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Course of Contents Page No

Parts of Speech
Parts of Speech in a glance ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 02
Noun and its types ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 03
Pronoun and its types ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 05
Verb and its types ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 08
Adjectives and its types --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
Adverb and its types --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Preposition and its types ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Conjunction and its types --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Interjection and its types ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Articles and its types --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Sentence structure and its types -------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Phrase and its types ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
Clause and its types ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
Active and Passive Voices -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
Direct and Indirect Narrations ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
Paragraph Writing ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
Presentation Skills ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58
Precis Writing ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60
Comprehension Writing ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Translation techniques ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
Punctuations marks ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 72
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Parts of Speech
What is a Part of Speech?
We can categorize English words into 9 basic types called "parts of speech" or "word classes". It's
quite important to recognize parts of speech. This helps you to analyze sentences and understand
them. It also helps you to construct good sentences.
Word classes may be classified as open or closed: open classes (typically including nouns, verbs
and adjectives and adverbs) acquire new members constantly, while closed classes (such as
pronouns, articles and conjunctions) never acquire new members.
 Parts of Speech Table
 Parts of Speech Examples

Parts of Speech Table

This is a summary of the 9 parts of speech*. You can find more detail if you click on each part of
speech.

part of function or "job" example words example sentences

speech

Verb action or state (to) be, have, do, English Club is a website.
like, work, sing, I like English Club.
can, must

Noun thing or person pen, dog, work, This is my dog. He lives in my house.
music, town, We live in London.
London, teacher,
John

Adjective describes a noun good, big, red, My dogs are big. I like big dogs.
well, interesting

Determiner limits or a/an, the, 2, some, I have two dogs and some rabbits.
"determines" a noun many
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Definition of Noun
The noun is a naming word. It is a word used as the name of a person a thing a place or a
situation.

Examples:
 Ali, girl, man (person)
 Chair, pen (thing)
 School, city (place)
 Beauty, happiness (situation)
Types of Noun in English Grammar with Examples
 Proper noun
 Common noun
 Material noun
 Concrete noun
 Abstract noun
 Collective Noun
 Countable noun
 Uncountable noun
 Singular and plural noun

1. Proper noun
A proper noun is the name of a particular person a particular thing a particular place or a
particular idea etc.

Examples:
Pakistani, Ali, Salma (Particular Person)

BMW, F16 (Particular thing)

Multan, K2, America ({Particular Place)

New Pakistan, Two Nation Theory (Particular Idea)

2. Common noun
A common noun is the name of an ordinary person, an ordinary thing, an ordinary place, or an
ordinary situation, etc.
Examples:
Boy, man, women (ordinary person)

School, village, park (Common Place)

Car, Pen, ship (Ordinary thing)

Beauty, health, happiness (Ordinary situation)

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3. Material Noun
A material noun is the name of some material or substance from which things are made such as
silver, gold, iron, cotton, etc.

4. Concrete Noun
A concrete noun is the name of some physical being or material.

For example chair (a physical thing), book (a physical being), gold (Material), etc.
5. Abstract Noun
An abstract noun refers to some state of being.
For example health, beauty, joy, grief, desire, stress, etc.
6. Collective noun
A collective noun refers to a group of individuals.

Examples:
Committee, family, army, jury, herd, group, council, assembly, crew, band, bunch, crowd, team,
staff, pack, flock, troop, fleet, etc.

7. Countable Noun
A countable noun refers to some being that can be counted, such as dog, girl, table, cup, size,
color, etc.
8. Uncountable Noun
An uncountable noun refers to some being that cannot be counted, such as water, happiness, joy,
iron, wheat, etc.
More Examples:
Sugar, honesty, work, advice, information, money, food, rice, wood, gold, silver, fun, anger,
bread, business, cash, courage, faith, hair, justice, etc.

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Definition of Pronoun
A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun. I, we, you, he, she, it, they, are pronouns.
Example:
 Ali is a good boy because Ali does his work in time. (Not suitable)
 Ali is a good boy because he does his work in time. (Suitable)
Note: in the second sentence we have used a pronoun (he) in place of a noun (Ali) which make
our sentence look professional.

Different Types of Pronouns

Personal Pronoun
A personal pronoun is a pronoun that refers to a particular being. (I, we, they, you, he, she, it)

Personal Pronoun Table

———————— First Person Second Person Third Person

Pronouns Singular Plural Singular

Subject Pronoun I We You He, she, it They

Object Pronoun Me Us You Him, her, It Them

Possessive Adjectives My Our Your His, her, its Thei

Possessive Pronouns Mine Ours yours His, hers, its Thie

Examples:
I like horses. Subject Pronoun

Horses don’t like me. Object Pronoun

We talk to our neighbor. Subject Pronoun

She talks to us. Object Pronoun

Possessive Adjectives
Possessive adjectives show possession. They are used before nouns. They are never used alone.

Examples:
 This is my Pen.
 It is your car.
2. Possessive Pronoun
Possessive Pronouns show possession. They are never followed by nouns. They are used alone.

Examples:
1. This pen is mine.
2. This car is yours.
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Reflexive Pronoun
A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that refers back to the subject of the sentence.

Example
 I am teaching myself how to drive a car.

Personal pronoun Reflexive pronoun

I Myself

We Ourselves

You Yourself

He Himself

She Herself

It Itself

They Themselves

One Oneself

When to use reflexive pronoun?

