Grade 7

Sports Science
Notes
Name: ______________________________

Class: _______________________________

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 Exercise Science
The Concept of Physical Fitness and Training

1. Fitness
Fitness is the ability of the human body to function with vigor and alertness, without the
presence of fatigue.

The dictionary defines it as the following:

“Fitness is how well a person is adapted to and capable of living a certain lifestyle.”

 Fitness is usually measured in relation to functional expectations or tasks. For

example; an athlete needs to be fit for the demands of his chosen athletic event.
 A shot put athlete needs to be strong and agile, while a long distance runner
needs to have endurance.
 Sport related fitness can be broken down into strength, speed, endurance,
flexibility and co-ordination.
 Agility, balance, power and reaction time are smaller components which can also
contribute to sport related fitness.

(IAAF 1994: 5.11)

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 Fitness Components

1. Strength: is the maximum force exerted in a single voluntary muscle contraction. The
ability of muscle fibres in the muscle to respond sufficiently when subjected to weight and
resistance.

2. Endurance: refers to the ability to perform work of a given intensity over a period of time.
It is also often called stamina. The main factor that limits endurance is fatigue. Endurance
is also broken up into Muscle Endurance, Speed Endurance and Cardiovascular
Endurance.

3. Speed: Is the rate of movement or reaction of movement measured in time. It is the ability
to react, travel or move quickly using maximum effort.

4. Flexibility: The range of motion of limbs by means of joint movement. The suppleness of
ligaments, tendons, and muscle tissue influence the range of motion of a joint. Good
flexibility prevents injury and allows for good execution of technique. Flexibility can be
improved by stretching exercises.

5. Co-ordination: is the harmonious link between smooth flowing

movements and the correct execution of a task. The ordering
of correct movement patterns without wasting unnecessary
energy.

Other Sub-fitness components:

Balance: Ability to remain in the correct plane of motion while executing a task. To
remain in an upright position without falling, stumbling or losing balance.

Power: How much work is done in a certain time.

Agility: The ability to change position or direction quickly and with skill, without losing
one’s balance.

Reaction time: The rate at which one responds to a stimulus or impulse. It is the time taken
for an athlete to respond between the stimulus and the first movement by
the athlete. E.g. the time a sprinter takes to respond to the sound of the
gun.

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 Fitness Testing
Agility is the ability to move quickly and change directions while
maintaining control and balance. Good agility requires a
combination of speed, balance, power and co-ordination.

Agility T-Test

o Purpose: the T-Test is a test of agility for athletes, and includes forward, lateral, and
backward running.

o Equipment required: tape measure, marking cones, stopwatch, timing

gates (optional)

o Diagram:

o Procedure: Set out 5 cones as illustrated in the diagram above. The subject starts at
the start line. When ready, the subject sprints to cone 1 and touches the base of the
cone with both hands. They then turn left/right and shuffle sideways to cone 2, and also
touches its base, this time with their left/right hand. Then shuffling sideways to the
right/left to cone 3 and touching the base with the right/left hand. They then shuffle
back to cone 1 touching with both hands, and run backwards to the finish line. The
stopwatch is stopped as they pass the finish line.

o Scoring: The trial will not be counted if the subject crosses one foot in front of the
other while shuffling, fails to touch the base of the cones, or fails to face forward
throughout the test. Take the best time of three successful trials. The table on the
following page shows some scores for adult team sport athletes.

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 Males (seconds) Females (seconds)

Excellent < 9.5 < 10.5

Good 9.5 to 10.5 10.5 to 11.5

Average 10.5 to 11.5 11.5 to 12.5

Poor > 11.5 > 12.5

o Comments: Ensure that the subjects face forwards when shuffling and do not cross the
feet over one another. For safety, a spotter should be positioned a few meters behind
cone A to catch players in case they fall while running backward through the finish.

o Reliability: The type of surface that is used should be consistent to ensure good test-
retest reliability

o Advantages: This is a simple agility test to perform, requiring limited equipment and
space.

o Disadvantages: Only one person can perform the test at a time.

Vertical Jump Test

To measure the explosive power of the leg and feet muscles.

What's the point?

Athletes in sports such as basketball, volleyball, or even football, need a great vertical jump in
order to compete effectively. They thus turn to the Vertical Jump Test (sergeant jump) to
assess this key skill. Used regularly, this test will allow you to monitor the effectiveness of your
training program.

What do you need?

o A wall

o A tape measure

o Chalk

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How do you do the test?

o Chalk the end of your fingertips

o Stand side on to the wall, and with both feet flat on the ground, reach up as high as
possible with one hand and mark the wall with the tips of the fingers (M1)

o Then, from a static position, jump as high as possible and touch the wall with your
fingertips (M2)

o Measure the distance from M1 to M2.

o Repeat several times, and record the best result

What Results You'll See

Repeating the test several times over the course of several months will allow you to compare
your results and see how effective your training has been.

If you wish to compare yourself against the best, the following chart has been obtained from
the results of tests conducted with world-class athletes:

% Rank Females Males

91-100 76.20 - 81.30 cm 86.35 - 91.45 cm

81 – 90 71.11 - 76.19 cm 81.30 - 86.34 cm

71 – 80 66.05 - 71.10 cm 76.20 - 81.29 cm

61 – 70 60.95 - 66.04 cm 71.10 - 76.19 cm

51 – 60 55.90 - 60.94 cm 66.05 - 71.09 cm

41 – 50 50.80 - 55.89 cm 60.95 - 66.04 cm

31 – 40 45.71 - 50.79 cm 55.90 - 60.94 cm

21 – 30 40.65 - 45.70 cm 50.80 - 55.89 cm

11 – 20 35.55 - 40.64 cm 45.70 - 50.79 cm

1 – 10 30.50 - 35.54 cm 40.65 - 45.69 cm

Alternatively, you can compare your results against the normative data of the general population:

Gender Excellent Above average Average Below average Poor

Male >65cm 50 - 65cm 40 - 49cm 30 - 39cm <30cm

Female >58cm 47 - 58cm 36 - 46cm 26 - 35cm <26cm

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Push Up Test
The push-up fitness test (also called the press up test) measures upper body strength and
endurance.

There are many variations of the push up test, such as

different placement of the hands, how far to dip, the
duration of the test and the method of counting the
number of completed push ups.

o Procedure: A standard push up begins with the

hands and toes touching the floor, the body and legs in a
straight line, feet slightly apart, the arms at shoulder width
apart, extended and at right angles to the body. Keeping the back and knees straight,
the subject lowers the body to a predetermined point, to touch some other object, then
returns back to the starting position with the arms extended. This action is repeated,
and test continues until exhaustion, or time has run out.

o Scoring: Record the number of correctly completed push-ups.

o Variations: Some variations of the push up test are

designed to make it easier for certain populations, which
may be required when testing people with weak upper
body strength such as children, females and the elderly.
The traditional female push-up technique is performed
with the knees resting on the ground.

o Timed Test: A common version of the push up test is to

measure the maximum number of push ups in a set time, such as one or two minutes.

o Target population: the push up test is commonly used as a general test of strength.
There are some sports in which upper body strength is particularly important.

o Advantages: this test is easy and quick to perform, usually requiring minimal or
inexpensive equipment. Many subjects can be tested at once.

