Indeed, each element of X has a unique image in Y.

We say
f maps 1 to a or a is the image of 1
2 to b b is the image of 2
3 to d d is the image of 3
We write
f(1)=a , f(2)=b , f(3)=d
or f: 1 a a f: 2 a b f: 3 a d

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EXAMPLE 2

Let X={1,2,3} and Y={a,b,c,d}

• The following is a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we do not mind if two elements of X have the same image)

• Notice though that the following is not a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we said “each x of X”, but here 3 has no image)

• Finally, the following is not a function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

(we said “unique y of Y”, but 2 has two images)

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♦ DOMAIN AND RANGE

For a function f: X → Y,

The set of all x’s involved is called DOMAIN

The set of all y’s involved (only the images) is called RANGE

Consider again the function f: X → Y given by

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3
d

Then DOMAIN : x∈X={1,2,3}

RANGE : y∈{a,b,d}

We usually denote the domain by Df and the range by Rf .

The range is not necessarily the whole set Y, it may be part of Y.

Usually X any Y are subsets of R, the set of real numbers, and the
function f has a specific pattern.

For example, consider the function f which maps

1 a2 2 a4 3 a6 4 a8 and so on
in other words f maps each x ∈ R to its double 2x.

We say that the function f: R→ R, is given by

f: x a 2x
or f(x)=2x
or y=2x

Thus the formula of the function gives any possible result, e.g.
f(15)=30, f(2.4) = 4.8 etc

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If we restrict the function f from R to the interval X=[0,10], we

still have the function
f: X→ R, given by f(x)=2x
but now
DOMAIN : x∈[0,10]
RANGE : y∈[0,20] (why?)

♦ GRAPH

We know that the pairs (x,y) that satisfy the equation of the
function y=f(x) can be represented as points (x,y) on the Cartesian
plane and form the graph of the function.

The graph clearly shows the DOMAIN and the RANGE of the
function. For example,

x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

DOMAIN: Projection on the x-axis, i.e. Df : x∈[1,8]

RANGE: Projection on the y-axis, i.e. Rf : y∈[2,6]

We may observe, for example, that the points

(1,2), (5,3), (7,6), (8,5) lie on the curve.

That implies

f(1)=2 f(5)=3 f(7)=6 f(8)=5

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We have already studied the graphs of two families of functions;

linear and quadratic functions. The graphs are straight lines and
parabolas respectively.

EXAMPLE 3
• f(x)=2x, or otherwise y=2x is represented by the graph

x 0 1 2 3

2 y 0 2 4 6

x
0 1 2

Here Df : x∈R Rf : y∈R

• f(x)=x2, or otherwise y= x2 is represented by the graph

4
x -2 -1 0 1 2

y 4 1 0 1 4

x
-2 -1 1 2

Here Df : x∈R Rf : y∈[0,+∞)

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EXAMPLE 4
x 2 , −2 ≤ x ≤ 0
Consider the function f(x) = 
x , 1≤x ≤5
The graph is given below

5
4
3
2
1

x
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

Clearly, Df : x∈[-2,0]∪[1,5] and Rf : y∈[0,5]

NOTICE:
The graph also shows if we have a function or not

x
1 2 3 4 5

This is not a function, since f(3) for example is not unique!

Vertical line test:

Any vertical line intersects the graph at most once.

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♦ ONE-TO-ONE vs MANY-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS

Consider again the two functions below. To distinguish between

those two cases we say that

X Y X Y
a a
1 1
b b
f 2 f 2
c c
3 3
d d

this function is one-to-one this function is many-to-one

The formal definition for a one-to-one function says that different

elements of X map to different elements of Y, that is

A function f: X → Y is one-to-one if for any x1,x2 in X

x1≠x2 ⇒ f(x1)≠f(x2)
or equivalently
f(x1)=f(x2) ⇒ x1=x2

(the second and equivalent definition is more practical for exercises)

Graphically, it is easy to confirm that the function is one-to-one:

Horizontal line test:

Any horizontal line intersects the graph at most once.

EXAMPLE 5
Look at the functions of Example 3 above.
• the function f(x)=2x is one-to-one, since
f(x1)=f(x2) ⇒ 2x1=2x2⇒ x1=x2

OR, any horizontal line intersects the graph at most once.

• the function f(x)=x2 is many-to-one, since different elements

may map to the same image, e.g. f(2)=4 but also f(-2)=4.

OR, a horizontal line above x-axis intersects the graph twice.

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♦ ONTO FUNCTIONS
Consider the following two functions

X Y X Y
a a
1 1
b b
f 2 f 2
c
3 3
d

As you see, in the second example the range of f is coincides with Y.

In other words, any element of Y is an image of some element of X.

We say that
f maps X onto Y or simply f is onto

Notice though, that this property is “recoverable”. Just ignore the

elements of Y that are not images and the function becomes onto.

EXAMPLE 6
• the function f:R → R, given by f(x)=2x is onto, since the range
of this function is R.
• the function f:R → R, given by f(x)=x2 is not onto, since the
range of this function is [0,+∞), which is a proper subset of R.
However, if the function is given as f:R → [0,+∞), it is onto.

♦ ONE-TO-ONE AND ONTO FUNCTIONS

Consider the function

X Y
a
1
b
f 2
3 c

This is one-to-one and onto.

The function f:R→R, given by f(x)=2x, as well as any linear

function, is one-to-one and onto.

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♦ AN “AGGREEMENT” FOR THE DOMAIN

Usually, a function is simply given as a formula of the form y=f(x),

where x and y are real variables.

If the domain of the function is not given, we agree that

Df is R
or Df is the largest possible subset of R

For example,

• if f is given by f(x)=2x, we assume that Df : x∈R

2
• if f is given by f(x)= , we assume that Df : x∈R-{0} =R*
x
(we may also write Df : x≠0)

We mainly deal with the following cases

1. f(x) is a function with no restrictions on x,

for example a polynomial [say f(x)=2x3+3x2+1], then

Df = R

Α
2. f(x) = , then B cannot be 0, thus
Β

Df = R – {roots of the equation B=0}

3. f(x) = Α , then A ≥ 0.

Df = the solution set of the inequality A ≥ 0

4. f(x) = logA or f(x)=lnA, then A>0. 1

Df = the solution set of the inequality A>0

5. f(x) = is a combination of all the above.

We find the subset of R where all our restrictions hold.