 We use the reflexive pronoun the subject and object are the same in a sentence.
Examples
 I hurt myself.
 He shot himself.
Reflexive pronoun as an object of a preposition
Examples
 I bought a book for
 The man is talking to
Relative Pronoun
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that qualifies as an antecedent.

Example:
 I saw a man who was blind. (who is a relative pronoun)
Note: “Who, whom, whose, which, that” are relative pronouns.
Indefinite pronoun
An indefinite pronoun refers to something or someone that is not definite or specific.

Example:
Someone has stolen my pen.
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Here someone is an indefinite pronoun.

all another any anybody

anyone anything each everybody

everyone everything few many

nobody none several some

one somebody someone

Interrogative Pronoun
Interrogative pronoun asks questions. They include who, whom, what, which, and whose.
Distributive Pronoun
Either, neither and each are called distributive pronouns.

Examples:
 Each of man loves his children.
 Either road leads to school.
 None of this boy is idle.
Demonstrative pronoun
This, that, these, those are called demonstrative pronoun.

Examples:
 This is funny.
 That is funny.
 These are funny.
 Those are funny.
Reciprocal pronoun
Each other and one another are called reciprocal pronoun.

Examples:
 Joe and Lie loves each other. (Lie loves Joe and Joe loves Lie, the action is reciprocated.)
 The two sisters gave each other presents.
 The Christmas’s, people give gifts to each other.

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Definition of Verb
What is a Verb? A verb is a doing word. It expresses some action. In the following examples,
the verbs are given in bold font.
 I teach English.
 She eats bread.
Types of Verb
What are the types of verb? These are the basic types of verb. These types of verb are very
important for those who want to improve their grammar mistakes in English.
1. Lexical Verbs
2. DE lexical Verbs
3. Stative/Being Verbs
4. Non-Continuous Verbs
5. Auxiliary/Helping Verbs
6. Modal Verbs
7. Linking Verbs/COPULA
8. Regular Verbs/Weak Verbs
9. Irregular Verbs/Strong Verbs
10. Transitive Verbs
11. Intransitive Verbs
12. Ergative Verbs
13. Phrasal Verbs
14. Reflexive Verbs
15. Finite Verbs
16. Infinite/Non-Finite Verbs
Types of Verb –
In this video verbs and their types are explained briefly with examples.

Action or Dynamic Verbs

Action verbs show a physical or mental action.

Example:
 I Kicked the football into the goal.
 The dog ran across the road.
 She wept bitterly.
 He sings a song.

Lexical Verbs
Lexical verbs carry their full meanings. They give real information. They do not rely on other
words to convey their meanings. They are also termed the main verb or full verbs. They stand in
contrast with de-lexical verbs that convey only a partial meaning. They also stand in contrast
with auxiliary verbs that convey only the grammatical meanings.
Examples:
 She cried loudly.
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 She laughed softly. Verb and its Types

 De-lexical Verbs

De-lexical verbs
De-lexical verbs have very little meaning of their own. They rely on the following noun to
convey clear meanings. Some common de-lexical verbs are: take, make, have, give, etc.

Examples:
 I took a shower.
 I had a drink.
 He gave a loud laugh.
 She made a noise.

Static/Being Verbs
Static verbs describe a state rather than an action. They are not usually used in the present
continuous form. A few such verbs are:
Be, have, like, prefer, understand, belong, doubt, love, hate, know, want, need, own, see, hear,
smell, believe, remember, etc. Verb and its Types
Examples:
 She is a good reader.
 He seems to be sad.
 I like swimming.
 Moon belongs to a noble family.

Note: Some verbs can be used both as Stative verbs and action verbs. Some such verbs are: have,
think, feel, look, smell, taste.
For Example:
 I have a jeep. (used as a static verb)
 I am having a bath. (used as a static verb)
 I think you are a good player in hockey. (used as a static verb)
 I am thinking about buying a car. (used as a static verb)
 She looks busy. (used as a static verb)
Non-Continuous verbs
Non-Continuous verbs are used in continuous form. They are not used in progressive tenses.
They are short of Stative verbs. They tell us about some states, not an action. Some such verbs
are:
Be, want, cost, seem, need, care, contain, owe, exist, possess, own, belong, like, love, hate,
dislike, fear, envy, mind, etc.
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Auxiliary Verbs / Helping verbs Verb and its Types

Auxiliary verbs precede the main verbs. They express grammatical meanings only. They help the
main verbs to express their mood, tense, or voice. Some common auxiliary verbs are: be, do,
have, etc.
Examples:
 He is reading a book.
 She was waiting for his brother.
 We have eaten breakfast.
Modal verbs
Modal verbs are a kind of helping verbs. They show the mood of a verb such as ability,
possibility, obligation, permission, advice, or some other mood.
These verbs always come before the main verb. Modal verbs are can, could, may, might, shall,
should, will, would, must, ought to.
Examples:
 I can win the race.
 You should have a walk daily.

Linking verbs/Copula
A verb that joins the subject to a complement. Here are some common linking verbs:

Be seem, look, feel, taste, smell, sound, grow, remain, prove to stay, etc.

Examples:
 She is happy.
 She looks sad.