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20m Beep Test Instructions
The 20m beep test is a commonly used maximal running aerobic fitness test. It is also known
as the multistage fitness test (MSFT)

Equipment required: Flat, non-slip surface, marking cones, 20m measuring tape, beep test
audio, music player, recording sheets.

o Procedure: This test involves continuous running between two lines 20m apart in time
to recorded beeps. The participants stand behind one of the lines facing the second line,
and begin running when instructed by the recording. The speed at the start is quite
slow. The subject continues running between the two lines, turning when signaled by
the recorded beeps. After about one minute, a sound indicates an increase in speed, and
the beeps will be closer together. This continues each minute (level). If the line is
reached before the beep sounds, the subject must wait until the beep sounds before
continuing. If the line is not reached before the beep sounds, the subject is given a
warning and must continue to run to the line, then turn and try to catch up with the
pace within two more ‘beeps’. The test is stopped if the subject fails to reach the line
(within 2 meters) for two consecutive ends after a warning.

o Scoring: The athlete's score is the level and number of shuttles (20m) reached before
they were unable to keep up with the recording. Record the last level completed (not
necessarily the level stopped at).

men women

excellent > 13 > 12

very good 11 - 13 10 - 12

good 9 - 11 8 - 10

average 7-9 6-8

poor 5-7 4-6

very poor <5 <4

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 o Target population: this test is suitable for sports teams and school groups, but not for
populations in which a maximal exercise test would be contraindicated.

o Validity: The correlation to actual VO2max scores is high

o Reliability: The reliability of the beep test would depend on how strictly the test is run
and the practice allowed for the subjects.

o Advantages: Large groups can perform this test all at once for minimal costs.

o Disadvantages: Practice and motivation levels can influence the score attained, and
the scoring can be subjective. As the test is often conducted outside, the environmental
conditions can affect the results.

Modified Sit and Reach Test

This is a modified version of the traditional sit and reach test, designed to control for the
variable lengths of people's arms and legs, which is a limitation of the standard test. In this
test, the zero mark is adjusted for each individual, based on their sitting reach level.

o Purpose: The sit and reach test is an important functional measure of hip region
flexibility, including the lower back and hamstring muscles (the back of the legs).

o Equipment required: modified sit and

reach box (or alternatively a makeshift ruler
and box may be used).

o Description / procedure: Remove your

shoes, and sit on the floor with your back
and head against a wall. Your legs should be out straight
ahead and knees flat against the floor. Have someone
place the box flat against your feet. While keeping your
back and head against the wall, stretch your arms out
towards the box. Adjust the sliding ruler so that the zero
mark is at your fingertips. Place your hands side by side,
and lean forward slowly as far as possible (your head and
shoulders can come away from the wall) keeping the
fingertips level with each other and the legs flat. Do not jerk or bounce to reach further.
Hold the full reach position for two seconds, and record you score.

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 o Scoring: The score is recorded to the nearest centimetre.

o Reliability: The reliability will depend on the amount of warm-up allowed, and whether
the same procedures are followed each time. Most norms are based on no previous
warm-up, though the best results will be achieved after a warm up or if the test is
proceeded by a test such as the endurance
test.

Curl Up / Sit-Up / Crunch Test

o Purpose: The curl up test measures

abdominal muscular strength and endurance
of the abdominals and hip-flexors, important
in back support and core stability.

o Equipment required: flat, clean, cushioned surface, stopwatch, recording sheets, pen.

o Sit-up technique: The subject lies on a cushioned, flat, clean surface with knees
flexed, usually at 90 degrees. A partner may assist by anchoring the feet to the ground.
The position of the hands and arms can affect the difficulty of the test. They are
generally not placed behind the head as this encourages the subject to stress the neck
and pull the head forward. The hand may be placed on their thighs. The subject raises
the trunk in a smooth motion, sliding the hands towards the knees. The trunk is lowered
back to the floor so that the shoulder blades or upper back touch the floor.

o Test procedure: A common method of performing a sit up fitness test is to record the
maximum number of sit ups in a certain time period, such as one minute or two minutes

o Scoring: The completion of one complete curl up (up and back) counts as one. The
situp must be performed correctly for it to be counted.

o Advantages: this test is simple to perform requiring minimal equipment, and large
groups may be tested at once.

o Disadvantages: a curl up with the feet

held increases the involvement of the
hip flexor muscles, making the test less
valid as a measure of abdominal
strength.

o Comments: Make sure that the subject

does not "bounce" off the floor - only correctly performed curl ups should be counted.

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Pull-Up / Chin Up Test

o Purpose: This test measures upper body muscle strength and endurance.

o Equipment required: Horizontal overhead bar, at an adequate height so

that the participants can hang from with arms fully extended and feet not
touching the floor.

o Procedure: Grasp the overhead bar using either an overhand grip (palms
facing away from body) or underhand grip (palms facing toward body),
with the arms fully extended. The subject then raises the body until the chin clears the top
of the bar, then lowers again to a position with the arms fully extended. The pull-ups should
be done in a smooth motion. Jerky motion, swinging the
body, and kicking or bending the legs is not permitted.

o Scoring: The total number of correctly completed pull-

ups is recorded. The type of grip should also be recorded
with the results.

o Target population: sports in which upper body strength

is important, such as rowing.

o Advantages: the equipment is readily available, and this

test is easy and quick to perform.

Standing Long Jump Test (Broad Jump)

The Standing long jump, also called the Broad Jump, is
a common and easy to administer test of explosive leg
power. The standing long jump was also once an event
at the Olympic Games, and is also an event in Sports
Hall competitions in the UK.

o Purpose: to measure the explosive power of the legs

o Equipment required: tape measure to measure distance jumped, non-slip floor for
takeoff, and soft landing area preferred.

o Procedure: The athlete stands behind a line marked on the ground with feet slightly apart.
A two foot take-off and landing is used, with swinging of the arms and bending of the knees
to provide forward drive. The subject attempts to jump as far as possible, landing on both
feet without falling backwards. Three attempts are allowed.

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o Scoring: The measurement is taken from take-off line to the nearest point of contact on
the landing (back of the heels). Record the longest distance jumped, the best of three
attempts. The table below gives a rating scale for the standing long jump test for adults.

o Advantages: this test is simple and quick to perform, requiring minimal equipment.

o Disadvantages: there is some skill component in this test.

o Comments: Falling or stepping backward after the landing

will result in measurement to that point of contact rather than
where the feet first touched. Some subjects will try to use a
step at take-off, which is not allowed. The World Record for
the standing long jump is held by Norwegian Arne Tvervaag,
who jumped 3.71 meters.