1
The functions f(x)=logx and f(x)=lnx are not known yet. They will be introduced
later on within this topic.

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EXAMPLE 7

a) f(x) = 3x-9. Clearly, Df : x∈R

5
b) f(x) = . Restriction: 3x-9 ≠ 0
3x - 9

Solve: 3x-9=0 ⇔ 3x=9 ⇔ x = 3

Thus, Df : x∈R-{3}. We may also write Df : x≠3

c) f(x) = 3x - 9 . Restriction: 3x-9 ≥ 0

Solve: 3x-9 ≥ 0 ⇔ 3x ≥ 9 ⇔ x ≥ 3

Thus, Df : x∈[3,+ ∞ ). We may also write Df : x ≥ 3

d) f(x) = ln(3x - 9) . Restriction: 3x-9>0

Solve: 3x-9>0 ⇔ 3x>9 ⇔ x > 3

Thus, Df : x∈(3,+ ∞ ). We may also write Df : x>3

x+2
e) f(x) = 2
Restriction: x2-3x+2 ≠ 0
x − 3x + 2

Solve: x2-3x+2=0 ⇔ x=1 or x=2

Thus, Df : x∈R-{1,2}

f) f(x) = x −1 +3 2 − x Restrictions: x-1 ≥ 0 and 2-x ≥ 0

Solve: x-1 ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≥ 1

2-x ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≤ 2

Thus, Df : x∈[1,2] We may also write Df : 1 ≤ x ≤ 2

1 − x2
g) f(x) = Restrictions: 1-x2 ≥ 0 and x ≠ 0
x

Solve: 1-x2 ≥ 0 ⇔ x2 ≤ 1 ⇔ -1 ≤ x ≤ 1

Thus, Df : x∈[-1,0) ∪ (0,1]

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♦ SPECIFIC POINTS ON A GRAPH

y
y-intercept
max

max
x

min

x-intercepts
Roots

For y=f(x)
• y-intercept: Set x=0 and find y
• x-intercepts (roots): Find the roots of the equation f(x)=0
• max-min: In Topic 6, we will use derivatives to find them

When we have two graphs y=f(x) and y=g(x), it also useful to know
the intersection points of the two graphs

y
f(x)

g(x)

Intersection points

These points can be found by solving the equation

f(x)=g(x)

Thus, we obtain the x-coordinates of the intersection points.

If necessary, in order to find the corresponding y-coordinates as

well, we may use either y=f(x) or y=g(x).

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EXAMPLE 8

a) Consider f(x)=(x-3)2-4

y-intercept: for x=0, we obtain y=5

x-intercepts or roots: We solve (x-3)2-4=0
(x-3)2-4=0 ⇔ (x-3)2= 4 ⇔ x-3 = ±2 ⇔ x = 2+3 or x =-2+3
Hence x=5 or x=1
max-min: We don’t know derivatives yet, but for this particular
function (quadratic), we know that there is only a minimum.
We have a min at the vertex, i.e. at point (3,-4)
We say: We have a min at x=3. The min value is y=-4

b) Consider also the linear function g(x)=x-5.

intersection points: we solve the equation f(x)=g(x)

(x-3)2-4=x-5 ⇔ x2-6x+9-4=x-5
⇔ x2-7x+10=0
⇔ x=2 or x=5
By using either f(x) or g(x) we find y=-3, y=0 respectively.
Hence, the curves intersect at the points (2,-3) and (5,0)

Indeed, the graphs of f(x) and g(x) are as follows

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ USING GRAPHS IN THE GDC

• All notions above, namely y-intercept, x-intercepts (or roots),
max, min, intersection points can be easily found in the GDC.

• We can easily solve any equation f(x)=g(x)

METHOD A: we find the intersection points of the graphs

y1 = f(x)
y2 = g(x)
METHOD B: we find the roots of the graph
y1 = f(x)-g(x)
[since the equation may be written as f(x)-g(x)=0]

• We can easily solve any inequality f(x)>g(x) or f(x)≥g(x)

METHOD A: we find the intervals where y1=f(x) is above y2=g(x)

METHOD B: we find the intervals where y1=f(x)-g(x) is positive,
[since the inequality may be written as f(x)-g(x)>0 (or ≥0)]

EXAMPLE 9
Consider again the functions of Example 8
f(x)=(x-3)2-4 and g(x)=x-5.

a) Solve the equation f(x)=g(x).

METHOD A: Look at the graphs of y1=f(x) and y2=g(x)
(see Example 8). The intersection points occur at x=2, x=5
METHOD B: The equation can be written
f(x)-g(x) = (x-3)2- 4 - (x-5) =0
Look at the graph of y1=f(x)-g(x) (see GDC). Roots: x=2, x=5

b) Solve the inequality f(x)>g(x).

METHOD A:the graph of y1=f(x) is above y2=g(x) (see Example 8)
when x<2 or x>5
METHOD B: the graph of y1=f(x)-g(x) (see GDC) is positive
outside the roots, that is when x<2 or x>5

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

2.4 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS: fog

♦ DISCUSSION

Consider the function f(x)=x2

Notice that
f(5) = 52
f(a) = a2
f(3a+5) = (3a+5)2
f(x+1) = (x+1)2
f(3x+5) = (3x+5)2

In the last two cases the input value for f is another function of x.

Let us concentrate on

f(3x+5) = (3x+5)2.

If we set g(x)= 3x+5, our result can be written as follows

f(g(x)) = (3x+5)2

In this way, we combine two functions,

f(x)=x2 and g(x)= 3x+5

and create a new function (3x+5)2.

This new function is denoted by fog. We write (fog)(x) = (3x+5)2.

♦ DEFINITION

For two functions f and g, the composite function fog is a new

function defined by

(fog)(x)=f(g(x))

The action is called composition.

We say that fog is the composite function of f and g.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

Therefore, for the functions f(x)=x2 and g(x)=3x+5 given above, the
procedure we follow in order to estimate (fog)(x) is

(f0g)(x) = f(g(x))

= f(3x+5)

= (3x+5)2

In the same way we can define the composite function (g0f)(x). It is

given by
(g0f)(x) = g(f(x))

= g(x2)

= 3x2+5

That is
(fog)(x)= (3x+5)2 while (g0f)(x)= 3x2+5

NOTICE:
• In general
fog ≠ g0f

• It is not necessary to write so analytically the answer. You can

answer directly. Look at again

f(x)=x2 and g(x)=3x+5

For fog you just plug g into f.

(fog)(x)= (3x+5)2

For gof you just plug f into g.

(g0f)(x)= 3x2+5

• For three functions f(x)=x2, g(x)=3x+5, h(x)= x we can define

(f0g0h)(x)= (3 x + 5) 2

You just plug h into g and the result into f. Notice also that

f0(g0h)=(f0g)0h

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 1

Let f(x)=2x2-1 and g(x)=x+1. Find

(a) (fog)(x) (b) (g0f)(x) (c) (fog)(1) (d) (g0f)(1)

Solution

(a) (fog)(x) = 2(x+1)2-1

(b) (g0f)(x) = (2x2-1)+1 = 2x2

(c) From (a), we have

(fog)(1)=7

(d) From (b), we have

(g0f)(1) = 2

Notice for questions (c) and (d)

For (fog)(1) and (g0f)(1), it is not necessary to find (fog)(x) and

(g0f)(x) first. Alternatively, we can directly apply the definition as
follows

(c) (fog)(1) = f(g(1)) = f(2) = 7 [since g(1)=2]

(d) (g0f)(1) = g(f(1)) = g(1) = 2 [since f(1)=1]

Of course, if we are given a function f, we may also define the

function fof in the obvious way:

(fof)(x) = f(f(x))

That is, we plug f into itself.