Regular Verbs/ Weak Verbs

Regular verbs form their past simple and past particle by adding “-ed” to their base form; For
example, laugh-laughed-laughed; look-looked-looked.

Examples: Verb and its Types

infinitives Simple Present Past simple V2 Past Particle V3 Present Participle

To advise Advise Advised Advised Advising

To allow Allow Allowed Allowed Allowing

To enjoy Enjoy Enjoyed Enjoyed Enjoying

To rain Rain Rained Rained Raining

To smile Smile Smiled Smiled Smiling

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Irregular Verbs/ Strong Verbs

Irregular Verb forms their past simple and past participle in different ways; for example, buy-
bought-bought, eat-ate-eaten.

Examples:
infinitives Simple Present Past simple V2 Past Particle V3 Present Participle

To know Know Knew Known Knowing

To go Go Gone Gone Going

To drink Drink Drank Drunk Drinking

To hold Hold Held Held Holding

To write Write Wrote Written Writing

Transitive Verbs
A verb that takes a direct object is a transitive verb.

Examples:
 She does his duty.
 she learns her lesson.
Intransitive verbs
A verb that does not take a direct object is an intransitive verb.

Examples:
 He runs fast.
 He walks slowly.

Ergative verbs Verb and its Types

Many verbs function as transitive as well as intransitive verbs. The verb that can be either
transitive or intransitive is called an ergative verb. In the following examples the verb, ‘Leave’ is
an ergative verb.
Examples:
 The bus left early in the morning.
(There is no object in this sentence; therefore, the verb ‘left’ functions as an intransitive verb
here.)

Phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb followed by a particle. The article could be a preposition or an adverb. It
creates a meaning totally different from the original verb.
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Examples:
 She has got a job.
 She gets up early in the morning.

Reflexive Verb
A verb that takes a reflexive pronoun as its object is a reflexive verb.

Examples:
 Be careful, you may cut yourself.
Here ‘yourself’ is a reflexive pronoun and cut is a reflexive verb.

Finite Verbs
A finite verb must have a subject. It is the main verb in an independent clause or a sentence.
Finite verbs give information about gender, person, number, tenses, aspect, mood, and voice.

Examples:
Finite verbs are bold and infinite verbs are in underline form.
 A verb is needed in every sentence.
 I am explaining finite and non-finite verbs.
In English, there can be just one finite verb at the root of each clause; whereas the number of
non-finite verbs can reach up to six or even more.

i.e. He is believed to have been asked to get himself medically checked.

Infinitive/Non-Infinite verb
A non-finite verb is also called an infinite verb. It does not have a subject.it does not express
tenses or numbers. It cannot be the main verb in an independent clause. Unlike a finite verb, it
typically works as an infinitive, participles, and a gerund.

Example:
This particular sentence contains one finite verb underlined and multiple infinite verbs bolded.
 What did Imran want to have done about Hashem?

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Definition of Adjective
Adjectives are describing words. They describe a noun or a pronoun.

Types of Adjective

Descriptive Adjective or Adjective of Quality

They describe nouns and give information about them.
Examples:
Tallboy, Strong man, beautiful lady, bright day, etc.

Adjective of Quantity or Numeric adjective

They talk about the quantity of a noun. They answer such questions as ‘how much’ or ‘how
many’.
Examples:
Three boys, eight girls, little sugar, many days, etc.

Predicative Adjectives
Predicative adjectives are those adjectives that follow a linking verb (be, seem, look, fell,
become, etc. They are not placed before a Noun.
Examples:
 The bag is
 The girl is
Attributive Adjective
An Attributive adjective comes before a noun and not after a linking verb (be, seem, look, feel,
become, etc.)
Examples:
 This is heavy
 She is a beautiful
Possessive Adjectives
They are the possessive pronouns used as adjectives. Thus they are named as possessive
adjectives. “my, our, your, his, its, there” are possessive adjectives. Adjectives and its Types
Examples:
 This is my
 This is your
Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives (this, that, these those, whose) show whether the noun they refer to is
singular or plural and whether it is located near or far away from the speaker.

Examples:
 I like this
 She loved those days of her youth.
Indefinite Adjectives
An indefinite adjective is an adjective formed from an indefinite pronoun. The most common
indefinite pronouns are: Adjectives and its Types
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“all, any, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none,
several, some, somebody, and someone”

Examples:
 There are many people in the room.
 Some books are placed on the table.
Interrogative Adjectives
Interrogative adjectives modify nouns and ask questions. They include which, what, whose.
They are used before nouns. Read the following examples.
Examples:
 What subject do you like most?
Comparative Adjectives
Comparative adjectives convey the supreme value of nouns. They are the superlative degrees of
the adjectives.
Examples:
 She is the tallest girl in the class.
 This is the most interesting novel I have ever read.
Superlative Adjectives
Superlative adjectives are used to describe an object which is at the upper or lower limit of a
quality.

Examples:
 She is the tallest girl in the class.
 This is the most interesting novel I have ever read.
Absolute Adjectives
The absolute adjectives are the adjectives that cannot be compared. Some absolute adjectives
are “supreme, dead, total, final, fatal, eternal, perfect, unique, infinitive”.
Distributive Adjective
Ever, every, either, neither are called distributive adjectives.