The above information has been adapted from the following websites: http://www.topendsports.com
http://www.nrpt.co.uk

Assessment 1

One of the above fitness tests will be assigned to you and your partner. You may use the
information given above and are encouraged to research it in further detail. You will then teach
the theory and practicality of the test to the class. You will then need to perform the test on all
the students in your class and record their results. You will need to explain the various
components such as: the purpose, equipment, procedure, scoring, advantages and any norms
relating to children. Use the rubric on the next page to help you plan your assessment. Good
luck and have fun!

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Assessment Rubric: Activity 1 Total 50 Marks

Theory – classroom presentation Total 30

Explanation An excellent and A good, A satisfactory A below Does not
and thorough explanation explanation average grasp what
Interpretation explanation, and well and explanation the test is
of test understands the interpreted interpretation and about and
relevant interpretation poor
concepts. explanation

Mark out of 10 9-10 7-8 5-6 3-4 0-2

Additional An excellent, A good, well A satisfactory A below No further
research, well researched researched well researched average research or
creativity and presentation, presentation, presentation, presentation, creativity
presentation demonstration graphics graphics no graphics present.
videos and present. present. present.
graphics present.
Mark out of 10 9-10 7-8 5-6 3-4 0-2
All components All components Most Some Few No
present present and components components components components
correctly present and present and present or present
interpreted correctly correctly incorrectly
interpreted interpreted interpreted
Mark out of 10 9-10 7-8 5-6 3-4 0-2
Practical – Field Total 20
Correct set up Equipment is Some aspects No equipment
of the test correctly and missing or present or set
accurately set incorrectly set
Mark out of 5 4-5 2-3 0-1
Correct Excellent Good Average Below average Poor
demonstration
given
Mark out of 5 5 4 3 2 1
Scoring Comprehensive Some aspects Did not grasp
and detailed missing the concept
Mark out of 10 9-10 7-8 5-6 3-4 0-2
Total
Assessment 2:

You will be assessed on your performance and participation during the fitness testing. According to the
following criteria.

Name:
Fitness Test Result Participation level Total
(3 marks each) (2 marks each)
T-Drill
Push-up
Crunch
Modified sit and reach
Beep test
Broad Jump
Vertical Jump
Pull up
Total 24 16 40

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 What is my purpose of
training?

What is my goal?

2. Training
Training is the process whereby an athlete develops skills and improves his/ her fitness in
order to meet the demands of a selected activity.

 Training programs use exercise and practice techniques to develop the qualities that an athlete
requires for a particular event.
 Training programs are worked out scientifically in order to meet the needs of an activity. For
example, a shot put athlete will not use the same training program as a hurdler or a swimmer.
 However, a training program can be planned according to certain principles:

2.1 The Law of Overload:

The human body has the ability to adapt to change. Therefore, an athlete has the ability to adapt
and become fitter.

￢ When an athlete starts training, he/she becomes tired.

￢ As an athlete trains, he/she becomes fitter and adapts to the load of work.
￢ In order for the athlete to continue improving,
the load then needs to be increased.
￢ Thus the human body has the ability to adapt to
work load as fitness
improves.

2.2 The Law of Reversibility

“If you don’t use it, you lose it!”

￢ If the athlete does not train regularly; there is no regular loading and the athlete
will not improve his fitness.

2.3 The Law of Specificity

￢ The nature of training and the training load must suit the individual and the chosen
activity / event.
￢ The training load of a field athlete will be very different to that of a sprinter.

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Terms
In a training program you may come across some of the following terms:

1. resistance: The load that your body has to move or work against
E.g. __________________________________________________________
2. repetition: The number of times that you repeat an exercise without stopping.
3. sets: This is how many times one would repeat an exercise routine as a whole.
e.g. Three sets of 10 repetitions (of crunches) would be written:
3 x 10 crunches
4. Duration: The length of time or distance of one repetition.
5. Recovery: The rest time between repetitions and sets.
6. Intensity: This is the effort and speed that one puts into the exercise.
E.g. how fast to run a 400m in training. 100% or 90%?
7. Volume: How much work is done in a training session?
The total amount of repetitions and sets done.

Aerobic
￢ This is an energy system that requires a continuous supply of oxygen to function.
￢ An activity that is done for a long duration of time.
￢ It is done slowly or at low intensity.
￢ A long distance or marathon runner.

Anaerobic
￢ This energy system does not require oxygen but relies on the oxygen already stored in the
muscles.
￢ An activity done in a short time: Less than 1 min.
￢ Done fast: at a very high intensity.
￢ A sprinter or shot put athlete. A rugby, netball, tennis or hockey player would need a combination of
both energy systems

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3. Planning a training program
Training is a long-term process, which allows an athlete to build up gradually to a
peak performance. Training programs need to be divided into seasonal and preparation
periods:

1. Preparation 1 / (winter training)

￢ This is the beginning stage of the training period.

￢ The athlete needs to start getting fit and does general training
￢ Gradually increasing the volume of work done.
￢ However, the intensity is very low.

2. Preparation 2 / (Pre - season training)

￢ This prepares the athlete for competition

￢ The athlete trains specifically for his / her event or activity
￢ New techniques and skills are taught and practiced.
￢ The volume of work slowly starts to decrease ( quantity)
￢ The intensity of training starts to increase (quality)

3. The competition season / (In season)

￢ This is the period where the athlete should be at his / her peak fitness and
conditioning.
￢ The athlete participates in competitions
￢ The volume of work is very low
￢ The intensity of training is very high.

4. Transition period / (Off season)

￢ It is very important for any athlete to have a rest period.

￢ The athlete may participate in another type of sport. This is called active
rest.

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Let us recap:

1 What is fitness?

2. What are the main components of fitness?

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

3. What is meant by the term training?

3.1 There are three laws of training:

3.1.1

3.1.2

3.1.3

4. There are 4 main seasons for training:

4.1 ___________________________

Where volume is and intensity is

4.2 ________________________________

Where volume and intensity

New are learnt and practiced.

4.3 __________________________________________________

Where the volume is and intensity

The athlete in this season

4.4 : a period of______________________

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4. Warm up exercises and stretching
The warm up activities are a crucial part of any exercise regime or sports training. The importance of a
structured warm up routine should not be under estimated when it
comes to the prevention of sports injury.

Warming up prior to any physical activity does a number of

beneficial things:

to prepare the body and mind for more strenuous activity.

increase the body's core temperature.
increasing the body's muscle temperature. By increasing muscle temperature you're helping to
make the muscles loose, supple and pliable.
increasing both your heart rate and your respiratory rate. This increases blood flow, which in
turn increases the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles. All this helps to
prepare the muscles, tendons and joints for more strenuous activity.

Obviously, it's important to start with the easiest and most gentle activity first, building upon each part
with more energetic activities, until the body is at a physical and mental peak.

There are four key elements, or parts, which should be included to ensure an effective and complete
warm up. They are:
1. The general warm up;
2. Static stretching;
3. The sports specific warm up; and
4. Dynamic/Ballistic stretching.