For example, if f(x)=2x-1, then

(fof)(x) = f(2x-1) = 2(2x-1)-1 = 4x-3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 2
x +1
Let f(x)= and g(x)= x
2
Find (a) (fog)(x) (b) (gof)(x)

(c) (fof)(x) (d) (gog)(x)

(e) (fofof)(x) in two ways: as fo(fof) and as (fof)of

Solution

x +1 x +1
(a) (fog)(x) = (b) (gof)(x) =
2 2

x +1 x +3
+1
x +3
(c) (fof)(x) = 2 = 2 =
2 2 4

(d) (gog)(x) = x= 4
x

x +3 x +7
+1
x +7
(e) (fofof)(x) = [fo(fof)](x) = 4 = 4 =
2 2 8

x +1 x +7
+3
x +7
Or = [(fof)of](x) = 2 = 2 =
4 4 8

♦ THE IDENTITY FUNCTION I(x)

It is the simple function that maps x to itself

I(x)=x

Notice that

(foI)(x) = f(I(x)) = f(x)

(Iof)(x) = I(f(x)) = f(x)

That is
foI = f and I of = f

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ PRESUPPOSITION FOR fog AND gof (Mainly for HL)

Let f: A→B and g: B→C.

Then
f g
A B C

x f(x) g(f(x)

g of

That is in gof, f is applied first and then g

Notice also that gof can be defined only if the Range of f is inside
the Domain of g.

Similar observations may be done for fog. Thus,

Function Observation Presupposition

fog g is applied first and then f Rg ⊆ Df

gof f is applied first and then g Rf ⊆ Dg

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

2.5 THE INVERSE FUNCTION: f-1

♦ DISCUSSION

Consider the functions f(x)=x+10 and g(x)=x-10

Notice that
f(0) = 10 g(10) = 0
f(1) = 11 g(11) = 1
f(2) = 12 g(12) = 2
f(3) = 13 g(13) = 3 and so on.

In other words,

f(x)=y ⇔ g(y)=x.

In this case we say that g is the inverse of f.

In fact, f and g are inverse to each other.

Notice also that

(fog)(x)=f(g(x))=f(x-10)=(x-10)+10=x

(gof)(x)=g(f(x))=f(x+10)=(x+10)-10=x

That is
fog = I = gof (the identity function)

The inverse function of f, that is g, will be denoted by f-1

♦ DEFINITION

Let f:R→R

The inverse function f-1 is a new function such that

f(x)=y ⇔ f-1(y)=x.
Moreover,
fof-1 = I = f-1of

Hence, if f(x)=x+10, we showed above that f-1(x)=x-10

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ HOW DO WE FIND f-1 ?

Steps Example
f is given f(x) = x+10

1. Set f(x)=y 1. x+10 = y

2. Solve for x 2. x = y-10

3. Keep only the solution but replace y by x 3. f-1(x)=x-10

NOTICE:
1. The inverse function of f-1 is f itself. That is

(f-1)-1 = f

2. The domain of f-1 is the range of f and vice-versa:

Df-1 = Rf Rf-1 = Df

EXAMPLE 1

Let f(x)=3x+5. Find (a) f-1(x) (b) f-1(11)

Solution
(a) We follow the three steps:
• Set 3x+5=y
y−5
• 3x+5=y ⇔ 3x = y-5 ⇔ x =
3
x −5
• f-1(x)=
3
x −5
(b) Since we know f-1(x)= , it is f-1(11) = 2
3
Alternatively: It is not necessary to find f-1(x) first. We can directly
set 3x+5 = 11, instead of 3x+5=y:

3x+5 = 11 ⇔ 3x = 6 ⇔ x=2.

Thus, f-1(11) =2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

Remark:
x −5
Let us verify that the inverse function of f-1(x)= is f(x)= 3x+5.
3
x −5
• Set = y
3
x −5
• = y ⇔ x-5 = 3y ⇔ x = 3y+5
3

• The inverse function is f(x)= 3x+5

That is why we also say that f and f-1 are inverse to each other.

EXAMPLE 2

Let f(x)=2x2-1 where x≥0. Find (a) f-1(x) (b) f-1(49)

Solution

(a) We follow the three steps:

• Set 2x2-1=y
y+1 y+1
• 2x2-1=y ⇔ 2x2 = y+1 ⇔ x2 = ⇔x=
2 2
x +1
• f-1(x)=
2
x +1
(b) Since we know f-1(x)= , it is
2

f-1(49) = 25 = 5

[again, f-1(49) can be estimated directly as follows

2x2-1= 49 ⇔ 2x2 = 50 ⇔ x2 = 25 ⇔ x = 5,

thus f-1(49) = 5 ]

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 3
x +1
Let f(x)=
x+2
2x - 1
(a) Show that f-1(x)=
1−x

(b) Verify that fof-1 is the identity function [that is (fof-1)(x)=x]

(c) Find the domain and the range of the functions f and f-1

Solution
x +1
(a) = y ⇔ x+1= y(x+2)
x+2

⇔ x+1= y(x+2)

⇔ x+1=yx+2y

⇔ x-yx=2y-1

⇔ x(1-y)=2y-1
2y- 1
⇔ x=
1−y

2x - 1
Hence, f-1(x)=
1−x

2x - 1 2x - 1 + 1- x x
+1
(b) (fof-1)(x) = 1- x = 1- x = 1- x = x
2x - 1 2x - 1 + 2 - 2x 1
+2
1- x 1- x 1- x

That is (fof-1)(x)=x (identity function)

[ In a similar way we can show that (f-1of)(x)=x ]

(c) It is easier to find the domains of f and f-1

Df = R-{-2}. This is also Rf-1

Df-1 = R-{1}. This is also Rf

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 4
1
Let f(x)=1-2x and g(x)= . Find
x

(a) (f0g)(x) (b) (g0f)(x) (c) (g0f-1)(x)

(d) (f0g-1)(x) (e) (f0g)-1(x) (f) (f-10g-1)(x)

Solution
1 1 2
(a) (f0g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f( ) = 1-2 = 1-
x x x
1
(b) (g0f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(1-2x) =
1- 2x

(c) We firstly need f-1. Since f(x)=1-2x

1- y 1- x
1-2x = y ⇔ 1-y = 2x ⇔ x = . Hence f-1(x)=
2 2
2
Now (g0f-1)(x) =
1- x
1
(d) We firstly need g-1. Since g(x)=
x
1 1 1
= y ⇔x = . Hence g-1(x)= [ that is g-1 = g ]
x y x

2
Then, (f0g-1)(x) = 1-
x
2
(e) We are looking for the inverse function of (f0g)(x) = 1-
x
2 2 2 2
1- =y ⇔ 1-y = ⇔x = . Thus , (f0g)-1(x) =
x x 1- y 1- x
1
1-
(f) (f-10g-1)(x) = x = x- 1
2 2x

NOTICE:
Notice that (f0g)-1 ≠ f-10g-1 . In fact it holds

(f0g)-1 = g-10f-1

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ GRAPH OF f-1

The graph of f-1 is a reflection of f about the line y=x

y
y=x
f

f-1

EXAMPLE 5

If f(x)=x2 , for x≥0, then f-1(x)= x . Their graphs are

Notice that, if f and f-1 intersect, they intersect on the line y=x.
Thus, in order to find the intersection points, instead of
f(x) = f-1(x)
we can solve
f(x) = x
Here, f(x)=x ⇔ x2 = x ⇔ x2-x = 0 ⇔ x(x-1)=0 ⇔ x=0 or x=1

The intersection points are (0,0) and (1,1).