Examples:
 I will give a book to each student in the class.
 Every student in the class is hardworking.
 You can have either book.
 You can have neither book.
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Definition of Adverb
An adverb is a verb that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Example:
 She is very (Very is an Adverb)
 Unfortunately, he met an accident. (Unfortunately is an Adverb)
Position of Adverbs
We can put adverbs and adverb phrases at the front, in the middle or at the end of a clause.
Examples:
 Suddenly, she fell down.
 She is always late for everything.
 Why do you eat so fast?
Types of Adverbs and their positions
Different types of adverbs go in different places.
1. Adverbs of manner
2. Adverb of time
3. Adverb of place
4. Adverb of frequency
5. Adverb of degree/quality
6. Adverb of certainty and obligation
7. Adverb of affirmation
8. Adverb of negation
9. Interrogative adverbs
10. Relative adverbs
11. Adverb of probability and certainty
12. Adverb of attitude
13. Adverb of reason/purpose
14. Adverb of duration or period
15. Adverb of conjunction
Adverbs of Manner
The adverb of manner tells us how something happens. They are usually placed after the
main verb or after the object.
Examples:
 She walks
 She spokes
 He beats drum
Adverb of Place
Adverb of Place tells us where something happens. Adverb off place is like adverbs of manner.
They come after the direct object or the verb.

Examples:
 He sat
 They build a house
Adverb of Time
Adverb of time tells us when, how long, and how often an action happened.
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Different adverbs of Time are given:

 When: Today, yesterday, later, now, last year
 For how long: all day, not long, for a while, since last year
 How often: sometimes, frequently, never, often, yearly
Adverb of Duration
They usually go in the end position.

Examples:
 I am not ill anymore.
 I left Multan
Adverb of Frequency
An adverb of frequency is also an adverb of time. It tells us how often an action takes place. It is
usually placed before the main verb but after the auxiliary verbs (such as be, have, may, must,
etc.)

Examples:
 I sometimes visit my uncle.
 We have often seen him studying till late at night.
 He is seldom
 Sometimes, they visit free.
 I miss him
 I meet her very
 Ali eats meat very
Adverbs of Degree/Quality
Adverbs of Degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another
adverb.

Some common adverbs of degree are:

Almost, near, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarily, completely, very, extremely.

Adverb of certainty and Obligation

Some adverbs of certainty go in the mid position.

E.g.
Probably, possibly, certainly.

Examples:
 It will probably take about a week.
 I will certainly be obliged.
Adverb of Affirmation
Adverbs of affirmation declare that the given statement or the fact is true.

A few of such adverbs are: adverb and its types

Never, no, not, not by all, by no means, no longer, etc.
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Interrogatives Adverbs
Interrogative Adverbs are used for asking questions. They are usually placed at the beginning of
the sentence.

They include:

How, when, why, and where

Examples:
 When did he come?
 Where did she go?
 How are you doing?
 When did you do this?
Relative Adverbs
Relative adverbs are (where, when, and why). They introduce a relative clause. And then a
relative clause is a sort of subordinate clause that functions as an adjective. It modifies a noun in
the sentence.

Examples:
Read; the relative adverbs in the following examples are given in bold.
 He was born in the year when I left America.
 This is the place where we met last year.
 I have no idea why he called me a liar.
Adverb of Probability and uncertainty
Adverbs of probability show how sure we are about an event or a situation.

The most common adverbs of probability are:

Definitely, certainly, clearly, obviously, possibly, perhaps, probably, maybe. adverb and its types
Examples:
 Perhaps he will help me.
 Maybe, it would not rain.
 He is certainly taking the exams this year.
 I will definitely pay the dues on time.
 He will possibly marry his cousin.
 She was obviously surprised by my proposal.
Adverbs of attitude
The adverb of attitude expresses the writer’s attitude toward an issue stated in the sentence.

Some common adverbs of attitude are:

Fortunately, luckily, obviously, apparently, naturally, clearly, frankly, hopefully, really,
surprisingly, unfortunately, unluckily, etc.

Adverb of Reason/Purpose
Adverbs of reason give the reason behind a particular happening.
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Some common adverbs of reason are:

Hence, thus, therefore, because, so, since, accidentally, purposely, consequently, in order to, lest,
etc. adverb and its types
Adverb of Duration or Period
Adverbs of duration tell us about the duration or period of some event or situation.

Some common adverbs of duration are:

Since, from, till next, for, last, still, yet, already, coming, no more, any more, long, no longer,
any longer, briefly, forever, shortly, permanently, temporarily, etc.

Adverbs of Conjunction
Adverbs of Conjunction Connects ideas or clauses. They show the relation between the two
clauses.

Some common adverbs of Conjunction are:

Also, conversely, likewise, otherwise, consequently, indeed, still, therefore, subsequently, thus,
accordingly, besides, finally, hence, instead, however, moreover, nevertheless, next, similarly,
nonetheless, otherwise, then, furthermore, etc.

