Experiment 1: Study of Electronics Components

Resistors

A resistor is a component of an electrical circuit that resists the flow of electrical current.
A resistor has two terminals across which electricity must pass, and is designed to drop the voltage of the
current as it flows from one terminal to the next. A resistor is primarily used to create and maintain a
known safe current within an electrical component .

Physical_Structure Symbol

A. FIXED VALUE RESISTOR (Resistor Color Code Chart)

Band Color Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4

Options position No position No Multiplier Value Value Tolerance
Black 0 0 ×10° ---
Brown 1 1 ×10¹ ± 1%
Red 2 2 ×10² ± 2%
Orange 3 3 ×10³ ---
Yellow 4 4 ×104 ----
5
Green 5 5 ×10 ± 0.5%
Blue 6 6 ×106 ± 0.25%
Violet 7 7 -- ± 0.1%
Gray 8 8 -- ± 0.05%
White 9 9 -- ----
None -- -- -- ± 20%
Silver -- -- × 0.01 ± 10%
Gold -- -- × 0.1 ± 5%

Example: - (Measurement process) -Most resistors have 4 bands:

 The first band gives the first digit.
 The second band gives the second digit.
 The third band indicates the number of zeros.
 The fourth band is used to show the tolerance (precision) of the resistor
Calculation First Second Third Fourth Band Calculated Value
Band Band Band

Color Name Red Violet Green Silver 2700000 +10%

Position Value 2 7 105 +10% 2.7M +10%

Resistor Calculation First Second Third Fourth Calculated Measurement

Band Band Band Band Value Value by
Digital
Multimeter
Sample #1 Color Name: -
Position Value: -
Calculated Value: -

Sample #2 Color Name: -

Position Value: -
Calculated Value: -
Sample #3 Color Name: -
Position Value: -
Calculated Value: -
 C. Function: -
D. Specification: - 1. Power Rating (W) 2.Resistive Value (Ω Value)

VARIABLE RESISTOR

1. Potentiometer Symbol 2. Preset Symbol

Physical Structure:

Standard Value (Written on the Device The measured value by

Surface) Multimeter (between two end
terminals)
Potentiometer
Preset

*** test the variable resister value (any one end terminal and middle terminal) by multimeter. It will show the value from
0 Ω to the maximum value which is defined on the device surface.

CAPACITORS
Polarized (Electrolytic Capacitors, Value Above 1uF)

Circuit Symbol Physical Structure

Unpolarized (Non- Electrolytic) Small Value below 1uF)

Circuit Symbol Physical structure

Capacitor Measure the standard value The measured Value by LCR

/Calculate the value (written meter
on the device surface)
Electrolytic Capacitor
Non-Electrolytic Capacitor Smaple-1
 Sample-2
Sample-3

Capacitor Number Code (for non-electrolytic)

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
 the 1st number is the 1st digit,
 the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
 the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
 Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)
If there is no third digit (only two digit), then specified number is the capacitive value in pF.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):
 µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F
 n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
 p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Specification: - 1. Voltage Rating: - 2. Capacitor’s Rating: -

DIODE

(Forward and Reverse voltage drop will be measured by multimeter in diode testing mode)

Symbol Device Number Forward Reverse Voltage Determine the

Voltage Drop Drop anode and
cathode terminal.
Silicon Diode

Zener Diode

LED (Specify the

Color)

**** Diode Specification and Parameters will be noted from the Datasheet (according to the device no. which is given on
the device surface).
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The Leads are labeled base (B), Collector(C), and Emitter(E).

Transistor Testing with a Digital multimeter

Same as diode test. For a Transistor is nothing but two diodes connected back-to-back.
Note down the transistor number which is specified on the device surface.
****Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):
 The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
 The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
 The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
 You have to note how much forward bias voltage from these six tests.
Then conclude that the transistor is PNP or NPN

Type of Symbol Voltage C Voltage B Voltage C Voltage E Voltage B Voltage E

transistor to B to C to E to C to E to B
(PNP or terminal terminal terminal terminal terminal terminal
NPN)
BC548

SL100

** Only two voltages will show forward bias diode voltage.

 Experiment 2: Instrument Study
Operation of Function Generator, DSO, Power supply and Multimeter

A. Display the internally available waveform from DSO. And measure its parameters
1. Time period(T)
2. Amplitude (Vm) or Vmax
3. Voltage peak-peak (Vpp)
4. Frequency(F)
5. Rise time (Tr) and fall time (Tf)
6. Trace or draw the waveform

This is a DSO inbuilt waveform. Measure the parameters and trace the waveform.
** change the Volts/division and time/division knob and observe the change in display.