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

NOTICE:
We say that f is self-inverse if f-1=f. It also holds f0f = I (identity).
The graph of such a function is symmetric about y=x.

1 1
The simplest example is f(x)= , since f-1 (x)= .
x x
2x - 6
Another example is f(x)= (please confirm!)
x- 2

♦ PRESUPPOSITION FOR f-1 (Mainly for HL)

Consider the function

X Y
a
1
f: b
2
c
3

The inverse function f-1 doesn’t exist, since f-1(b) is not uniquely
determined (is it 2 or 3?). Hence, for f-1 to exist, different values of
x should map to different values of y:

X Y X Y
f f-1
x1 y1 x1 y1
x2 y2 x2 y2

In other words, the following definition must apply

A function f is “1-1” (one-to-one) if

x 1 ≠ x 2 ⇒ f(x 1 ) ≠ f(x 2 )

An equivalent condition for “1-1” functions is

f(x 1 ) = f(x 2 ) ⇒ x 1 = x 2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

NOTICE: Remember that any function must satisfy the vertical line
test. If, moreover, f is “1-1” it satisfies the

Horizontal line test

Any horizontal line intersects the graph at most once

EXAMPLE 6

(a) Let us check if f(x)=3x+1 is “1-1”

f(x 1 ) = f(x 2 ) ⇒ 3x1+1=3x2+1 ⇒ 3x1=3x2 ⇒ x1=x2

Hence f is “1-1”

We can also say that f satisfies the horizontal line test.

x- 1
Thus f-1 exists: f-1(x)=
3
(b) The function f(x)=x2 is not “1-1”

Indeed, f does not satisfies the horizontal line test, as two different
values may map to the same image, for example

f(-2)=4=f(2).

However, if we consider

f(x)=x2, x≥0

then f is “1-1”:

f(x 1 ) = f(x 2 ) ⇒ x1 2 = x2 2 ⇒ x1 = x2 (since both are +tive)

Or simply say that f satisfies the horizontal line test.

Now f-1 exists:

f-1(x)= x (look at example 5)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

2.6 TRANSFORMATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

♦ DISCUSSION

Consider a function f(x).

f(x)

Let’s think of the new function g(x)=f(x)+2

In fact, we add 2 units to any value of y=f(x), thus the whole graph
of f(x) moves 2 units up.

g(x)
+2

f(x)

We say that this is a vertical translation of the graph.

In a similar way we can describe other transformations of f(x), not

only in a vertical direction (applied on y) but also in a horizontal
direction (applied on x).

Let us present the most important transformations in a concise

way!

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ THE BASIC TRANSFORMATIONS

Consider the initial function f(x).

(In the following tables we assume a>0 and b>1)

VERTICAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Function Transformation Example: f(x)=x2

vertical translation
f(x)+a a g(x)=x2+2
a units up 2

vertical translation
f(x)-a a g(x)=x2-2 2
a units down
vertical stretch
bf(x) x b g(x)=2x2 x2

with scale factor b

vertical stretch with
f(x)/b ÷b g(x)=x2/2 ÷2
scale factor 1/b (shrink)
reflection
-f(x) g(x)=-x2
in the x-axis

Now, as far as the horizontal transformations below are concerned,

we obtain, perhaps, the opposite of what we expect!

HORIZONTAL TRANSFORMATIONS

Function Transformation Example: f(x)=x2

horizontal translation
f(x+a) a g(x)=(x+2)2 2
a units to the left
horizontal translation
f(x-a) a g(x)=(x-2)2 2
a units to the right
horizontal stretch with ÷b
f(bx) g(x)=(2x)2 ÷2
scale factor 1/b (shrink)
horizontal stretch x2
f(x/b) b
x
g(x)=(x/2)2
with scale factor b
reflection
f(-x) g(x)=(-x)2
in the y-axis

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 1

Let us observe the basic transformations of the function

f(x) = x2, 0≤x≤2

in connection with the two tables above.

Let us see the vertical transformations first

VERTICAL TRANSFORMATIONS
f(x)=x2 f(x)=x2+2 f(x)=x2-2
[initial function] [2 units up] [2 units down]

y 6

4 y

2 2

x x x
0 2 2 2

-2

f(x)=2x2 f(x)=x2/2 f(x)=-x2

[vertical stretch, s.f. 2] [vertical stretch s.f. ½ [reflection in x-axis]
That is shrink (÷2)]

y y y

0 2

2
-4
x x
0 2 0 2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

Next, we observe the horizontal transformations

HORIZONTAL TRANSFORMATIONS
f(x)=x2 f(x)=(2x)2
[initial function] [horizontal stretch, s.f. ½
That is shrink (÷2)]

y y

4 4

x x
0 2 0 1

f(x)=(x+2)2 f(x)=(x/2)2
[2 units to the left] [horizontal stretch, s.f. 2]

y y

4 4

x x
-2 0 0 4

f(x)=(x-2)2 f(x)=(-x)2
[2 units to the right] [reflection in y-axis ]

y y

4 4

x x

2 4 -2 0

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

NOTICE:
The horizontal translation by a units (to the right or to the left)
a 
is also denoted by the translation vector  
0
A vertical translation by b units (up or down)
0
is also denoted by the translation vector  
b 
a
The combination of those two translations is denoted by  
b 

Of course we may have a combination of several simple

transformations.

For example, 2f(x-3)+5 implies

a vertical stretch with scale factor 2, followed by

a horizontal translation 3 units to the right, followed by

a vertical translation 5 units up

NOTICE:
Remember the vertex form of a quadratic function

y=a(x-h)2+k

This is a combination of transformations of the simple quadratic

function y=x2
Indeed,

x2 initial function
ax2 vertical stretch by scale factor a
a(x-h)2 horizontal translation by h units
a(x-h)2+k vertical translation by k units

(if a<0, we also have a reflection about x-axis)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

h
The two translations by   imply that the initial vertex (0,0) of
k 
the function x2 moves

h units horizontally, and

k units vertically,
thus its new position is (h,k)

vertex

♦ THE INVERSE FUNCTION TRANSFORMATION

We have already seen that f-1(x) causes a reflection in the line y=x

f(x)=x2 f-1(x)= x
[initial function] [reflection about the line y=x]

y y

x x
0 2 0 4

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS (mainly for HL)

A function is said to be even if

f(-x)=f(x)

Such a function is symmetric in y-axis.

For example f(x)=x2 is an even function.

A function is said to be odd if

f(-x)=-f(x)

Thus a function is symmetric about the origin.