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Definition of Preposition
A preposition shows the relation of a noun or pronoun with other.
Example:
The book is in the bag.
Preposition Examples
About above across after

against along amid amount

around at before behind

below beneath besides between

beyond but/expect by down

for from in into

of off on/upon out of

over since then though

to towards under up

with within without

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Types of Preposition
1. Preposition of Time
Prepositions that are used to show time are called prepositions of time.
At, in, on are called preposition of time. prepositions and its types
We use:
“at” before a precise time
“in” before months, tears, centuries, and long periods
“on” before days and dates Prepositions and its Types
Examples:
Precise Time Months, Years, Centuries and Long Periods Days and Dates

at in on

at 3 o’clock in may on Sunday

at 10:30 a.m. in summer on Tuesdays

at noon in winter on 6 march

at dinnertime in 1990 on 25 Dec. 2010

at bedtime in the 1990s on Christmas day

at sunrise in the next century on independence day

at sunset in the ice of age on my birthday

at the moment in the past/in future on new year’s eve

 I have a meeting at 9 a.m.
 The shop closes at midnight.
 Abdullah went home at lunchtime.
 In England, it often snows in December.
 Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
 There must be a lot of progress in the next century.
 Do you work on Mondays?
 Her birthday is on 20 November. preposition and its types
 Where will you neon New Year’s Day?

2. Preposition of Movement and Direction

Prepositions of movement show movement in a sentence.

Some commonly used prepositions are:

Away from, up, down, off, out of, to, onto, into, towards, across, along, round, out of, through.

Examples:
 She returned to her office. Prepositions and its Types
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 Lyon fell onto the floor.

 He jumped into the pool.
 He is running away from dogs.
 She is taking the dish out of the oven.
 They were walking towards the castle.
 The boat was going down the river.
 The jeep is going up the hill
 The poor man just fell off his horse.
3. Preposition of Location or Position or Place
Preposition of positions shows locus. “at, in, on” are called preposition of position.
Some common prepositions of position are:
At the back of, at the bottom of, at the top of, behind, between, in the corner of, in the middle of,
next to, to the left of, on the other side of, to the right of, on the side of, on the top of, the
opposite.

Examples:
 We met at the bus station.
 The cat was sitting on the floor.
 They live in New York.
4. Compound Preposition Prepositions and its Types
A preposition consisting of more than one word is called a compound preposition.

Some compound prepositions are:

According to, ahead of, apart from, aside from, as of, because of, by means of, in addition to in
the back of, in the front of, in the place of, in regard to, in spite of, instead of, in view of, next to,
on account of, out of, owing to, prior to.

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Definition of Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.
There are three major types of conjunctions:
1. Coordinate Conjunction
2. Subordinate Conjunction
3. Correlative Conjunction

Coordinate Conjunction
Coordinate conjunctions usually link elements of the same grammatical class. For example, it
connects nouns with nouns, adverbs with adverbs, phrases with phrases, and clauses with
clauses.
Some important coordinate conjunctions are:
And, but, for, or, nor, also, either…or, neither…nor.

Examples:
1. John and Jolly are friends. (Join two nouns)
2. He walks slowly and lazily. (Connects two adverbs)
Kinds of Coordinate Conjunction
Coordinate conjunction is further divided into four types:
1. Cumulative or copulative conjunctions
2. Adversative conjunction
3. Disjunctive or alternative conjunctions
4. Illative conjunction
1. Cumulative Conjunction
Cumulative conjunction merely adds one element to other.

Some cumulative conjunctions are:

And, both….and, as well as, not only….but also.

Examples:
John writes books and CJ prints them.
Jacky got up and went to the bath room.
2. Adversative Conjunction
Adversative Conjunction link opposite statements.

Some adversative conjunctions are:

But, still, yet, whereas, while, nevertheless etc.

Examples:
The string is thin but it is strong.
 22

The story is strange yet true.

3. Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions

Conjunctions which present two alternatives are called disjunctive or alternative conjunction.

Some disjunctive conjunctions are:

Or, either…or, neither…nor, neither, nor, otherwise, else etc.

Examples:
 Grapes are either green or red.
 We will go to the river or stay at home.
 Neither he nor his wife enjoyed the picnic.
4. Illative Conjunction
Illative conjunction shows result or logical judgment.

Some illative conjunctions are:

So, there, hence, thus, because, as, for, etc.

Examples:
Somebody has come, for I have heard a knock at the door.

He was ill, so he did not go to college.

Subordinate Conjunction
A subordinate conjunction introduces a subordinate clause. It links the subordinate’s clause to
the independent clause.

Here is a simple list of subordinating conjunction:

After although as as if

as long as as much as as soon as as through

because before by the time even if

even trough if in order that in case

in the event that lest now that once

only only if provided that since

so supposing that than

 23

though till unless until

when whenever where whereas

whenever whether or not while.

Correlative Conjunction
A correlative Conjunction consists in a pair of conjunctions that work together. This pair of
conjunctions functions as a single conjunction. It relates one sentence element to the other.
Coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions are single words, while correlatives
conjunctions work in pairs.
Some of the correlative conjunctions are given below:
Both…and, either…or, neither…nor, hardly…when, not only…but also, no sooner…than,
rather…than, as…as.

Compound Conjunction
The phrases that are used as conjunctions are called compound conjunctions.

Some of the compound conjunctions are given below:

So that, provided that, as well as, as soon as, as long as, such as, in order that, as if, as though,
etc.

______________________________________________________________________

Interjection
Interjection is a word that expresses a strong feeling. It is just a sort of exclamation. Each
interjection has its own specific connotation. The listener of an interjection instantly understands
the emotions of the speaker.
Examples
 Ahh, that feels wonderful.
 Alas! I'm lost in the wilderness.
 Bah! That was a total waste of time.
 Bless you! I couldn't have done it without you.
 24

 It's time for me to go. Cheerio!