B. Connect Function generator output probe with DSO input probe (ch-1 or ch-2)

All the parameters set in Function Generators Display and measure by DSO and
draw any one of each of the
waveforms.
Type Frequency→Vpp Parameters 1. Time period(T)
1.Sinewave 70Hz→.1V, 650Hz→1.2V, 2. Voltage peak-peak (Vpp)
1.2KHz→3.2V, 15KHz→5V 3. Frequency(F)
60KHz→10V 4.Rise time (Tr) and fall time (Tf)

2. Square wave same

3. Triangular same
wane
 Sine wave (Draw at least one sine wave with dimension)

Triangular Wave (Draw one triangular wave with dimension)

C. Power Supply: Operate a power supply to generate the following voltages. Measure these DC
voltages using a digital multimeter. Voltage ranges: ±5vdc, ±12vdc, 1v,2v,10v,15volts
 Experiment 3 V-I Characteristics of Semiconductor Diode ( Si)
V-I Characteristics of Semiconductor Diode (Si)
Objective: -
 Design the circuit diagram, Draw the characteristics curve & Determine the DC forward resistance

Equipment’s required: -
 Voltmeter or Digital Multimeter, Ammeter, Bread Board, Diode (IN4007), Resistors (1k Ohm) &
0 - 30 V dc power supply

Forward Bias Circuit Diagram

Theory: -
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electric component that conducts electric current in only one
direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today, which is a
crystal of semiconductor connected to two electrical terminals. Today most diodes are made of silicon,
but other semiconductors such as germanium are sometimes used.

The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law: -

Where
I is the diode current,
IS is the reverse bias saturation current,
VD is the voltage across the diode,
VT is the thermal voltage, and
n is the emission coefficient, also known as the ideality factor. The emission coefficient varies from
about 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and in many cases is assumed to
be approximately equal to 1.

where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the P-N junction, and q is the
magnitude of charge on an electron. VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K.
 DC forward resistance:

It is the opposition by diode to the DC. It is measured by the ratio of DC voltages across the diode to the
resulting DC current through it.
Procedure: -
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Increase the supply voltage by 0.5v. Then measure current ID , Vd and record the results in Table
3. Repeat step 2 till DC supply of 5v.
4. Plot on a graph paper ID versus VD for the silicon diode. Complete the curves by extending the lower
region of each curve to the intersection of the axis at ID = 0 mA and VD = 0 V.
Result Table (Si)
Vsource (up to 0.5 volts Vd Id
increase in steps of .1v to
see a smooth
curve)
0.5V
1V
1.5V
2V
2.5V
3V
3.5
4V
4.5V
5V

Expected I-V characteristics:

 V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode
Objective: -
 Design the circuit diagram.
 Take the reading and draw the characteristics curve. Determine the DC forward and Reverse resistance,
Determine the Zener Voltage (Vz)
Equipment’s required: -
 Voltmeter or Digital multimeter, Amp meter, Bread Board, Zener Diodes, Resistors (1k Ohm), 0 - 30 V
dc power supply
Theory: -
A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like a normal
diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as
"Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The forward characteristic of the Zener diode is same as that
of a PN junction diode i.e. as the applied potential increases the current increases exponentially.
Applying a negative potential to the anode and positive potential to the cathode reverse biases the Zener
diode. As the reverse bias increases, the current increases rapidly in a direction opposite to that of the
positive voltage region. Thus, under reverse bias condition breakdown occurs.
Forward Bias Circuit Diagram

Reverse Bias Circuit Diagram

Procedure: -
Forward-Bias: -
1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure for forward biased Zener diode.
2. Take the reading from the voltmeter and the amp meter from the output side and fill the table by
increasing the input DC voltage.
3. Plot Id vs Vd in a graph to get the forward biased characteristics.
Reverse Bias: -
1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure for reverse biased Zener diode.
2. Take the reading from the voltmeter and the amp meter from the output side and fill the table by
increasing the input DC voltage.
3. Plot Id vs Vd in a graph to get the reverse biased characteristics.
4. Find the voltage at the point where Id decreases sharply to get the Zener voltage.