For example f(x)=x3 is an odd function.

y

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 2

Investigate if the following functions are even or odd.

a) f(x)=x4+|x| b) g(x)=x-x3 c) h(x)=x+x2

Solution

a) f(-x)=(-x)4+|-x|= x4+|x|=f(x) hence the function is even.

b) g(-x)=(-x)-(-x)3=-x+x3 =-(x-x3)=-g(x) hence the function is odd.

c) f(-x)=(-x)+(-x)2= -x+x2 the function is neither even nor odd.

♦ SELF-INVERSE FUNCTIONS (mainly for HL)

A function is said to be self-inverse if

f-1(x)=f(x)

Such a function is symmetric in the line y=x.

1
For example f(x)= is a self-inverse function.
x
y

Indeed,
1 1 1
y= ⇔x= hence, f −1 (x) =
x y x

Therefore, f-1(x)=f(x).

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ THE ABSOLUTE VALUE TRANSFORMATIONS (Mainly for HL)

Consider the initial function f(x).

(a) The new function |f(x)|

• preserves any positive part of f(x)

• reflects any negative part of f(x) in x-axis
[this is because f(x)<0 implies that |f(x)|=-f(x) ]

(b) The new function f(|x|)

• ignores f(x) for x<0

• reflects f(x), x≥0 in y-axis
[this is because x<0 implies that f(|x|) =f(-x) ]

EXAMPLE 3

Let f(x) have the graph

Then

|f(x)| f(|x|)

y y

x x

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

2.7 ASYMPTOTES
1
Look at the graph of the function f(x)=
x

x
-∞ 0 +∞

Notice that the graph touches neither the x-axis nor the y-axis.
However, as x tends to +∞ or -∞, the graph approaches the x-axis.
Also, for values of x near 0, the graph approaches the y-axis.
We say that
the x-axis (that is the line y=0) is a horizontal asymptote
the y-axis (that is the line x=0) is a vertical asymptote

1
Similarly, look at the graph of the function f(x)= + 2 . It is
x- 1
actually the same graph shifted 1 unit to the right and 2 units up.

1
x

Now
the line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote
the line x=1 is a vertical asymptote

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

In general,

For Vertical Asymptotes: we are looking at points x=a where the

function is not defined
For Horizontal Asymptotes: we observe what happens if x tends to
+∞ or -∞. If the function approaches the line y=b we say that y=b is
a horizontal asymptote!

In the following graph:

2
x
-∞ -4 0 1 +∞

The function is not defined at x=-4 and x=1, so

the lines x=-4 and x=1 are vertical asymptotes

As x tends to +∞ or -∞ the graph approaches the line y=2, so

the line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote

In this section we investigate asymptotes for rational functions,

that is for functions of the form
p(x)
f(x)=
q(x)
2x − 5
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, (e.g. f(x)= 2
).
x − 4x + 3
Notice, the highest exponent of a polynomial is called degree.
Here for p(x)=2x-5 and q(x)=x2-4x+3, it is degp(x)=1, degq(x)=2.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

Αx + Β
♦ RATIONAL FUNCTIONS OF THE FORM f(x)= ,
Cx + D
It is easy to find the asymptotes

1) Vertical Asymptotes x=a

They can be found at points where the function is not defined.
For example,
4x + 1
f(x)=
2x - 6
We solve
2x-6=0 ⇔ x=3
Hence
The line x=3 is a vertical asymptote

Notice
The domain is Df = R-{3}.
We may also observe, by using a GDC, that
if x is very close to 3, say x=3.00001 or x=2.99999,
then f(x) approaches +∞ or -∞ respectively)

2) Horizontal Asymptotes y=b

The line
Α
y= is a horizontal asymptote
C
(we consider only the leading coefficients)!

For example,
4x + 1
f(x)=
2x - 6
Α 4
Then y= = = 2, so
C 2

The line y=2 is a horizontal asymptote

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

Short Explanation:
The function can be written as follows:

4x + 1 2(2x − 6) + 13 2(2x − 6) 13 13
f(x)= = = + = 2+
2x - 6 2x - 6 2x - 6 2x - 6 2x - 6

As x becomes very large the last fraction approaches 0.

The same applies if x tends to -∞. In both cases f(x) approaches 2.

The graph approaches the value y=2 but never touches that value!

♦ RATIONAL FUNCTIONS IN GENERAL

p(x)
More explicitly, for rational functions of the form f(x)= , we
q(x)
work as follows

1) Vertical Asymptotes x=a

Again, they can be found at points where the function is not

defined. Thus, we solve in fact the equation q(x)=0
For example,
2x − 5
f(x)= 2
x − 4x + 3
we solve
x2-4x+3=0 ⇔ x=1 or x=3
Hence
The lines x=1 and x=3 are vertical asymptotes

2) Horizontal Asymptotes y=b

Here, we only consider the leading coefficients of p(x) and q(x).

We distinguish three cases:

leading coefficient of p(x)

• degp(x)= degq(x), y=
leading coefficient of q(x)
• degp(x)<degq(x), y=0
• degp(x)>degq(x), there is no horizontal asymptote

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

For example,

4x 2 − 3x + 1
f(x)= y=2 is a horizontal asymptote
2x 2 + 7x - 6
3x + 1
f(x)= y=0 is a horizontal asymptote
2x 2 + 7x - 6

4x 2 − 3x + 1
f(x)= there is no horizontal asymptote
2x - 6

Notice also that,

p(x)
if f(x)= has horizontal asymptote y=b,
q(x)
p(x)
then g(x)= +c has horizontal asymptote y=b+c
q(x)

as g(x) is the function f(x) moved c units up.

EXAMPLE 1
Vertical Asymptotes Horizontal Asymptote
Function
(denominator = 0) (divide leading coefficients)
8x − 7
f(x)= x=-2 y=4
2x + 4
7
f(x)= x=-2 y=0
2x + 4
7
f(x)= +3 x=-2 y=3
2x + 4
7x 2 − 5x + 1
f(x)= 2 x=1, x=2 y=7
x - 3x + 2
7x 2 − 5x + 1
f(x)= x=1, x=2 y=7/2
2x 2 - 6x + 4
− 5x + 1
f(x)= 2 x=1, x=2 y=0
x - 3x + 2
- 5x + 1
f(x)= 2 +8 x=1, x=2 y=8
x - 3x + 2
7x 2 − 5x + 1
f(x)= x=2 none
- 3x + 6

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

1
♦ THΕ RECIPROCAL FUNCTION (only for HL)
f(x)

Another transformation of the function f(x) is 1

g(x)=
f(x)

We observe the following

1) If x=a is a root† of f(x), then g(x) is not defined at x=a and

x=a is a vertical asymptote of g(x)

2) If x=a is a vertical asymptote of f(x),

x=a is a root of g(x)

In other words,

vertical asymptotes become roots

roots become vertical asymptotes

3) If y=a (where a≠0) is a horizontal asymptote then

1
y= is also a horizontal asymptote
a

4) If f(x) is positive then g(x) is also positive

5) If f(x) is negative then g(x) is also negative

NOTICE
1
In fact, g(x)= ≠0, thus in 2), x=a is not exactly a root but a
f(x)
point of discontinuity on the x axis, i.e. the graph looks like

x
a

†
It must be an isolated root, that is the only root in a small interval around x=a