Interjection and its types

 GRETINGS! Interjection These interjections are uttered to greet someone.
Examples
Hello, hey, hi, etc.
 Hello, can I help you with something?
 Hey, listen to me.
 Hi, how may I help.
Interjection for joy These interjections are uttered to express joy and happiness.
Examples
Hurrah, hurray, wow, etc.
 Hurray! I have won the race.
 Wow! My son has passed the exam.
 Hurrah! We’ve got another day off.
Interjection for approval and praise These interjections express the feelings of admiration and
praises.
Examples
Bravo, Brilliant, well done, etc.
 Well done! You have succeeded.
 Bravo! He has made a great goal.
 Brilliant! You have got high marks in the exam.
Interjection of surprise These interjections show the speaker’s feelings of surprise.
Examples
What, oh, ah, eh, wow, etc.
 Ah! It feels good.
 Oh! You both know each other.
 What! He died.
 25

 Wow! It is tasty.
Interjection of sorrow These interjections express the speaker’s feelings of sadness.
Examples
Alas, ah, oh, ouch, etc.
 Look! Don’t be so boastful.
 Listen! I will never go with you.
 Behold! Something strange has happened. WW
______________________________________________________________________________

Article Definition

An article is a word that modifies or describes the Noun. It is used before the noun to show
whether it refers to something specific or not. So, in a way, articles can also be described as a
type of adjectives as they also tell us something about the nouns, like adjectives.

There are two types of articles in the English language, they are indefinite articles (a, an) and
definite article (the).

Types of Articles with Examples

Definite Article

Definite means to be clear, exact or obvious about something. It is called definite because it is
used in relation to a particular thing or person. “The” is the definite article in English, which is
used to refer to particular nouns, the identities of which are known. The definite article indicates
that the noun is specific. The speaker talks about a particular thing.

For example:

 The cat sat on the couch.

 The dog attacked me and ran away.
Notice how the reference is not left indefinite in both the sentences. It is clear that a particular cat
sat on the couch in the first sentence and a specific dog that attacked the speaker is being spoken
about in the second example.
 26

Other examples are listed below:

 I’ll pick you up at the airport.

 We spent all day at the beach.
 Let’s go to the movies this evening.
 I have to go to the bank and get some Euros.
 I really enjoyed the book I’ve just finished reading.
 Do you like the other kids in your class?
 ..

Indefinite Articles

Indefinite means something which is not clear, obvious or exact. They are called indefinite
because the identity of the thing or person being spoken about is left unclear or indefinite.
The indefinite article indicates that the noun is not someone or something in particular. The
speaker talks about anyone of that type of things. The indefinite articles in English
are “a” and “an.”

For example:

 Do you have a pencil?

 I want to have an apple.
Notice how the speaker is not asking for a particular pencil or apple, but any pencil or apple in
the above sentences.

Other examples are listed below:

 I’ve bought a car.

 She’s got a boyfriend.
 There was a sudden loud noise.
 What a shame that you couldn’t go to the party.
 I heard a child crying.
 He applied to become an American citizen.
 Chris has an evening job as an office cleaner.
 That was an excellent meal!

___________________________________________________________________________
 27

Sentence: Definition & Types

A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital letter and ends
with a full-stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark.
The sentence is generally defined as a word or a group of words that expresses a thorough idea by
giving a statement/order, or asking a question, or exclaiming.
Example:

He is a good boy (statement), Is he a good boy? (question), What a nice weather! (exclaiming).

Ideally, a sentence requires at least one subject and one verb. Sometimes the subject of a sentence
can be hidden, but the verb must be visible and present in the sentence. Verb is called the heart of
a sentence.

Example:

Do it. (In this sentence, a subject ‘you’ is hidden but verb ‘do’ is visible)

“[A sentence is] a group of words, usually containing a verb, that expresses a thought in
the form of a statement, question, instruction, or exclamation and starts with a capital letter when
written.” - (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University
Press.)

More Examples of Sentences

In other words, a complete English sentence must have three characteristics:
o First, in written form, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period (i.e.,
a full stop) [.], a note of interrogation (i.e., a question mark) [?], or a note of
exclamation (i.e., an exclamation mark) [!].
o Second, it must express a complete thought, not fragmented.
o Third, it must contain at least one subject (hidden/visible) and one verb comprising an
independent clause. (An independent clause contains an independent subject and verb
and expresses a complete thought.)