Result Table (Forward Bias)

V source Vd Id
.5V
1V
1.5V
2V
2.5V
3V
3.5
4V
4.5V
5V

Reverse Biass
V source Vd Id
1V
2V
3V
4V
5V
6V
7V
8V
9V
10V

Expected I-V characteristics (Forward Bias): - Expected I-V Characteristics (Reverse bias): -
 Experiment 4 Study of Half wave and Full wave Rectifier

Study the Half wave &Full wave Bridge rectifier

Objective: - Design the circuit diagram. Take the reading and draw the input & output waveform. Determine the output voltage with filter
circuit across load (RL).
Equipment’s required: -1) Digital Multimeter 2) DSO 3) Universal Work Station with 5v AC supply.
Components: - Diodes (IN4007) – 4 Nos, Resistors 1k-1no., Capacitor 100uF-1no.
Theory:-A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).In half wave rectification, either the
positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input
waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output.
Half-wave and full-wave rectifiers deliver a form of pulsating DC output. In order to produce steady DC from a rectified AC supply, a filter
circuit is required. In its simplest form this is achieved by shunting the resistor with a capacitor. There will still remain an amount of AC
ripple voltage where the ripple voltage is defined as the deviation of the load voltage from its average or dc value.

Circuit Diagram of Half wave rectifier

230V-
DSO
AC

Procedure: -

Half Wave Rectification / Full wave rectification-

1. Construct the circuit as shown. Take the supply of 5 Vrms sinusoidal wave from the UWS with a frequency of 50 Hz. Put the oscilloscope
probes at input and sketch the input waveform obtained.
2. Put the oscilloscope probes across the resistor and sketch the output waveform obtained. Measure and record the DC level of the output
voltage.
3. Now connect the capacitor across the resistor and measure the filtered output voltage.
4. Also measure the Ripple Voltage.

ircuit Diagram of Full wave rectifier

 Full-Wave-Rectification
The diode D2 and D3 conduct in the positive half cycle while D1 and D4 in the negative half cycle. The output is the same as center tapped
transformer based full wave rectifier. One important point about the full wave rectifier: the input & output do not share a common reference!
For this reason, you cannot view both input & output simultaneously on an oscilloscope.
-

Type of rectifier Input-AC Rectifier Output Form factor Ripple factor Measure Ripple output Theoretically calculate
voltage Vm (Vmax), Vrms, Vrms/Vdc √((Vrms/Vdc)2-1) Output-dc Voltage with the dc value expected.
(Transformer Vmean or Vdc voltage with filter Vdc= Vm -Δ/2
secondary) from CRO filter Multimeter in Where Δ =Vr(p-p)
VRMS (DC coupling Multimeter in ac mode. =2√3Vr(rms)
Vpk-pk, Vmax mode of DSO) dc mode. Vr(rms). (Vm is rectifier output
From DSO from 3rd column)

Half Wave

Full Wave
Expected input:

Expected Output of Half wave rectifier without filter: -

Expected Output of Full wave rectifier without filter:

Expected Output of Full wave rectifier with filter: -
 Experiment 5 Input and Output Characteristics of BJT
Input and output Characteristics of BJT
Objective: -
1. Design the circuit diagram.
2. Take the reading and draw the characteristics curve
3. Determine the input and output resistance.