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EXAMPLE 2

Consider the functions

2x - 4 1 x- 3
f(x)= g(x)= =
x- 3 f(x) 2x - 4

Observations on f(x) Conclusions for g(x)

Root: x=2 Vertical asymptote: x=2
Vertical asymptote: x=3 Root: x=3‡
Horizontal asymptote: y=2 Horizontal asymptote: y=1/2

Hence we draw the new roots and asymptotes and carry on

g(x) is also positive

For x<2, f(x) is positive
(graph above horizontal asymptote)

g(x) is also negative

For 2<x<3 f(x) is negative (root x=3 and vertical asymptote help
us to draw the graph)

g(x) is also positive

For x>3 f(x) is positive (root x=3 and horizontal asymptote
help us to draw the graph)

‡
It is in fact a point of discontinuity.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

2.8 EXPONENTS - THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ax

♦ THE EXPONENTIAL 2x

Let us define the power 2x, as x moves along the sets

N = {0,1,2,3,…} Natural numbers

Z = {…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…} Integers
m
Q = {fractions | m,n∈Z, n≠0} Rational numbers
n
R = Q + irrational numbers§ Real numbers

1) If x=n∈N, then

20 = 1

2n = 2.2.2…2 (n times)

For example 23=8

2) If x=-n, where n∈N, then

1
2-n =
2n

Thus we know 2x for any x∈Z.

1 1
For example 2-3= =
23 8
m
3) If x= , where m,n∈Z, n≠0, then
n

m
2n = n
2m

Thus we know 2x for any x∈Q

2 2 1
2 3
For example, 2 = 2 = 4 ,
3 3 3
2 = 2 = 8,
3 2 = 2
2

§ That is numbers that cannot be expressed as fractions, eg π, 2, 3, 5

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

4) If x=irrational, then

2 x = given by a calculator!

The definition is beyond our scope, thus we trust technology!

Thus we know 2x for any x∈R

For example, 2π = 8.8249779

In general, if a>0 we define

a0 =1

an =a.a.a…a (n times)
1
a-n =
an
m
a n = n am

a x = given by a calculator!

NOTICE
• If a<0, ax is defined only for x=n∈Z
• Ox=0 only if x≠0
• 00 is not defined

♦ PROPERTIES

All known properties of powers are still valid for exponents x∈R

(1) axay = ax+y (3) (ab)x =axbx (5) (ax)y = axy

x
ax a ax
(2) y = ax-y (4)   = x
a b b

Here a,b>0 and x,y∈R

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 1
1 1
• 5-2 = 2
=
5 25
−2
1 1
•   = -2 = 52 =25
5  5
−2 2
3 5  25
•   =   =
5  3 9
2 2 2 ⋅(2 )
• 8 3
= 3
82 = 3 64 = 4 or 8 3
= (2 3 ) 3
= 23 3
= 22 = 4
4 4 4
3 −4 1  1   1  1 1
• 27-4/3 = 27 = 3 = 3   = 3   =  =
27 4  27   27  3 81

♦ THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION f(x)=ax (where a>0)

Consider f: R → R

f(x)=2x

Let us estimate some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=2x … 1/8 1/4 1/2 0 1 4 8 …

Domain: x∈R
Range: y>0

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

Consider now g: R → R
x
1 1
g(x)=0.5x [that is g(x)=   = x ]
2 2
Let us estimate some values

x … -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 …

y=2x … 8 4 2 0 1/2 1/4 1/8 …

Domain: x∈R
Range: y>0

NOTICE

1) f(x)=ax is always positive (even if x<0)

x
1 1
2) g(x)=   = x = a-x. Thus, g(x) is a reflection of f(x)=ax about the
a a
y-axis [look at the graphs of f(x) and g(x) above]

3) if a>1, then f(x)=ax increases (the graph looks like that of 2x)
if a<1, then f(x)=ax decreases (the graph looks like that of 0.5x)
if a=1, then f(x)=1x=1 is constant

4) if a≠1, function f(x)= ax is “one-one”, i.e.

ax=ay ⇒ x=y

This property helps us to solve exponential equations!

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EXAMPLE 2

Solve the following equations

(a) 23x-1 = 2x+2 (b) 23x-1 = 4x+2 (c) 43x-1 = 8x+2

1
(d) 3x-1
= 4x+2 (e) 2 3x-1 = 4x+2
2

Solution

Our attempt will be to induce a common base in both sides

(a) We have already a common base. Thus

23x-1 = 2x+2 ⇔ 3x-1 = x+2 ⇔ 2x = 3

⇔ x=3/2

(b) We can write 4=22. Thus

23x-1 = 4x+2 ⇔ 23x-1 = 22x+4 ⇔ 3x-1 = 2x+4

⇔ x = 5

(c) We can write 4=22 and 8=23. Thus

43x-1 = 8x+2 ⇔ 26x-2 = 23x+6 ⇔ 6x-2 = 3x+6

⇔ 3x=8 ⇔ x = 8/3
1
(d) We apply the property =2n. Thus
2n
1
3x-1
= 4x+2 ⇔ 2-3x+1 = 22x+4 ⇔ -3x+1 = 2x+4
2

⇔ 5x = -3 ⇔ x=-3/5
1
(e) We apply the property 2 =2 2
. Thus
3x-1
3x - 1
2 3x-1 = 4x+2 ⇔ 2 2
= 22x+4 ⇔ = 2x+4
2

⇔ 3x-1= 4x+8 ⇔ x=-9

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♦ THE NUMBER e

There is a specific irrational number

e=2.7182818…

which plays an important role in mathematics. The number e is

almost as popular as the irrational number π=3.14…

An approximation of e is given below. Consider the expression

n
 1
1 + 
 n

For n=1 the result is 2

For n=2 the result is 2.25

For n=10 the result is 2.5937424…

For n=100 the result is 2.7048138…

For n=1000 the result is 2.7169239…

For n=106 the result is 2.7182804…

As n tends to +∞ this expression tends to e=2.7182818…

♦ THE EXPONENTIAL ex

The exponential function f(x)=ex appears in many applications. The

graph looks like any function of the form f(x)=ax. We present the
graphs of

f(x) = ex f(x)=e-x

1
1

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ ASYMPTOTES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Observe the exponential functions (a>0, a≠1)

f(x)=ax f(x)=ax+c

horizontal asymptote: y=0 horizontal asymptote: y=c

y-intercept: y=1 y-intercept: y=c+1

EXAMPLE 3
Function Horizontal Asymptote y-intercept
f(x)=2x line y=0 y=1
f(x)=2-x line y=0 y=1
f(x)=ex line y=0 y=1
f(x)=e3x line y=0 y=1
f(x)=3ex line y=0 y=3
f(x)=-3ex line y=0 y=-3
f(x)= ex+5 line y=5 y=6
f(x)=3ex+5 line y=5 y=8
f(x)=ex-2 line y=0 y=e-2

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2.9 LOGARITHMS - THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION y=logax

♦ THE LOGARITHM log2x

This number is called logarithm of x to the base 2. It is connected

to the exponential 2x. The definition is given by

log2x = y ⇔ 2 y =x

For example,

log28 = 3, since 23=8

log216 = 4, since 24=16

log21024 = 10, since 210=1024

etc.