This process will help ensure the athlete has a minimal risk of sports injury.

Let’s have a look at each element individually.

1. General warm up

The general warm up should consist of a light physical activity. Although a correct general warm up for
the average person should take about five to ten minutes and result in a light sweat.

The aim of the general warm up is to elevate the heart rate and respiratory rate, increases the blood
flow and helps with the transportation of oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles. This also helps
to increase the muscle temperature, allowing for a more effective static stretch. Which bring us to part
two.

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2. Static stretching

Static stretching is a very safe and effective form of basic stretching. There is a limited threat of injury
and it is extremely beneficial for overall flexibility. During this part of the warm up, static stretching
should include all the major muscle groups, and this entire part should last for about five to ten minutes.

Static stretching is performed by placing the body into a position whereby the muscle or group of
muscles to be stretched is under tension. At this point, the position is held or maintained to allow the
muscles and tendons to lengthen (min. 30sec.).

This second part of an effective warm up is extremely important, as it helps to lengthen both the
muscles and tendons which in turn allow your limbs a greater range of movement.

3. Sport specific warm up

With the first two parts of the warm up carried out thoroughly and correctly, it is now safe to move onto
the third part of an effective warm up. In this part, the athlete is specifically preparing their body for the
demands of their particular sport. During this part of the warm up, more vigorous activity should be
employed. Activities should reflect the type of movements and actions which will be required during the
sporting event.

4. Dynamic/Ballistic stretching

Finally, a correct warm up should finish with a series of dynamic stretches. However, this form of
stretching carries with it a high risk of injury if used incorrectly. Dynamic stretching should only be used
after a high level of general flexibility has been established.

Dynamic stretching involves a controlled, soft bounce or swinging motion to force a particular body part
past its usual range of movement. The force of the bounce or swing is gradually increased but should
never become radical or uncontrolled.

During this last part of an effective warm up it is also important to keep the dynamic stretches specific
to the athlete’s particular sport.

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5. THE HISTORY OF SPORT

Greece
The geographical position of Greece played an important role in the development of
physical activities. The fact that Greece enjoys a temperate climate, has beautiful
mountain ranges and a calm sea led to an appreciation for beauty, balance, harmony
and an energetic outdoor lifestyle.
The Greek nation was divided into three states:

1 The Spartans.

The Spartans were a patriotic, warring nation who dedicated their lives to the state.
They were strong, disciplined and a lot of emphasis was placed on physical training.
Men spent most of their lives serving the Spartan military.

2. The Homerians

The population was made up of mostly farmers. However, we do read about wars that took
place between the Homerians and the Trojans. Therefore, they must have also had military
training. Homerians loved their physical activities. They would play sport at any giving
opportunity. Homerian sport was a means of relaxation, pleasure and an active lifestyle.

3. The Athenians

The Athenian nation placed a lot of emphasis on education. The goal of educating young boys
was to prepare them for social, political, military and religious life in Athens. They attended a
school called the Palestra where they were educated in gymnastics, grammar, music and
culture.
The ancient Greek civilisation believed that a person should strive towards the harmonious
development of the total person. (A healthy mind, body and spirit) Therefore, physical
strength and a healthy body was an important part of their lifestyle. They spent many hours in
gymnasiums where they exercised and practised activities such as wrestling and boxing.

The religious belief of the Greeks was based on the Greek gods. The legend suggests that these
gods lived on Mount Olympus from where they ruled over the people.
The gods played an important role in the lives of the Greeks and all the actions and behaviour
were placed in the hands of the gods.

Zeus: was the leader of the Greek gods

Apollo: god of light and truth
Aries : the god of war
Hera: Zeus’s wife

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From a young age (+ 7 years old), Greek boys were taken to barracks where they received
education and formal physical training. (School)

Boys age 18, received 2 years of military training; where the emphasis was placed on physical
strength fighting skills and fitness.

To Summarise…
The Value of Sport

Sport played a vital role in the Greek community. Activities such as chariot
racing, boxing, wrestling and running races were held at funerals, weddings and
other festivals. Winners even received prizes for winning events!

To the Greeks, sport meant: pleasure, relaxation, total development, health, beautiful
body, social interaction, moral education, self-worth and fame.

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The Ancient Olympic Games

The greatest of all Greek athletic competition festivals, was a religious ceremony
dedicated to the leader of the gods, Zeus. The first recorded Olympic games were
held in 776 BC in the ancient city of Olympia.

The Olympic festivities were seen as a means by which a spirit of good will and unity could
be encouraged between towns. For the duration of the games all hostility between towns
ceased. The ‟Olympic Truce” protected athletes and visitors to Olympia. Every competitor
also pledged an oath in front of the statue of Zeus that he would participate with honour.
Due to the fact that all competitors held the same religious beliefs, rules and ethical codes
could be strictly applied.

The Ancient Olympics were held every 4 years and it followed a 5 day programme.
The Olympics began with only one athletic event, the 200m sprint.
Fifty years later, the 400m sprint was added to the games. By the end of the seventh Century
however, the games were enriched with events such as:
The distance race, wrestling, boxing, single and four horse chariot races and the pentathlon (a test
of strength and endurance which included combined events such as long jump, discus, javelin,
wrestling and a 200m sprint).
A popular event the Pankration was added. It is the most ancient form of martial art going
back to the prehistoric times of Hercules, who was considered to be the first victor of
the event.

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Increasing crowds lead to the building of the first Olympic facility in Olympia and the first “Olympic
village” was constructed. The name ‟ Gymnasium” comes from the Greek word ‟ gymnos” which
means ‘naked’
□ This is because exercise and practice took place in the nude!
□ Women were traditionally forbidden to compete in the games.
□ They were not even allowed to be spectators in the stadium and could be
sentenced to death if they broke this rule!
□ Women however, held their own games in honour of the goddess Hera.

Athletes were amateurs and only received Laurel wreathes made of Olive
branches. The Victors in the Olympic games were often heralded as heroes. They received
great recognition in their home towns.

Period of Change

In 365 BC Pisa (The Romans) gained control over Olympia.

This Roman invasion of Greece changed the character of the games. The religious following
of Zeus decreased and the virtuous nature of the games was spoilt.
Athletes started becoming professional, earning large sums of money.
Winning was everything and losers were often treated like outcasts.
The games lasted for over 1000 years .
The ancient Olympic Games ended in 261 AD, when the Roman Emperor Theodosius banned
all pagan festivals because it became too professional, unethical and money orientated

Worksheet:
23
Fill in the missing words:
The First recorded Olympic Games were in the year .

The ancient games included events such as the m, , ,

, and .

The games were held every years in the town of .

These games lasted days and were grounded on myths surrounding .

The competitors took part in the nude and winners received .

They pledged an in front of the statue of .

Women were not allowed in the stadium and were forbidden to compete,

however they held in honour of the god .

Later in the games was the only goal.

In the year BC, gained control of Olympia.

This Roman invasion of Greece changed the of the games. .