Equipment’s required: -
1)Voltmeter 2) Ammeter 3) Bread Board 4) 0 - 30 V dc power supply
Components required: -
1) Resistors 1k, 470K Ohm, 1M Ohm, Transistor (BC547)
Theory: -
A BJT is a three terminal electronic device consisting of either two n-type or one p-type
layers of material or two p-type and one n-type layers of material. The former is called an
NPN transistor and the latter is called PNP transistor. The three terminals are Emitter
(E), Collector(C) and Base (B).
The Common Emitter (CE) configuration is most frequently encountered configuration.
In this the emitter is common or reference to both the input and output terminals (in this
case common to both the base and collector terminals). Two sets of characteristics are
necessary to describe fully the behavior of the CE configuration: input and output
characteristics.
The plot of base current IB versus the voltage VBE across its base and emitter for different
values of voltage, VCE is called the input characteristics.
The plot of collector current IC versus the voltage VCE across its collector and emitter for
different values of base current IB is called the output characteristics.
In the DC mode the levels of IC and IB are related by a quantity called beta (β) defined by
IC
 dc 
IB
For AC situations an ac beta is defined as
 IC
 ac  , VCE= constant
 IB
Both the beta values can be determined from the output characteristics curves.

Input characteristics Circuit Diagram

 Procedure: -
Input characteristics
1. Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram.
2. VCE (V2) is set at 1V.
3.Vary the input voltage V1 in steps of 0.5V and note the
corresponding IB.
4. Repeat for VCE(V2) =2V.
5. Plot the input characteristics curve with VBE on x-axis and IB on
y-axis.
Result Table
Input Characteristics
VCE=1V,2V
Vbb(V1) IB Vbe
0V
.5V
1V
1.5V
2V
2.5V
3V
3.5
4V
4.5V
5V
Expected Graphs

Input characteristics
Output Characteristics Circuit Diagram

Output characteristics

1. Set up the circuit as shown in the diagram.

2. R1 is taken 1M ohm so that IB is set at 4.3uA.

3. Vary VCC (V2) in steps of 1V and note the corresponding I C & VCE

4. Repeat for IB = 10uA, by replacing R1 by 470 kilo Ohm.

5. Plot the output characteristics curve with VCE on x-axis and IC on y-axis.

Output Characteristics

IB=10uA, 4.3uA
VCC VCE IC
 1V
2V
3V
4V
5V
6V
7V
8V
9V
10V

Expected Graphs

Output characteristics
 Experiment 6 Design a RC Coupled CE Amplifier
Design a RC Coupled CE Transistor Amplifier
Objective: -
1. Connect the circuit diagram, Measure the DC Bias Conditions (VCE, VBE, IC).
2. Measure the AC Gain, Signal Handling Capacity and the Bandwidth
Equipment’s Required: -1) multimeter 2) Bread Board 3) 12V dc power supply 4) Function Generator
5) DSO
Components required: -1) Resistors (R1=68K, R2=18k, Rc=1.2K, Re=1K))2) Capacitors (Cin=Cout=1uF,
Ce=33uF)
3) Transistor no- BC548 (NPN)
Theory: -An amplifier is a device that is used to amplify input voltage or current. The RC coupled CE
transistor amplifier is a popular scheme of cascading two or more amplifiers to achieve the required
levels of amplification. The inter-stage coupling is done by using a RC network, hence the name. The
variation of gain with frequency of an amplifier is called the frequency response characteristics of the
amplifier.
The bandwidth of the RC amplifier is the difference between upper cut-off frequency and lower cut-off
frequency. It represents the range of frequencies that the amplifier is most effective in amplifying. The
cut-off frequency points are determined from the frequency response graph, where the gain (dB) is 3 dB
lower than the maximum gain.
For a transistor to act as an amplifier, it must be properly biased. i.e. its emitter base junction must be
forward biased & collector base junction must be reverse biased. The transistor is operating in the active
region, is verified by measuring the dc bias conditions.
Circuit diagram for measuring dc bias conditions: -
Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram. Measure the DC bias conditions.
Circuit Diagram: -

Vce = (Approx 25% to 75% of Vcc), Vbe= (Approx. .6V → .7V), Ic= (Approx. VRc /Rc)

