Heat Transfer Processes and

Equipment
CH2043

English Program
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology

DR SHAFIRAH SAMSURI
Dr Wan Zaireen Nisa Yahya
Chapter 2: Introduction to Heat Transfer
Fourier’s Law of Heat conduction.
Newton’s Law of Cooling for Heat Convection
Stefan–Boltzmann's Law of Heat Radiation

Dr Wan Zaireen Nisa Yahya

[email protected]

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 Course Learning Outcomes
At the end of this course, students shall be able to:
1. Establish mathematical models of heat transfers
2. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of heat transfer
equipment and choose an appropriate heat transfer
equipment
3. Calculate parameters of heat transfer
4. Design a heat transfer equipment
 Lesson Outcomes
At the end of this topic:
1) Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer are related to each other.
2) Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are conduction,
convection, and radiation, and Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's law
of cooling, and the Stefan–Boltzmann law of radiation.
3) Solve problems related to applications of heat transfer.

CLO1: Analyze and estimate the rate of heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation
in the systems of practical interest

Ref: Chapter 1 (Cengel)

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
Rate of ∝ (Area)(Temperature difference)
Heat Conduction Thickness

𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑑𝑇
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘𝐴
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥

• The constant of proportionality k is thermal conductivity of

the material that defines the ability of that material to
conduct heat.

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Heat Flux:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘
𝑑𝑥
• dT/dx is the temperature gradient (i.e., the slope of
a T-x diagram)
• Heat transfer area A is always normal to the
direction of heat transfer.
• The negative sign ensures that heat transfer in the
positive x direction is a positive quantity.

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Direction of heat transfer:

𝑑𝑇 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑑𝑇 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝑑𝑥 𝐿
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑞 = −𝑘 𝑞 = −𝑘
𝐿 𝐿
If T1 > T2: 𝑞 > 0. Thus, If T1 > T2: 𝑞 < 0. Thus,
the direction is the direction is different
consistent with the from the direction
direction chosen. chosen.

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Thermal conductivity, k of several materials:
1. ksolid > kliquid > kgas

2. kmetal > knon-metal

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Example 1: The roof of an air-conditioned room is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25
m thick, and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k =
0.8 W/m∙K. The temperature of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof are
measured to be 20 °C and 34 °C, respectively, for a period of 8 hours. Determine:
a) Rate of cooling loss through the roof during the 8-hour period.
b) Cost of that cooling loss to the homeowner if the cost of the electricity is
RM0.30/kWh.

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Step 1: Sketch the diagram • Step 2: Calculate Q

oC
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
T1 = 34 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −𝑘𝐴
∆𝑥

W 20 − 34 K
T2 = 20 oC 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −0.8 48 m2
mK 0.25 m

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 2150 W
Δx = 0.25 m
kconcrete = 0.8 W/m-K
A = 6 m x 8 m = 48 m2 10
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• The cost of that cooling loss in 8 hours:

Cost = amount of heat energy (kWh) × unit cost of energy (RM/kWh)

= 2.150 kW x 8 h x RM 0.30/kWh
W 34 − 20 K
= RM 5.16 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = −0.8 48 m 2
mK 0.25 m

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Example 2: Determine the steady heat flux, q across a 3-mm thick double glass
window panels separated 5-cm apart with air filling the gap between two glass
panels. Given that the temperature on both sides of the window are T1 = 40oC
and T4 = 20oC
T2 T3

Inner Glass
Inner Glass
T4
T1 Air

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
From slide #6: kair = 0.026 W/m-oC; kglass = 0.78 W/m-oC T2 T3
Assumption: Constant heat flux
Inner Glass
𝑞12 = 𝑞23 = 𝑞34 Inner Glass
T4
𝑊 𝑇2 − 40 ℃ T1 Air
− 0.78 −3
=
𝑚 ℃ 3 × 10 𝑚
𝑊 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ℃ 𝑊 20 − 𝑇3 ℃
− 0.026 −2
= − 0.78
𝑚 ℃ 5 × 10 𝑚 𝑚 ℃ 3 × 10−3 𝑚
Solve simultaneously to get T2 and T3 at 39.96oC and 20.04oC
q12 = q23 = q34 = 10.4 W/m2
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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Newton’s Law of Cooling for Convection Heat Transfer

• Rate of heat convection is proportional to the

difference between surface temperature (Ts) and
fluid temperature (T∞)
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞

Qconv = rate of heat convection;

As = surface area of heat transfer;
h = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2∙K);
𝑇𝑠 = temperature of the heat transfer surface;
𝑇∞ = temperature of the fluid 14
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Direction of heat transfer

𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 𝑇∞

𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠 > 𝑇∞ : 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 > 0

𝑇∞
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑠

𝑇𝑠
𝑇∞ > 𝑇𝑠 : 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 > 0

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Newton’s Law of Cooling for Convection Heat Transfer

• Heat transfer coefficient for some types of

heat convection
1. hliquid > hgas
2. hboiling/condensation > hsensible heat
3. hforced convection > hnatural convection
4. hsolid (?)

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Example 2: A 2 m long, 0.3 cm diameter electrical wire extends across a room at
15oC. Heat is generated in the wire as a result of electrical resistance, and the
surface temperature of the wire is measured to be 152oC in steady operation.
Also, the voltage drop and the electric current through the wire are measured to
be 60 V and 1.5A, respectively.
Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine the convection heat
transfer coefficient, h for heat transfer between the outer surface of the wire and
the air in the room.