In the year Emperor banned the games because

In total the ancient games lasted for almost years.

24
A Brief introduction to
The Modern Olympic Games
Frenchman, Baron Pierre de Coubertin discovered the remains of the old Olympic stadium in 1875. He
had a deep passion for sport and education and in 1894 he set out to revive the spirit of the Olympic
Games. He accomplished his goal and in 1896 the first Modern Olympic Games were held in Athens
and then four years later in Paris.

The Olympic Games would be held every four years in one of the world’s largest cities. (Cities would
put in a bid to host the games)

A committee of 14 members namely the International Olympic Committee were elected to govern the
games. (IOC)
Coubertin developed traditional symbols to reflect the true Olympic Spirit of the games:

The Olympic Flag was designed in 1913 to represent the 5 major continents of the world.
The Olympic motto: ‟citius, altius, fortius‶ meaning faster, higher, stronger.
The Olympic oath was written in 1920:
‟In the name of all competitors, I promise that we shall take part in these Olympic Games,
respecting and abiding by the rules that govern them, in the true spirit of sportsmanship, for
the glory of sport and the honour of our teams.‶

The Olympic Flame which was lit at Olympia as a remembrance to the origin of the games.
The raising of various countries‵ flags and singing national anthems on the winners’
podium
The receiving of meddles (Gold, Silver and Bronze)

Today, the Olympic Games are the biggest and most prestigious sporting event in the world.
Many countries invest millions in the training, scientific research and building of their national
teams.

Interesting Facts:
We have the Summer Olympics and Winter Olympics
There are 26 different sports in the Summer Olympics

25
 1. Fill In the Missing words….

Frenchman, was instrumental in establishing the Modern Olympic Games

and in the first Olympic Games were held in .

The Olympic Games are held every years in a city which wins a .

The IOC stands s for and this committee governs the games.

2. In short name and describe 6 traditional symbols that encompass the

Modern Olympic Games

3. Label the Colours

of the Olympic flag

4. Cities which hosted the games:

2012: ________________

2008: ________________

2004: ________________

26
 6. Anatomy
The study of the human body and its structures
 The building blocks of the body are called cells
 These cells join together to form tissues
 Tissues together form the organs
 Organs together form the various systems of the body

Cells tissues organs systems

E.g.: The skeletal system – the study of bones

The digestive system – mouth, stomach, esophagus, intestines etc.
The respiratory system – breathing: trachea, lungs
The reproductive system – genitals, womb, ovaries, etc.
The cardiovascular system – circulation: heart and lungs
The muscular system – muscles, ligaments and tendons etc.

Before we can continue we must look at certain positions of the body and the correct
vocabulary.

TERMINOLOGY
THE ANATOMICAL POSITIONS.

We need to know where to locate certain organs or bones in the body. In order to do this a
specific way has been designed to refer to the parts and positions of the body.

This means that, no matter where the patient is, the part of the body in question can be
accurately located. It also means that a universal language has been developed so that there
can be no confusion. All scientific industries use the same terms to refer to specific parts of the
body.

27
1 The Anatomical Position of the Body (Martini 1995:7)
This person is standing up straight, and is facing forward. Hands are next to the thighs with the
thumb facing outward, palms and feet facing forward

Terms you need to know referring to direction

Superior- closer to the head

Inferior - further from the head
Anterior - front of the body
Posterior - back of the body
Mid line - a line running through the body from the tip of the nose to the umbilicus
Medial - Closer to the midline
Lateral - further from the midline

Terms related to Movement

Flexion- Movement to close or reduce the angel between two bones E.g. flexing
bicep to move wrist to shoulder (bending the arm)
Extension- To open or increase the angle between two bones. e.g. Using the Triceps
to straighten the arm again.

28
 The Skeletal System
The Skeleton

This is made up of bones, cartilage and joints.

The function of the skeleton is to
 give structure and form to the body.
 protect vital organs e.g. the ribs protect the lungs etc.
 Muscles are attached to the skeleton and thus the skeleton is also fundamental in
producing movement.

Bones
There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. At birth your bones are made of cartilage. As you
grow they calcify and gradually become bone. Bones fully ossify at 25 years of age.

Joints
A joint is the point of articulation where two bones meet. Joints allow movement of body parts
and are therefore classified according to their type of mobility:

Examples of Types of joints:

Interesting information: Ligaments Join Bone to bone!

Tendons join Muscle to bone
Tendons join muscle to muscle

Research activity:
Name and briefly describe the 6 synovial joints. Give examples of each.

29
Anterior view of the Skeleton

30
The Muscular System

31
 The Muscular system
consists of muscles, ligaments and tendons. (Tendons join muscle to muscle)
Muscles form about 40 % of the body’s mass
Muscles have the ability to contract, usually in response to a stimulus
received from the nervous system.

The muscular system is responsible for the movement of the human

body. Attached to the bones of the skeletal system are about 700
named muscles that make up roughly half of a person’s body weight.
Each of these muscles is a discrete organ constructed of skeletal
muscle tissue, blood vessels, tendons, and nerves.
Muscle tissue is also found inside of the heart, digestive organs, and
blood vessels. In these organs, muscles serve to move substances
throughout the body....

There are three distinct types of muscles:

1 Skeletal muscles, or voluntary muscles e.g. using your own will – biceps and triceps
2 Cardiac or heart muscles are also involuntary. ( you cant move them out of your own
will)
3 Smooth, involuntary muscles are controlled automatically in the brain. (Subconsciously)
e.g. Muscles in the digestive system and the intercostal muscles of the lungs.

Muscles provide strength, balance, posture, movement and heat for the body to keep warm.
Function of Muscle Tissue
The main function of the muscular system is movement. Muscles are the only tissue in the body
that has the ability to contract and therefore move the other parts of the body.

Related to the function of movement is the muscular system’s second function: the
maintenance of posture and body position. Muscles often contract to hold the body still or in a
particular position rather than to cause movement. The muscles responsible for the body’s
posture have the greatest endurance of all muscles in the body—they hold up the body
throughout the day without becoming tired.

Another function related to movement is the movement of substances inside the body. The
cardiac and visceral muscles are primarily responsible for transporting substances like blood or
food from one part of the body to another.

The final function of muscle tissue is the generation of body heat. As a result of the high
metabolic rate of contracting muscle, our muscular system produces a great deal of waste heat.
Many small muscle contractions within the body produce our natural body heat. When we
exert ourselves more than normal, the extra muscle contractions lead to a rise in body
temperature and eventually to sweating.

32
Muscle Fibres are also classified according to function:
1 Fast Twitch fibres which are typically __________ in colour. The contract more
rapidly and produce bursts of power for example when an athlete needs to sprint
out of the blocks
2 Slow twitch fibres which are more ___________in colour. These muscle fibres
produce greater endurance such as a marathon runner.