Types of Sentences

Structurally, sentences are of four types:

 Simple sentence
 Compound sentence
 Complex sentence, and
 Compound-complex sentence.
 28

Simple sentence

A simple sentence must have a single clause (a single verb) which is independent, and it cannot
take another clause.
Example:

I always wanted to become a writer. (One clause – one verb)

Compound sentence

A compound sentence must have more than one independent clause with no dependent clauses.
Some specific conjunctions, punctuation, or both are used to join together these clauses.
Example:
I always wanted to become a writer, and she wanted to become a doctor. (Two independent clauses
– two verbs)

Complex sentence

A complex sentence also has more than one clause but of one them must be an independent clause
and the other/others must be (a) dependent clause(es). There are also some particular connectors
for the clauses of a complex sentence to be connected.
Example:
I know that you always wanted to be a writer. (Here, a dependent clause is followed by a connector
and an independent clause. The other way around is also possible.)
More Complex Sentence Examples

Compound-complex sentence

A compound-complex sentence (or complex–compound sentence) is a mixture of the features of

compound and complex sentences in one sentence. So, it must contain at least two independent
clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Example:
I know that you always wanted to become a writer, but I always wanted to become a doctor. (Here,
one dependent clause is followed by a complex connector and two independent clauses with a
compound conjunction between them.)
 29

Functionally, sentences are of mainly four types:

 Declarative sentence
 Imperative sentence
 Interrogative sentence, and
 Exclamatory sentence

Declarative sentence:

An assertive sentence (declarative sentence) simply expresses an opinion/feeling, or makes a

statement, or describes things. In other words, it declares something. This type of sentence ends
with a period (i.e., a full-stop).
Examples:
o I want to be a good cricketer. (a statement)
o I am very happy today. (a feeling)
More Examples of Declarative Sentence

Imperative sentence:

We use an imperative sentence to make a request or to give a command. Imperative

sentences usually end with a period (i.e., a full stop), but under certain circumstances, it can end
with a note of exclamation (i.e., exclamation mark).
Examples:
o Please sit down.
o I need you to sit down now!
More Examples of Imperative Sentence

Interrogative sentence:

An interrogative sentence asks a question. Interrogative sentences must end with a note of
interrogation (i.e., question mark)
Examples:
o When are you going to submit your assignment?
o Do you know him?
More Examples of Interrogative Sentence

Exclamatory sentence.

An exclamatory sentence expresses overflow of emotions. These emotions can be of happiness,

wonder, sorrow, anger, etc.
 30

Examples:
o What a day it was!
o I cannot believe he would do that!

BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Parts of Sentences: Subject, Predicate, Object, Indirect Object, Complement

Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of that particular
sentence. According to rules of grammar, sentence structure can sometimes be quite
complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however, the basic parts of a sentence are discussed
here.

The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate.

SUBJECT

The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is performing the action of the
sentence. The subject represents what or whom the sentence is about. The simple subject
usually contains a noun or pronoun and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses.

The man . . .

PREDICATE

The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The simple predicate contains
the verb and can also contain modifying words, phrases, or clauses.

The man / builds a house.

 31

The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any complete sentence. In
addition, there are other elements, contained within the subject or predicate, that add meaning or
detail. These elements include the direct object, indirect object, and subject complement. All of
these elements can be expanded and further combined into simple, compound, complex, or
compound/complex sentences.

DIRECT OBJECT

The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object is usually a noun or
pronoun.

The man builds a house.

The man builds it.

INDIRECT OBJECT

The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the sentence is being done.
The indirect object is usually a noun or pronoun.

The man builds his family a house.

The man builds them a house.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT

A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and therefore is usually a
noun, pronoun, or adjective. Subject complements occur when there is a linking verb
within the sentence (often a linking verb is a form of the verb to be).

The man is a good father. (Father = noun which renames the subject)
 32

The man seems kind. (Kind = adjective which describes the subject)

Note: As an example of the difference between parts of speech and parts of a sentence, a noun
can function within a sentence as subject, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, or
subject complement.

Phrases
Some different types of grammatical phrases are as follows:

 Noun phrase
 Adjective phrase
 Adverb phrase
 Verb phrase
 Prepositional phrase

Examples of the different types of phrases

Below you will see some examples along with the different types of phrases so you can easily
make sense of a sentence in the future.

Noun phrase

A noun phrase is a group of words that consists of a noun (or pronoun eg. he, she, it) and other
words that modify the noun. Modifiers can refer to articles (a/an/the), quantifiers (some, a lot, a
little), demonstratives (this, that, those), possessives (his, her, their), adjectives or
adverbs. Noun phrases are used to give more information about a noun. They can function as the
subject, object or complement of a sentence.

Noun phrase examples

Here are some examples of the types of phrases known as noun phrases.

In the sentence:
“Your black cat is always outside.”
The noun phrase is
 33

“Your black cat.”

It is used to add detail to the sentence, by indicating the subject (cat) and describing it (a cat that
is black and belongs to someone).

In the sentence:
“I saw a scary movie at midnight.”
The noun phrase is:
“A scary movie.”
It is used to indicate the object of the sentence (a movie) and provide a description of it (scary).

It has been argued that a noun phrase CAN consist of only one word, which would be either a
noun or pronoun.

“Beth is walking home from school”.

Here, Beth is the only noun in the sentence, so it can be considered a one-word noun phrase.

Adjective phrase

An adjective phrase (also known as an adjectival phrase) is a type of phrase which is a group of
words that consists of an adjective and other words that modify or
complement it. Adjective phrases have the purpose of an adjective and are used to describe or
add more detail to a noun/pronoun. They can come before or after a noun.

Adjective phrase examples

Here are some examples of adjective phrases.

In the sentence
“The man with short hair is running in the park.”
The adjective phrase is
“Short hair.”
It appears after the noun and is used to provide more detail about the noun (the man).