Circuit diagram to find the frequency response curve: -

12v dc

R1 Rc
68k 1.2k 1uF

1uF
BC548

Osc
Vin R2 Re
18k 1k 33uF
function generator

Procedure: -
1. Connect the components as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Measure the DC bias conditions, before connecting the capacitors.
3. After connecting the capacitors apply a 50mv peak-to-peak signal from the function generator to the
input of the amplifier and measure output voltage in the DSO. Note down the Vpk-pk readings for
different frequencies keeping the input signal constant.
4. Calculate the voltage gain in dB for each frequency and plot the frequency response curve. From it find
the bandwidth.
5. In the mid frequency, select any frequency, go on increasing the input, observing the output in the
oscilloscope. At some value of input the output waveform starts showing distortion. That input value is
called the signal handling capacity.
Result
1. Measure the DC Bias Voltage
Vce = (Approx 25% to 75% of Vcc)
Vbe= (Approx .6V → .7V)
Ic= (Approx VRc/Rc)

2. AC gain =Vo/Vin

3. Bandwidth measurement(f2-f1)

4. Signal Handling Capacity

Table

Vin Frequency(f) Vout Gain (Vout/Vin) Gain in dB

(20Log Vout/Vin)
50mVolts p-p 50Hz
50mVolts p-p 100Hz
50mVolts p-p 500Hz
50mVolts p-p 1Khz
50mVolts p-p 5khz
50mVolts p-p 10KHz
50mVolts p-p 20Khz
50mVolts p-p 50KHz
50mVolts p-p 100KHz
50mVolts p-p 200KHz
50mVolts p-p 500KHz
50mVolts p-p 700KHz
50mVolts p-p 1MHz
50mVolts p-p 2MHz
50mVolts p-p 3MHz
50mVolts p-p 4MHz
Expected Graph- Plot the graph in a semi log graph paper
 Experiment 7 Design a Low-Pass Filter and High-Pass Filter

Design a low Pass Filter and High Pass Filter

Objective: - 1) Design the high pass and low pass filter.2) Calculate the lower cut
off and higher cut-off Frequency.3) Calculate the gain.
Equipment’s Required: - 1) Function Generator 2) Bread Board 3) DSO.
Components required: - Resistors (10K Ohm) Capacitors (0.01uF)
Theory: -A filter is a circuit that passes a specific range of frequencies while
rejecting other frequencies. A passive filter consists of passive circuit elements, such
as capacitors, inductors, and resistors. The most common way to describe the
frequency response of a filter is to plot the filter voltage gain (Vout/Vin) in dB as a
function of frequency (f). The frequency at which the output power gain drops to
50% of the maximum value is called the cut-off frequency (fc). When the filter dB
voltage gain is plotted as a function of frequency on a semi log graph using straight
lines to approximate the actual frequency response, it is called a Bode plot. A Bode
plot is an ideal plot of filter frequency response because it assumes that the voltage
gain remains constant until the cut-off frequency is reached. The filter network
voltage gain in dB is calculated from the actual voltage gain (A) using the equation
AdB = 20 log A where A = Vout/Vin
Circuit Diagram
Low pass filter

High Pass Filter

 PROCEDURE

1. Set up the circuit as shown taking the output across the capacitor (For HPF set the
circuit as shown and take the output across resistor). The input for the filter is taken
from output of function generator. The output is connected to DSO.

2. Vary the frequency of the input signal over a wide frequency range (but keep the
input amplitude fixed). Note the Values of Vout for each frequency and calculate the
corresponding Gain.

3. Plot the values of Gain vs Frequency in a semi-log graph paper and find out the cut-
off frequency from it (higher cut-off for LPF and lower cut-off for HPF).

Bandwidth & cut off frequency measurement of LPF and HPF.