Try and see if you can fill these labels in of this muscle man below:

33
Good Posture

 Good posture gives maximum function with the least expenditure of energy.
 A lack of good posture means that postural problems put a strain on your entire body and
affect your health and the way you move. If you have a deviation form a “normal” posture in
one part of the body, other areas will over-compensate and put everything out of balance.
Imbalances create stress on the tissues and can lead to injury.
 A “normal” posture has 3 natural curves in the spine. These curves act as shock absorbers
and enable movement.

 A few simple ways to check on the health of your posture…

 Posture is much more than how you look when sitting or standing. Good posture is defined
as the body alignment and positioning that puts the least amount of strain on the body
when resisting against gravity. Good posture distributes the forces of gravity through the
body so that no one structure is overstressed. Poor alignment of the joints can contribute
to the development of arthritis due to abnormal wear on joints, abnormal strain on
ligaments holding the joints together, and muscle fatigue that provide joint stability

34
 First Aid

First Aid

The following advice is a very simple outline and should not be seen as a comprehensive guide
to first aid. It is advisable for sports person to complete a course in first aid. A simple CPR
course takes only 2-3 hours to complete.
A first aid kit should be kept in the dance studio for emergencies.
The R.I.C.E method can be used immediately with sprains and strains.
In the case of a bad fall where you are unsure if there has been damage to the back or neck, the
individual must be immobilized and medical help sought immediately. Do not attempt to move
the athlete, rather cover him/her to keep the body warm, keep checking for shock and wait for
the paramedics.

Treatment – R.I.C.E
R.I.C.E stands for Rest – Ice – Compression – Elevation
(P)RICE – is an acronym used frequently to replace the standard RICE as it includes
Prevention. If you prevent injuries in the first place you do not have to pay the price of dealing
with them!

 Rest
 helps the body with the healing process as energy is focused on healing.
 allows recovery instead of working excessively while weak and causing further injury.
 if possible active rest can be practiced by exercising the uninjured parts of the body (e.g.
water-exercise which is non-weight bearing).

 Ice
 should be applied to the area as soon as possible to decrease swelling.
 the cold has an effect on the sensory nerves and can decrease the pain.
 when the ice is later removed circulation increases and brings necessary nutrients to the
site of injury to aid healing.
 apply ice for 10-20 minutes (it takes at least 10 minutes for the cold to penetrate the
muscle) with regular intervals of relief in between as often as possible in the first 24-48
hours post injury.
 never place ice directly onto the skin as it can cause skin burn.

35
 [Note: heat packs or hot baths may be used to treat chronic injuries,
but always in conjunction with other methods of treatment. Raising
the temperature of the tissue increases the blood flow to facilitate
healing, relieve muscle spasm and increase the flexibility of any scar
tissue which may have formed.]

 Compression
 is used when there is excessive bleeding to
help stop the bleeding at the site of injury.
 can be used for external and internal
bleeding (bruising).
 must not be done for too long as it can
compress the vessels and damage future
blood supply to the area.
 is used in the form of bandaging or
strapping (e.g. a twisted ankle) which
counteracts the accumulation of fluid in
the injured area.
 as with ice it is essential to relieve the
compression at regular intervals.

 Elevation
 is done to decrease swelling.
 of the injured area above the level of the heart facilitates drainage of fluid from the
area.

36
Shock
The cause of most fatalities resulting from either trauma or medical conditions is shock.
The uneven, disrupted or insufficient supply of oxygen to the cells, tissues and organs in the
body results in the body being unable to function as it should and this condition is known as
shock.

SIGNS OF SHOCK:

SKIN: The skin becomes pale, cold and clammy

EYES: The pupils dilate
PULSE: Rapid and weak
BREATHING: Fast and shallow

SYMPTOMS OF SHOCK:

Patient becomes restless

Patient is thirsty
Patient can be a little aggressive
Patient is scared
Patient complains of getting cold

TREATMENT
Always remember the three H’s.

HAZARD HELLO HELP

HAZARD: Gloves: Always protect yourself by wearing gloves. Never touch the blood of the patient
without protecting yourself. This is known as universal protection. Environment:
Remember too that if the environment is safe for you it will be safe for your patient.
HELLO: Communicate with the patient. You can calm them down and reduce the effects of
shock. Also ask them if you can help them
HELP: Call for professional help as soon as possible. Never leave the patient alone. If you do
not have a cell phone, then send someone to phone the emergency services.
Emergency number: _____________________________________________

C _______________
C _______________
C _______________

37
Remember the “CAB”:

CIRCULATION AIRWAY BREATHING :

Check the circulation; does the patient have a pulse?

Make sure that the airway is open.
Make sure that the patient can breathe

Almost all injuries or medical trauma is accompanied by SHOCK.

Shock can be classified in various ways:

1 Hypovolemic shock (excessive bleeding)

Hypovolemic shock occurs when the volume of blood in the body decreases to such an extent that the
heart is unable to pump the decreased volume of blood through the body.

The normal volumes of blood in the body are:

Babies 300 – 400 ml (a coke can is 330ml)
They may not lose more than 6 teaspoons of blood
Children 1500 – 2000ml (picture a 2l milk bottle)
They may not lose more than ¾ cup of blood
Teenagers 4000 – 5000ml They may not lose more than 1 ½ cups of blood
Adults 4500 – 6000ml They may not lose more than 2 cups of blood

If the body loses 10% of its blood, it is serious!

Should the loss of blood occur within 10 minutes the person would suffer from Hypovolemic
shock.

Uncontrolled bleeding, both internal and external, is a very serious condition and should be treated
quickly and effectively.

2 Cardiogenic shock (Heart)

The causes of cardiogenic shock are: a heart attack, punctured lung or a ruptured diaphragm.

38
3 Septic shock (Infection)
Septic shock is the condition where the patient has suffered injury or illness which has left a
great deal of infection in the tissues and cells in the body.

The causes of septic shock include abscesses, gangrene, soft tissue infection, pneumonia and
intestinal perforations, a burst appendix. Some of the signs and symptoms of septic shock
include;

4 Neurogenic shock (Nervous System)

This is caused by the malfunctioning of the autonomous nervous system.

Neurogenic shock is caused by spinal injuries and some drugs.

5 Anaphylactic shock (Allergic reaction)

This type of shock occurs when a person

comes into contact with a substance for
which he is allergic.

Various factors may cause

anaphylactic shock, these include

Animals, medicines, food, insect bites and

inhaled or ingested chemicals.

6 Psychogenic shock

This is a temporary manifestation of shock and is generally

self-correcting.
In cases of fright or pain.
The result is that there is a temporary shortage of blood flow
to the brain. This causes the patient to faint, in some cases.

39
General treatment for shock:

Keep the patient calm.

Keep the patient warm.
Reassure the patient all the time.
Place their legs up.
Turn their heads if they do not have a neck injury ( in case they want to throw up)
Get the patient to professional help as soon as possible.
Do NOT give them anything to eat or drink.