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Electrical wire: L = 2 m, D = 0.3 cm
∆V = 60 V, I = 1.5 A 𝑄 = 𝐸𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝑉𝐼 = 60 × 1.5 = 90 𝑊
T∞ = 15oC; Ts = 152oC
Note: In the process industries, it is
Surface area of wire: As = πDL = 0.01885 m2 more common to find heat
sources in flowing liquids or gases.
Solving for h: Then heat generated, Q, may not
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 90 𝑊 be conveniently calculated.
ℎ= = Because of this situation, heat
𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ 0.01885 𝑚2 152 − 15℃
transfer coefficients are most
𝑊 commonly determined by
ℎ = 34.9 2 empirical correlations of fluid flow
𝑚 ℃ and heat transfer phenomena. 18
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Radiation Heat Transfer
• Absorptivity: fraction of radiation energy absorbed by the surface.
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𝑄𝑎𝑏𝑠 = α𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑐 = ασ𝐴𝑠 Tsur

α = absorptivity
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4)
Tsur = Surrounding temperature (K)
𝐴𝑠 = Surface area (m2)

• For α = 1, it is described as a blackbody surface.

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Radiation Heat Transfer
• Emissivity: fraction of radiation energy emitted by the surface.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law: 𝑄𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡 = εσ𝐴𝑠 Ts4

ε = emissivity
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4)
Ts = Surface temperature (K)
𝐴𝑠 = Surface area (m2)

• For ε = 1, it is described as a blackbody radiation.

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Emissivity of a surface – function of wavelength

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Net Radiation Heat Transfer emitted by the surface
𝑄 = εσ𝐴𝑠 Ts4 − Tsur
4

𝑄 = εσ𝐴𝑠 Ts2 + Tsur

2
Ts + Tsur Ts − Tsur

𝑄 = hr 𝐴𝑠 Ts − Tsur
hr = radiation heat transfer coefficient

Note: ℎ𝑟 in radiation is a strong function of temperature

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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Example 3: A 20 cm diameter spherical steel ball at 800 K is suspended in air. If
the ball approximates a blackbody, determine the total blackbody emissive power
of the ball.

Total surface area of blackbody emission: AS = 0.1257 m2

Total blackbody emissive power:

𝑄 = 𝜎𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠4
𝑊
= 5.67 × 10−8 × 0.1257 𝑚 2 × 800 𝐾 4
𝑚2 𝐾 4
= 2.92 𝑘𝑊
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 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Example 4: A square glass plate 30 cm height is used to observe the burner
section of a furnace. The emissivity of the glass varies at different wavelengths
but averages at 0.39 over the whole wavelength. Assuming that the inside
temperature of the furnace is at 2000°C, determine the rate of heat radiation
from the glass plate if the surrounding temperature is 30°C.

Total surface area of glass plate: AS = 0.09 m2

Rate of heat radiation:
𝑄 = 𝜀𝜎𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟
4

−8 𝑊 2 × 22734 − 3034 𝐾 4
= 0.39 × 5.67 × 10 × 0.09 𝑚
𝑚2 𝐾 4
= 53.1 𝑘𝑊
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 General Summary
Conduction Convection Radiation

Heat transfer medium

Theory/Law used to
describe each heat
transfer mechanism
Equation to calculate
heat transfer rate, Q
Note:
1. Conduction: thermal conductivity, k
2. Convection: convection heat transfer coefficient, h
3. Radiation: radiation heat transfer coefficient, hr
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 Engineering Calculations
Units and Dimensions
• In engineering calculations, very important to check the dimensional
homogeneity of your calculations.
• A dimension is a fundamental quantity, a property of a physical entity.
• Base dimensions: length (L), mass (M), time (t), temperature (T), amount of
substance (n).
• Derived dimensions – dimensions of other quantities derived from the base
dimensions. eg. M/Lt2

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 Engineering Calculations
Units and Dimensions
• Units are scales used to quantify the dimensions in a standard way.
• Systems of units: CGS, SI, and AES.
• Base units are the units for the base dimensions: meter (m) for length,
kilogram (kg) for mass, second (s) for time, Kelvin (K) for temperature, and
mole (mol) for the amount of substance.
• Multiple units – multiples or fractions of base units. E.g., minutes, hours,
milliseconds, all of which are defined in terms of the base unit of time,
second.
• Derived units – units for the derived dimensions. By multiplying and dividing
base or multiple units (e.g., cm2, ft/min, kg.m/s2). 27
 Engineering Calculations
Units in Heat Transfer

• Q (heat flow) J/s or W

• q (heat flux) J/(s-m2) or W/m2
• k (thermal conductivity) W/m∙°C or W/m∙K
• h (heat transfer coefficient) W/m2∙°C or W/m2∙K
• σ (Stefan-Boltzmann constant) W/(m2∙K4)

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 Engineering Calculations
Significant Figures
• Significant figures are important because they
make you appear to be a good engineer.
• It also makes the intention of the number clear.
• It is intended to show the precision of your
number.
• The intended precision of your number is
important for measurable numbers, such as the
dimension of a heat exchange equipment
(volume, area, length, diameter) and its
operating parameters (temperature, pressure,
flow rates). 29
 Engineering Calculations
Why would these answers be wrong?
(the length exceeded the
precision of measurement
in millimeters )

(the precision of a
constant or a parameter is
not intended)

(tenth & one-hundredth of

a cent carry no significant
value of money)

A good engineer always uses good engineering judgement.

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 Summary
Topic 1: Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer Mechanisms
✓ Conduction, Convection, Radiation
• Engineering Calculations
✓ Writing your answer with too many significant figures is the
wrong answer

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