For example, for log28=?, we think in the following way:

2what exponent gives 8?

The answer is 3

Hence log28=3

Working in the same way let us find log264=?

It is log264=6

However, for log210=?, we should think in the following way:

2what exponent gives 10?

OK, this is difficult to answer!!!

Our calculator gives log210=3.321928…

This implies that

23.321928…=10

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

U EXAMPLE 1

Find log232, log225, log22100, log221453, log22, log21

• log232=5

• log225=5

• log22100=100 Notice, in general log22x=x

• log221453=1453

• log22=1

• log21=0

♦ THE LOGARITHM logax

In exactly the same way, for any base a>0, a≠1 we define

logax = y ⇔ a y =x

For example, log39 = 2 (since 32=9)

U NOTICE

Once upon a time log10x has been the most popular logarithm!!!

log101000 = 3, log1010000 = 4, log101000000 = 6,

log100.001 = -3, log100.000001 = -6,

In some way, the logarithm to the base 10 indicates the size of the
number! Due to its popularity the base 10 for this particular
logarithm is usually ignored

We write logx instead of log10x

Hence log100=2 log0.01=-2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION y=logax

A new function is defined

y = logax

In fact, this is the inverse function of the exponential function y=ax

If f(x)=ax then f-1(x)=logax

Indeed, ax=y ⇔ x= logay, hence f-1(x)=logax

If a>1 (for example if a=2), the graphs of these two functions look
like
y=ax

y=logax

Observations:

• For y=ax: Domain: x∈R Range: y∈R+ (i.e. y>0)

• For y=logax: Domain: x∈R+ (i.e. x>0) Range: y∈R

• The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of y=ax

• The y-axis is a vertical asymptote of y=logax

• y=ax always passes through (0,1)

• y=logax always passes through (1,0)

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ BASIC PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

For any base a (a>0, a≠1)

• loga1 = 0

• logaa = 1

• logaax = x

• alogax = x

The first three results can be directly confirmed by the definition of

logarithm. For the last one, set y= logax. The definition implies ay=x.
Replace back y= logax and the result is immediate!

♦ FOUR ALGEBRAIC LAWS

For simplicity reasons, we use log instead of loga.

1) log xy = logx + logy • logx + logy = log xy

x x
2) log = logx - logy • logx - logy = log
y or y
3) logxn = nlogx • nlogx = logxn
1 1
4) log =- logx • - logx = log
x x

Proofs (consider all logarithms to be of base a)

For all of them we follow the same method! We check if aLHS = aRHS

1) aLHS = xy and aRHS = alogax+logay = alogaxalogay = xy

2) aLHS = x/y and aRHS = alogax-logay = alogax/alogay = x/y

3) aLHS = xn and aRHS = anlogax = (alogax)n = xn

4) this is a special case of 2) if we set x=1, as well as of 3) if n=-1

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

NOTICE
1) The first two laws can be combined in the following way:

ABD
logA+logB-logC+logD = log
C

If we also have coefficients we can work as in the following example

2logA+3logB-4logC+5logD = logA2+logB3-logC4+logD5

A 2 B 3D 5
= log
C4

Thus

A 2 B 3D 5
2logA + 3logB - 4logC + 5logD = log
C4

This is the way we convert many logs into one log. It is useful when
we solve equations [see Example 2) below]

Look at also the opposite direction

A 2 B 3D 5
log = 2logA + 3logB - 4logC + 5logD
C4

This is the way we express one log in terms of many logs. It is useful
when we need to simplify logarithms [see Example 3) below].

2) When we solve equations involving logs our target is to collect all

logs together and convert them into one log.

• If we obtain logaA(x)=logaB(x)

then we get A(x)=B(x) (we simply eliminate logs)

• If we obtain logaA(x)=c

then we get A(x)=ac by definition

In both cases the new equation is much simpler, without logs.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 2

Solve the equations

(a) log2x+log2(x+2)= log23

(b) log2x+log2(x+2)= 3
3
(c) log2x+log2(x-2)-log2(x- )=log23
4

Solutions

(a) We obtain log2x(x+2)= log23

Hence
x(x+2)=3 ⇔ x2+2x-3=0

The solutions are x=1 and x=-3

The second solution is rejected since x>0 and x+2>0 by the original
equation. Therefore x=1.

(b) We obtain log2x(x+2)= 3

Hence
x(x+2)=23 ⇔ x2+2x-8=0

The solutions are x=2 and x=-4

The second solution is rejected since x>0 and x+2>0 by the original
equation. Therefore x=2.

x(x - 2)
(c) We obtain log2 = log23
3
(x - )
4
Hence
x(x - 2) 9 9
=3 ⇔ x2-2x=3x- ⇔ x2-5x+ =0
3 4 4
(x - )
4
The solutions are x=4.5 or x=0.5

The second solution is rejected. Therefore, x=4.5

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♦ THE NATURAL LOGARITHM lnx

The most frequently used logarithm is the logarithm to the base

e=2.7182818…

Instead of logex, we denote it by

lnx

Hence,

lnx=y ⇔ ey=x

♦ CHANGE OF BASE

Consider the equation

ax=b

If you apply loga on both sides you obtain

x= logab

If you apply any other logarithm, say log, ln, log5, logc you obtain

logb lnb log 5 b log c b

x= , x= , x= , x=
loga lna log 5 a log c a

respectively. Thus

logb lnb log C b

logab = = =
loga lna log C a

log * b
That is, we can change logab into , in any base we like.
log * a
The formula

log C b
logab=
log C a

is known as the “change of base formula”.

For example
log5 0.699 ln5 1.609
log25 = = = 2.322 or = = 2.322
log2 0.301 ln2 0.693

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Let us see an example where we need to express one logarithm in

terms of many logarithms

EXAMPLE 3
Suppose lnx=a, lny=b, lnz=c, as well as ln2=m, ln5=n.
Express the following in terms of a, b, c, m, n.

y x 3y 1
lnxy, lnx2, ln , ln 2
, ln , ln x ,
z z x

ln10, ln50, ln2.5, log2x, log5e, log4x3

Solution

• lnxy = lnx + lny = a+b

• lnx2 = 2lnx = 2a
y
• ln = lny - lnz = b-c
z
x 3y
• ln = 3lnx + lny - 2lnz = 3a+b-2c
z2
1 1
• ln = ln1 – lnx = 0-a = -a [or ln =lnx-1 = -lnx = -a]
x x
1 a
• ln x = lnx1/2 = lnx =
2 2

• ln10 = ln(2×5) = ln2 +ln5 = m+n

• ln50 = ln(2×52) = ln2 + 2ln5 = m+2n

5
• ln2.5 = ln = ln5 - ln2 = n-m
2
lnx a
• log2x = =
ln2 m
lne 1
• log5e = =
ln5 n
lnx lnx 3a
• log4x3 = 3log4x = 3 = 3 2
=
ln4 ln2 2m

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2.10 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

In these equations the unknown x is in the exponent. The simplest

exponential equation has the form

ax=b

If we apply loga the solution is x=logab

logb lnb
If we apply log or ln the solution is x= or x=
loga lna

EXAMPLE 1

loga
Solve the equation 2(5x) = 9. Express the result in the form .
logb
Solution

We first divide by 2 and then apply log

log4.5
5x = 4.5 ⇔ log5x = log 4.5 ⇔ xlog5 = log4.5 ⇔ x =
log5
Notice
ln4.5
If we use ln( ), the answer will be x =
ln5

If we use log5( ), the answer will be x = log5 4.5

Whenever we see exponentials of base e, it is preferable to use ln( ).