40
 First Aid Steps….
What to do?

1 HHH CCC CAB

•Hazard •Check •Circulation/

•Hello •Call compression(CPR)
•Help •Care •Airway
•Breathing

Bleeding

2
Shock

Neck/ back injuries

Fractures (broken bones)

Other

R I C E
•Rest • Ice •Compression •Elevation

41
CHOKING
A person can choke when the air which is inhaled through the mouth and/or nose does not reach the
lungs.
This can be caused by any number of things such as:

1. Sweets
2. marbles
3. broken teeth
4. blood clots
5. swollen tissue in the throat

See if you can add more causes of choking

The object stuck in the throat may cause a total obstruction or a partial obstruction
o The important thing to remember is that the person cannot get sufficient Oxygen (O2)
into their lungs.

Let’s look at partial and total obstructions in more depth:

1. Partial Obstruction:

This is when there is something lodged in the throat, but air can still squeeze through and the person can
still get a little air into the lungs.

How would you know if someone is choking?

☞ The person becomes scared (panic expression on their face)

The person begins to cough
They become a little blue in the face (cyanosis)
They desperately try to breathe
If they manage to take a breath, there is a wheezing sound.

42
2. Total obstruction

If the object blocks the air way (trachea) totally, then no oxygen is able to get past the object, and the
person is unable to get air into the lungs at all.

Breathing is an involuntary, painless, effortless exercise which is controlled by the carbon dioxide
receptors in the brain. You cannot force yourself to breathe. You can hold your breath for a while, but
then the message is given by the brain to take in oxygen again.

The average adult breathes at a rate of 12-20 breaths per minute.

A child breathes at a rate of 20 -25 breaths per minute
A baby breathes at a rate of 30-70 times a minute.

Signs of total obstruction:

they use the universal distress signal

the person cannot cough
the person cannot breathe
the person cannot speak
The person may become cyanotic (blue in the face )
if help is not rendered, the person can become unconscious.

Universal distress signal

WHAT SHOULD YOU DO?

If the person is conscious, then speak to them

◘ Ask them if they need assistance

◘ Tell them to lift their arms up, and cough
◘ Encourage the person to cough, until the object is dislodged.

If this does not help, then

ask the person if they can bend forward

place the head lower than the shoulders, cup your hand.
do up to five effective back slaps ( between the scapulae )

43
 If this does not help, then

do abdominal thrusts. ( Heimlich Maneuver )

stand behind the person, place your fist into the person’s solar plexus, thumb knuckle
pointing inwards, raise the fist up so that it is not flat on the person’s abdomen.
Do a firm, inward and upward thrust movement. Only twice.

If the person is unconscious and cannot breath.....

➘ You should begin rescue breathing immediately

There are two different reasons for wanting to strap and injury:

1 For compression of swelling and bleeding, to immobilize an injury and to prevent

further injury.

This is usually just after an injury has occurred and the patient is in the
treatment phase of the injury. This time period can also be referred to as an
acute injury phase.

There are various techniques of strapping that can be used.

The most important thing to remember is:

The strapping must be firm enough so that it can function properly.

It must not be too tight as to cut of blood circulation.
Bandages or strapping may be used depending on the nature of the
injury.

44
 2. When an athlete needs to participate in sport, and need specific support of
muscles, ligaments or tendons.

This is when the athlete/ patient has already been for medical treatment.
This injury is ongoing or in the latter stages of recovery and is called a chronic
injury.
Physiotherapists and biokinetikist will have a very specific technique for these
injuries and usually only strapping is used (and not bandages.)
The strapping is to support injured muscles, ligaments or tendons and to put the
correct pressure on the correct areas.

The wrong type of strapping can cause further injury and pain.

Kinesiology taping:

A rehabilitative taping technique applied over muscles to

reduce pain and inflammation,
relax overused tired muscles and support muscles in movement.
Kinesiology taping is designed to improve the body’s natural healing process by helping
to increase natural blood flow around the muscle.
The wave pattern adhesive backing makes it non-restrictive, allowing for a full range of
motion.

45
Environmental Injuries
1 HEAT STROKE
The average temperature of the body is 37˚C. Most types of cells in the body are sensitive to a change
in temperature. Any exceptional rise in body temperature is therefore dangerous, because it can lead
to a state of shock, where the body is unable to function normally.
Except for the heat that radiates from the body as a result of its own chemical processes, the body can
also be exposed to external heat such as the sun and the intake of hot food.

If the body is overheated it leads to the following conditions:

heat cramps
heat exhaustion
heat stroke

2 HEAT CRAMPS
A person suffering from heat cramps will experience painful muscle cramps after exercise. The cramps
are usually experienced in the legs but may also occur all over the abdomen.

Treatment
Remove the person from the warm environment.
Remove unnecessary clothing
Let the patient sit or lie down
Give sufficient amounts of water or electrolytes
As soon as the cramps have ceased, the sportsman may continue with the game/exercise,

3 HEAT EXHAUSTION
Heat exhaustion occurs when a person perspires to such an extent that an excessive amount of
water and electrolytes are lost, and Hypovolemic shock occurs.
Perspiration is normally an effective cooling mechanism, but it has to evaporate in order to be
effective. If no evaporation occurs, no cooling will result. The body will continue to perspire and
more fluid will be lost.

Signs and symptoms of heat exhaustion

cold, clammy skin
rapid and weak pulse
rapid and shallow breathing
headache
loss of appetite
nausea
dizziness

46
 Treatment
remove the patient from the warm environment
remove surplus clothing
keep the patient still
give the patient fluids to drink
treat for shock
a fan blowing on the patient may be useful

Heat Stroke

Heat stroke occurs when the body is unable to regulate its own temperature and cannot cool
down sufficiently. Athletes, as well as children left in a hot car, or people working in the blazing
sun without any protection are prone to heat stroke. Heat stoke can occur on warm humid
days as well as during hot dry days.

Signs and symptoms of heat stroke

heat exhaustion may develop into heat stroke
skin is red, hot and dry
the body temperature rises rapidly
patient’s behavior becomes abnormal
pulse is rapid and strong, then becomes rapid and weak
nausea and vomiting
dizziness
unconsciousness

Treatment
this is a real emergency! Remove the person from the hot area
remove surplus clothing
cool the person down in any way – wet towels, fans, air-conditioners, splash with water.
Treat the person for shock
Take the person to a hospital urgently

47
EXPOSURE TO COLD
The seriousness of injuries sustained by exposure to cold depends on:

The duration of the exposure

The temperature to which the body was exposed
Dry or wet cold – wet cold is more unpleasant than dry cold. A person is water of 5°C will be
helpless within 20 – 30 minutes.
The extent of the body surface that was exposed.

➢ Hypothermia:

Hypothermia occurs when there is a general drop in body temperature to below normal. The
person goes through various stages as the temperature drops further and assistance is not
rendered to the person.

The stages are:

Shivering
Slurred speech
Muscles become rigid, patient becomes sleepy and listless
Unconsciousness, pulse and breathing get weaker.
Heartbeat becomes irregular.
Ventricular fibrillation.
Death.

Treatment:

Remove the patient from the area.