Vin=1Volt(pk-pk) Frequency(fin) Vout Gain (Vout/Vin) Gain in dB

(20Log Vout/Vin)
50Hz
100Hz
500Hz
1Khz
5khz
10KHz
20Khz
50KHz
100KHz
200KHz
500KHz
700KHz
1MHz
 Experiment 8 Design of an Inverting and Non-Inverting
Amplifier Using Op-Amp IC741
Design an inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifier using
OPAMP(IC741)
Objective: -
1. Design the circuit diagram. Determine the theoretical output voltage of inverting and non-
inverting amplifier. Take the reading and draw the input & output waveform

Equipment’s required: - 1) Multimeter, CRO, Bread Board, Function generator for input
source, Power Supply ±15.
Components Required: -1) Op Amp (IC741) – 1 No.2) Resistors Rin=1k Ohm, Rf= 3.9K Ohm.
Theory: -An Operational Amplifier or OPAMP is a very high gain differential amplifier with
high input impedance and low output impedance. The basic circuit is made using a difference
amplifier having two inputs and one output. The plus (+) input produces an output that is in phase
with the signal applied, whereas an input to the minus (-) input results in an opposite polarity
output.
Most existing OPAMPs are produced on a single semi-conductor substrate as an Integrated
Circuit (IC741). The Pin diagram is

The two most widely used constant gain amplifier are the inverting and non-inverting amplifier.

Circuit Diagram

Inverting amplifier

Rf

Rin -15v
Vin 2
function generator - 4
1k
6
OUT Vout
3
+ 7
+15v
Inverts and amplifies a voltage (multiplies by a negative constant)

 Zin = Rin (because V − is a virtual ground)

Non-inverting amplifier

R1 R2

1k
-15v
2
- 4
6
OUT Vout
3 +15v
function generator + 7

Amplifies a voltage (multiplies by a constant greater than 1)

 input impedance
o The input impedance is at least the impedance between non-inverting (+) and inverting (−)
inputs, which is typically 1 MΩ to 10 TΩ, plus the impedance of the path from the inverting (−)
input to ground (i.e., R1 in parallel with R2).
o Because negative feedback ensures that the non-inverting and inverting inputs match, the input
impedance is actually much higher.

Result Table: -

Type of Amplifier Input AC Output Calculate the Measure Measure phase

Voltage theoretical Gain Practical gain difference
voltage
1. T 1 volt ,1 khz
h
e
Inverting
O
P Non-
AInverting
M

PROCEDURE: -
 The OPAMP was set up as per the circuit diagram.

 Input voltage of 1 volt,1 khz was provided and the gain of the amplifier was measured
by noting down the output voltage.

 The gain was determined with feedback resistor (Rf) keeping the input resistance
constant (Rin).
Experiment 9 Study of Diode as Clipper and Clamper
Study of diode as a Clipper & clamper Circuit
Objective: - Study of the diode as a clipper & clamper. Draw and measure the input and output
waveform.
Required Components: - Resistor 1K -1 No, Diode (1N4007) -1No, A.C Voltage, DC
Voltage, DSO, Coupling wires, Multi meter
Theory: -
For a clipping circuit at least two components—an ideal diode and resistor are required and
sometimes a dc battery is also employed for fixing the clipping level. The diode acts as a closed
switch when forward biased and an open switch when reverse biased. Depending on the orientation
of the diode, the positive or negative region of the input signal is “clipped” off and accordingly the
diode clippers may be positive or negative clippers. Half wave rectifier circuits can also be called
the basic clippers.
Biased Clipper – The level to which an ac voltage is limited can be adjusted by adding a
bias voltage VBIAS, in series with the diode. Biased clippers are employed for this purpose. The
circuit diagram for a biased positive clipper (that is for removing a small portion of positive half
cycle) is illustrated in figure. When the input signal voltage is positive but does not exceed DC
voltage VBIAS, the diode D remains reverse biased and most of the input voltage appears across the
output. When during the positive half cycle of input signal, the signal voltage exceeds the DC
voltage VBIAS, the diode D is forward biased & conducts heavily.

Procedure: - 1) Connect the components according to the circuit diagram given. Take V IN=5V rms,
VBIAS=2.5V 2) Connect DSO across the load R and input source. 3) Simultaneously measure both
the input and output waveform in DSO ch-1 and ch-2 respectively.