EXAMPLE 2

Solve the equation 10e2x = 85

Solution

We first divide by 10:

ln8.5
10e2x = 85 ⇔ e2x = 8.5 ⇔ lne2x =ln8.5 ⇔ 2x =ln8.5⇔ x=
2

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EXAMPLE 3
lna
Solve the equation 5x = 2x+1. Express the result in the form .
lnb
Solution
Method A: Let us apply ln on both sides
5x = 2x+1 ⇔ ln5x = ln2x+1

⇔ xln5 = (x+1)ln2

⇔ xln5 = xln2+ln2

⇔ xln5 - xln2 = ln2

⇔ x(ln5-ln2) = ln2

ln2 ln2
⇔x = ⇔ x =
ln5 - ln2 5
ln
2

Method B: Simplify the equation to the form ax=b; then apply ln

5x = 2x+1 ⇔ 5x = 2x2
5x
⇔ = 2
2x
x
5 
⇔   = 2
2
5 
⇔ xln  = ln2
2
ln2
⇔ x =
5
ln
2
Remarks
• This is the exact answer. If we are looking for an answer to
3sf, the calculator gives x=0.756.

• We can use any logarithm instead of ln( ), for example log( ).

• If an expression in the form logab is required, the answer is

x
5 
  = 2 ⇔ x = log 5 2
2 2

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS

♦ EXPONENTIAL MODELLING

In many applications a quantity increases or decreases

exponentially according to time.

The number n of some particles at time t hours is given by

n=noekt

• If k>0, the number of particles increases

• If k<0, the number of particles decreases

Question 1: What is the initial number of particles?

Initial means t=0. Since e0=1

n=n0

Thus, the coefficient no is always the initial value of n.

Suppose that no, k are known. Say the initial number is 1000 and

n=1000e0.2t

Question 2: What is the number of particles after 3 hours?

For t=3

n=1000e(0.2)3=1822

Question 3: The number of particles is 2500 after t hours. Find t.

2500 = 1000e0.2t
⇔ 2.5 = e0.2t
⇔ ln2.5 = lne0.2t
⇔ ln2.5 = 0.2t
ln2.5
⇔t = = 4.58 hours
0.2

Question 4: The number of particles doubles after t hours. Find t.

It’s the same as in Question 3. We set n=2000, or in general n=2n0

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Sometimes the constant k is not known. But we are given some

information to estimate it. Suppose

n=n0ekt

Question 5: If the number of particles doubles every 4 hours find k.

For t=4, 2n0 = n0ek4

⇔ 2 = e4k
⇔ ln2 = ln e4k
⇔ ln2 = 4k
ln2
⇔k= = 0.173
4

EXAMPLE 4
The mass m of a radio-active substance at time t hours is given by

m = 4e–kt
a) The mass is 1 kg after 5 hours. Find k.
b) What is the mass after 3 hours?
c) The mass reduces to a half after t hours. Find t.

Solution

a) For t=5, m=1, thus 1 = 4e–k5

1 1
⇔ e–k5 = ⇔ lne–k5 = ln ⇔–5k = -1.39⇔ k = 0.28
4 4
Therefore,
m = 4e–0.28t
b) For t=3,
m = 4e(-0.28)3 = 1.73

c) For m=2, 2 = 4e–0.28t

⇔ e–0.28t = 0.5 ⇔ lne–0.28t = ln0.5 ⇔ –0.28t = ln0.5

ln0.5
⇔t = = 2.47 hours
- 0.28

This time is known as half-life time

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♦ MORE EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS (mainly for HL)

Let us look at some additional examples

EXAMPLE 5
Solve the equation
3x5x-1 = 7x-2
lna
Express the result in the form
lnb

Solution
Method A: We apply ln( ) on both sides

ln(3x5x-1) = ln7x-2 ⇔ ln(3x5x-1) = ln7x-2

⇔ ln3x + ln5x-1 = ln7x-2

⇔ xln3 + (x-1)ln5 = (x-2)ln7

⇔ xln3 + x ln5-ln5 = xln7-2ln7

⇔ x (ln3 + ln5- ln7) = ln5 - 2ln7

ln5 - 2ln7
⇔x =
ln3 + ln5 - ln7
5
ln
⇔ x = 7 2 = ln(5/49)
3⋅5 ln(15/7)
ln
7

Method B: (recommended) Simplify first to the form ax=b;

3x 5 x 7 x
3x5x-1 = 7x-2 ⇔ = 2
5 7
x x
3 5 5
⇔ x
= 2
7 7
x
 15  5
⇔   =
 7  49
 15  5
(now apply ln) ⇔ xln  = ln
 7  49
ln(5/49)
⇔ x =
ln(15/7)

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Remark:
If the equation has + or – between the terms, it doesn’t help to
apply a logarithm, as log(x ± y) cannot be simplified.
This is a very common mistake! Mind that

A ±B = C does not imply logA ± logB = logC

In such a case we usually work as follows.

EXAMPLE 6
Solve the equations:
(a) 6(102x)-17(10x) = -12

(b) 6(e2x)-17(ex) = -12

12
(c) 6e x + = 17
ex
Solution
(a) Set y=10x. Then
6y2-17y+12=0
3 4
There are two solutions: y= or y=
2 3
3 3 3
• For y= , 10x = ⇔ x=log
2 2 2
4 4 4
• For y= , 10x = ⇔ x=log
3 3 3

(b) Set y=ex. We obtain the same quadratic as above. Thus

3 3 3
• For y= , ex = ⇔ x=ln
2 2 2
4 4 4
• For y= , ex = ⇔ x=ln
3 3 3

(c) Set y=ex. If we multiply the equation by y=ex we obtain the same
equation as in (b).

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EXAMPLE 7

Solve the system of equations

2(3x)-3(2y)=-22
1 y
5(3x)+ (2 )=9
2
Solution

Set A=3x and B=2y. Then

2A-3B=-22
1
5A+ B=9
2
The solution is A=1, B=8. Hence,

3x=1 ⇔ x=log31 ⇔ x=0 and 2y=8 ⇔ y=log28 ⇔ y=3

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONS - EQUATIONS Christos Nikolaidis

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