Remove any wet clothing.
Cover with dry blankets.
Give hot drinks if the patient is conscious.
Warm the patient with hot-water bottles, electric blankets and warm air.
Only the body and chest should be warmed. Arms and legs are not warmed as this could
lead to hypovolemic shock.
Keep the patient calm. The patient is not allowed to walk as this may cause cardiac failure.
A person with hypothermia and not showing any vital signs, may not be assumed dead.
CPR should be performed and kept up until the patient is warmed in hospital.

48
Let’s recap:

1 What three conditions are associated with the exposure to excessive heat?

2 What factors play a role in the body’s ability to cope with excessive heat?

3 What treatment would you give to a person suffering from heat stroke?

4 What are the signs and symptoms of hypothermia?

5 What treatment should be given to a person who has hypothermia?

49
 Health - Nutrition

Healthy eating habits

Nutrient: any substance that provides essential nourishment for the maintenance of life.
Obesity: unnaturally fat or largely overweight
Metabolism: the chemical processes that occur within the body resulting in energy production.
(Therefore: it is the rate at which food is broken down in the body to produce
energy for our cells to function)

Pre-historic man hunted and foraged for edible plants and roots and principally ate in order to
survive. However, in the modern era food has become so readily available, in such tasty and
attractive forms, that eating has also become a source of pleasure.

Social events and entertaining often include sumptuous meals. People often eat for enjoyment
and not because they need to. This leads to overindulgence, bad eating habits and obesity.

Statistics have shown that the United States of America has the greatest amount of obese people
in the world and South Africa is not far behind with 56% of the population classified as
overweight. We can however, still enjoy our food and eat correctly by learning the function of
the various food groups and adapting our daily food intake accordingly.

The basic food groups can be divided into:

1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Fruit and vegetables
4. Fats

It should be noted that no single food source contains all the nutrients, but some foods do contain
more than one nutrient. Vitamins and minerals are found in all the groups.

50
1. CARBOHYDRATES: Also known as Starch

It is the largest of all the food groups, and forms the basis of or daily diet. Carbohydrates provide
the body with energy and are often incorrectly labeled as fattening.
Carbohydrates are essential in the daily intake of food, as they provide the fuel our bodies need
to function correctly.

Carbohydrate food sources may include:

Bread pasta cereals sugar

rice potatoes flour
pumpkin couscous beans peas
corn wheat and many more…

Besides starch, grain products also contain vitamin B, minerals such as iron and calcium,
a little protein and also fiber.
Whole-wheat, bran, oats and brown rice provide more vitamins and fiber than refined
products.
Portions per day : At least 6 or more

2. PROTEINS

Proteins are the building blocks of muscles. There should always be protein in your diet so that
the muscles can use them to repair and replace damaged tissue cells.
The daily requirement is relatively low and is easily met by a mixed diet.

51
Protein food sources may include:

Foods from this source also provide vitamin B,

zinc and iron.
Many of the above food sources contain a lot of
fat and
should be eaten in moderation only, with the fat
removed if possible.
Portions per day: 2

Meat legumes dairy products

Fish nuts eggs
Soya and many more….

3. FRUIT AND VEGETABLES.

Fruit and vegetables lend color and variety to the menu. They provide
essential vitamins, minerals and fiber without adding excess fat.

Food sources may include:

1. Carotene (which is transformed into Vitamin A in the body) is essential for good vision
and maintaining a supple healthy skin. It is found in dark green, deep yellow and orange fruits
and vegetables such as:

Carrots pumpkin butternut cabbage

Spinach paw-paw mango apricots
and many more….

2. Vitamin C is essential for maintenance of body tissue, healing of wounds and increases
the body’s resistance to infection. Fresh raw fruit and vegetables are the best sources of Vitamin
C.

Fruit: guava citrus fruit paw-paw kiwi fruit

Strawberries litchis etc.

Vegetables: broccoli cauliflower green peppers etc.

There are also fruits and vegetables that contain other nutrients and minerals;

52
 Bananas beetroot apples peaches
Vegetables
Grapes with skin aresquash
high in fiber. Fresh fruit and mealies
green vegetables are better than cooked or
etc.
canned variety.

Portions per day: 3-5 portions of vegetables and 3-4 fruits.

4. FATS

Our bodies need certain essential fatty acids to achieve optimum health and prevent certain
diseases such as acne, high blood pressure, arthritis etc. However, the intake of fat found in many
food products needs to be reduced drastically as most forms of fat only serve to make a person
fatter and more unhealthy. The body only burns a very little amount fat to produce energy,
carbohydrates are the energy suppliers.

There are good fats called?

__________________________________________________________

Examples include:
__________________________________________________________________

Bad fats called?

___________________________________________________________________

Examples include:
__________________________________________________________________

Margarine butter cream mayonnaise

Vegetable oils animal fat nuts seeds

Hidden fats are also found in: avocados muesli

cakes biscuits chocolates etc.

Children, teenagers and active adults may have a fast metabolism which is capable of
burning excess fat, but beware of setting an eating pattern high in fat.
An active lifestyle may not last forever and the excess fat burned today will be stored on
the hips and stomach tomorrow!

Fat also weakens the immune system, causes heart disease and strokes.
Fat contributes to an increase of cholesterol in the blood stream.
53
Interesting tips!

Drink at least 6 to 8 glasses of water per day.

Water cleanses the body of toxic substances and waste products and keeps the kidneys in
good shape. More water should be consumed during exercise as the body loses water
through perspiration.

 Eating a healthy balanced diet is not sufficient to maintain a healthy body.

 Exercise is very important as it stimulates the muscles, aids digestion and tones the body
into good shape.

Sportsmen and women need to eat more carbohydrates than the average person in order
to supply the muscles with extra energy and stimulate muscle building.
Extra protein intake will not build larger muscles. The muscles only use proteins when
they need them to replace damaged cells and an excess of proteins in the bloodstream is
more harmful than good.

Eating several small meals a day is better than 2 or 3 large meals, as small meals are
easier to digest and a little food more often speeds up the metabolism.
It is alright to have snacks between meals provided the snacks are low in fat and sugar.
Eating an apple is better than munching on potato crisps.
Drink fruit juices and water instead of fizzy drinks.

If one wants to lose a bit of weight, BEWARE:

“Crash diets” and starvation do not work! The body goes into a state of shock because it is
being deprived of essential nutrients and metabolism slows down.

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In the past, the food pyramid was designed to help us with portions size and ratio. E.g. Carbohydrates
were put at the bottom of the pyramid and this indicated that the majority of our diet should be made
up of Carbs.

However, Harvard Medical School has done research and according to the healthiest outcomes, the
above diagram must be considered. It will take convincing to change textbooks and the mindset of
“older” opinions. As you can see, half of our plate should be made up of fruit, vegetables and salad.
Carbs and Protein then make up the other half.

Notice that fats/oils are only added as an additional food source. Many foods already contain fats, such
as many proteins (red meat) we will read later about “good fats s bad fats”

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