Positive Bias Diode Clipping Negative Bias Diode Clipping

 Likewise, by reversing the diode and

the battery bias voltage, when a diode conducts the negative half cycle of the output
waveform is held to a level –VBIAS – 0.7V as shown.
Double sided Diode Clipping
A variable diode clipping or diode limiting
level can be achieved by varying the bias
voltage of the diodes. If both the positive and
the negative half cycles are to be clipped, then
two biased clipping diodes are used. But for
both positive and negative diode clipping, the
bias voltage need not be the same. The
positive bias voltage could be at one level, for
example 4 volts, and the negative bias voltage
at another, for example 6 volts as shown.
Diode Clipping at Different Bias levels
*take Vin = 7v Rms *
When the voltage of the positive half cycle reaches +4.7 V, diode D 1 conducts and limits the
waveform at +4.7 V. Diode D2 does not conduct until the voltage reaches –6.7 V. Therefore, all
positive voltages above +4.7 V and negative voltages below –6.7 V are automatically clipped.
The advantage of biased diode clipping circuits is that it prevents the output signal from exceeding
preset voltage limits for both half cycles of the input waveform, which could be an input from a
noisy sensor or the positive and negative supply rails of a power supply.
If the diode clipping levels are set too low or the input waveform is too great then the elimination of
both waveform peaks could end up with a square-wave shaped waveform.
DIODE as a Clamper
Object: - Study of diode as a positive clamper
Required Components: -Capacitor C=1uF 1No, Resistor R=680K Ohm, Diode (1N4007)-1No,
A.C Voltage Source, DC Voltage, DSO
Theory: -A Clamper Circuit is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal. A Clamper circuit can be
defined as the circuit that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor that shifts the waveform to a desired
DC level without changing the actual appearance of the applied signal. The different types of clampers
are positive and negative clampers.
The magnitude of R and C must be chosen such that the time constant RC is large enough to ensure
that the voltage across the capacitor does not discharge significantly during the interval the diode is
non- conducting. A Clamping circuit restores the DC level. When a negative peak of the signal is raised
above to the zero level, then the signal is said to be positively clamped. A Positive Clamper circuit is one
that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor and that shifts the output signal to the positive portion of
the input signal. The figure below explains the construction of a positive clamper circuit.

Initially when the input is given, the capacitor is not yet charged and the diode is reverse biased. The output
is not considered at this point of time. During the negative half cycle, at the peak value, the capacitor gets
charged with negative on one plate and positive on the other. The capacitor is now charged to its peak
value Vm. The diode is forward biased and conducts heavily. During the next positive half cycle, the capacitor
is charged to positive Vm while the diode gets reverse biased and gets open circuited. The output of the
circuit at this moment will be
V0=Vi+Vm
Hence the signal is positively clamped as shown in the above figure. The output signal changes according to
the changes in the input, but shifts the level according to the charge on the capacitor, as it adds the input
voltage.
Positive Clamper
The circuit for a positive clamper is shown in the figure. During the negative half cycle of the input
signal, the diode conducts and acts like a short circuit. The output voltage V0 =0V.The capacitor is
charged to the peak value of input voltage Vm. and it behaves like a battery. During the positive half
of the input signal, the diode does not conduct and acts as an open circuit. Hence the output voltage
V0 =Vm+Vm. This gives a positively clamped voltage. To see the output in DSO keep it in DC
coupling mode.
Experiment 10:
Verification of Basic Logic Gates
Verification of basic logic gates
Verification and interpretation of truth tables for AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR Exclusive OR
(EX-OR) Gates. Implement AND, OR, NOT functions using universal gates NAND & NOR
Apparatus: Universal Work Station, logic gates ICs, wires,2mm banana connectors
Theory: Logic gates are electronic circuits which perform logical functions on one or more inputs
to produce one output. When all the input combinations of a logic gate are written in a series and
their corresponding outputs written along them, then this input/ output combination is called
Truth Table.
Procedure:
1.Connect the VCC +5v to the IC pin 14 w.r.t Ground pin 7.
2.Connect the inputs of logic gate to the logic switches and its output to the logic indicator (LED).
3.Apply various input combinations and observe output for each one.
4.Verify the truth table for each input/ output combination.
5.Repeat the process for all other logic gates.
AND Gate (7408)
AND gate produces an output as 1, when all its
inputs are 1; otherwise, the output is 0. This gate
can have minimum 2 inputs but output is always
one. Its output is 0 when any input is 0.

OR Gate (7432)
OR gate produces an output as 1, when any or all
its inputs are 1; otherwise, the output is 0. This
gate can have minimum 2 inputs but output is
always one. Its output is 0 when all input is 0.

NOT Gate (7404)

NOT gate produces the complement of its input.
This gate is also called an INVERTER. It always
has one input and one output. Its output is 0 when
input is 1 and output is 1 when inputs are 0.

NAND Gate (7400)

NAND gate is actually a series of AND gate

with NOT gate. If we connect the output of an
AND gate to the input of a NOT gate, this
combination will work as NOT-AND or
NAND gate. Its output is 1 when any or all
inputs are 0, otherwise output is 1.
 NOR Gate (7402)

NOR gate is actually a series of OR gate with NOT gate. If we connect the output of an OR gate to
the input of a NOT gate, this combination will work as NOT-OR or NOR gate. Its output is 0 when
any or all inputs are 1, otherwise output is 1.

Exclusive OR (X-OR) Gate (7486)

X-OR gate produces an output as 1, when number of 1’s at its inputs is odd, otherwise output is 0. It
has two inputs and one output.

 Implement All BASIC Gates using the universal gate (NAND & NOR).
Adder and Subtractor
Half adder

Here the output ‘1’of ‘10’ becomes the carry-out. The result is shown in a truth-table below. ‘SUM’
is the normal output and ‘CARRY’ is the carry-out. From the equation it is clear that this 1-bit adder
can be easily implemented with the help of XOR Gate for the output ‘SUM’ and an AND Gate for
the carry. For complex addition, there may be cases when you have to add two 8-bit bytes together.
This can be done only with the help of full-adder logic.
Full Adder: - This type of adder is a little more difficult to implement than a half-adder. The
main difference between a half-adder and a full-adder is that the full-adder has three inputs and two
outputs. The first two inputs are A and B and the third input is an input carry designated as CIN. The
output carry is designated as COUT and the normal output is designated as S. Take a look at the truth-
table.

From the above truth-table, the full adder logic can be implemented. We can see that the output S is
an EXOR between the input A and the half-adder SUM output with B and CIN inputs. We must also
note that the COUT will only be true if any of the two inputs out of the three are HIGH.

The sum (S) of the full-adder is the XOR of A, B, and Cin. Therefore,
Sum, S=A⊕B⊕Cin=A′B′Cin+A′BC′in+AB′C′in+ABCin
The carry (Cout) of the half-adder is the AND of A and B. Therefore,
Carry, Cout =AB+ACin+BCin
Subtractor: Subtractor is the one which used to subtract two binary number(digit) and
provides Difference and Borrow as an output. In digital electronics we have two types of subtractor.
1.Half Subtractor
2.Full Subtractor
 1.Half Subtractor: Half Subtractor is used for subtracting one single bit binary digit from another
single bit binary digit. The truth table of Half Subtractor is shown below.

Logic Diagram

Like Adders Here also we need to calculate the equation of Difference and Borrow
Difference=A'B+AB'=A⊕B
Borrow=A'B

2. Full Subtractor: A logic Circuit Which is used for Subtracting Three Single Bit Binary digit is
known as Full Subtractor. The Truth Table of Full Subtractor is Shown Below.
LOGIC DIAGRAM

From_the_Truth_Table_the_Difference_and_Borrow_will_written_as
Difference=A'B'C+A'BB'+AB'C'+ABC=A⊕B⊕C
Reduce_it_like_adder_Then_We_got
Difference=A⊕B⊕C
Borrow=A'B'C+A'BC'+A'BC+ABC
=A'B'C+A'BC'+A'BC+A'BC+A'BC+ABC---------->A’BC=A'BC+A'BC+A'BC
=A'C(B'+B)+A'B(C'+C)+BC(A'+A)
Borrow=A'C+A'B+BC