In the sentence:
“I ate some sugar-coated candies”.
The adjective phrase is:
“Sugar-coated.”
It appears before the noun and is used to provide more information about the noun (doughnut) -
it describes what they were like (sugar-coated).
 34

Adverb phrase

An adverb phrase (also known as an adverbial phrase) is a group of words that consists of an
adverb and often other modifiers. They have the function of an adverb in a sentence and are
used to modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. They can appear before or after the elements
they modify.

Adverb phrase examples

Here are some examples of adverb phrases.

In the sentence:
“I go to the gym every weekend.”
The adverb phrase is:
“Every weekend.”
It gives more information about how often the action takes place.

In the sentence:
“He very carefully lifted the trophy.”
The adverb phrase is:
“Very carefully.”
It gives more detail about how the action (lifted) is carried out.

Stop procrastinating with our smart planner features for Types of Phrases

Verb phrase

A verb phrase is a group of words that consists of a head (main) verb and other verbs such
as copular verbs (verbs that join the subject to the subject complement ie., seems, appears,
tastes) and auxiliaries (helping verbs ie., be, do, have). It can also include other modifiers.
A verb phrase has the function of a verb in a sentence.

Verb phrase examples

Here are some examples of verb phrases.
In the sentence:
“Dave was walking his dog.”
The verb phrase is:
“Was walking.”
 35

It consists of the auxiliary verb ‘was’, which indicates the tense of the sentence, and the main
verb ‘walking’, which indicates the action.

In the sentence:
“She will go to the party tonight.”
The verb phrase is:
“Will go.”
It consists of the modal verb ‘will’, which indicates a degree of certainty, and the main verb ‘go’
which indicates the future action.

Prepositional phrase

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that consists of a preposition and an object. It can
also include other modifiers, but these are not essential. A prepositional phrase can either act as
an adjective or adverb in a sentence. It is used to modify nouns and verbs and gives information
about the relationships between subjects and verbs.

Prepositional phrase examples

Here are some examples of prepositional phrases.

In the sentence:
“The rat runs into the box.”
The prepositional phrase is:
“Into the box.”
It gives information about where the subject (the rat) goes.

In the sentence:
“The cut on my leg is painful.”
The prepositional phrase is:
“On my leg.”
It gives information about where the subject (the cut) is situated.
 36

Types of Phrases - Key takeaways

 A phrase is a group of words that add meaning to a sentence. The different types of

phrases include: noun phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, verb phrase, and
prepositional phrase.

 A noun phrase is a group of words that consists of a noun (or pronoun) and other words
that modify the noun. It adds information about the noun.

 An adjective phrase is a group of words that consists of an adjective and other words that
modify or complement it. It is used to add detail to a noun.

 An adverb phrase is a group of words that consists of an adverb and often its modifiers. It

functions as an adverb in a sentence, with the purpose of modifying verbs, adjectives or

other adverbs.

 A verb phrase is a group of words that consists of the main verb and other verbs (such as
copulas and auxiliaries). It can also include other modifiers.

 A prepositional phrase is a group of words that acts as either an adjective or adverb in a

sentence. It consists of a preposition and an object, and can also include other
 37

modifiers.
 38

CLAUSE AND ITS TYPES

Clause
“A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate”
For example, he laughed.
A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as an independent
sentence) which has both subject and predicate.

Example
I will meet him in office.

The part of above sentence “I will meet him” is a clause because it has a subject(I) and a
predicate(will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of above sentence “in office” lacks
both subject and predicate(verb) such group of word is called phrase.
A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to make a sentence.
Therefore, a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses.
Examples.
• He is sleeping. (one clause)
• The kids were laughing at the joker. (one clause)
• The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (two clauses)
• I am happy, because I won a prize. (two clauses)
• I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology,
because he wants to become a doctor. (three clauses)
Clauses are divided into main clause (also called independent clause) and subordinate clause
(also called dependent clauses).
Types of Clauses
There are two major types of clauses main (or independent) clause and subordinate (or
dependant) clause.
Main Clause and Subordinate Clause – Comparison
He is buying a shirt which looks very nice.
The above sentence has two clauses “He is buying a shirt” and “which looks very nice”. The
clause “He is buying a shirt” expresses a complete thought and can alone stand as a sentence.
Such a clause is called main or independent clause.

While the clause “which looks very nice” does not express a complete thought and can’t stand as
a sentence. It depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete idea. Such a clause is
called subordinate or dependent clause.
 39

Main or Independent Clause

“Main (or independent) clause is a clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand as a
sentence.

Examples
I met the boy who had helped me.
She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.
The teacher asked a question but no one answered.
He takes medicine because he suffers from fever.
He became angry and smashed the vase into peaces.
In the above sentences each underlined part shows main clause. It expresses complete though
and can stand as a sentence that is why a main or an independent clause is normally referred as a
simple sentence.
Subordinate or dependent Clause
Subordinate (or independent) clause is a clause which does not express complete thought and
depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete thought. Subordinate clause does
not express complete idea and can’t stand as a sentence. A sentence having a subordinate clause
must have a main clause.
Example
He likes Chinese rice which tastes good.
The clause “which tastes good” in above sentence is a subordinate clause because it does not
express complete thought and can’t stand as a sentence. It depends on main clause (he likes
Chinese rise) to express complete thought.
Examples.
I met the boy who had helped me.
I bought a table that costs $ 100.
He takes medicine because he suffers from fever.
The teacher asked a question but no one answered.
Subordinate (or dependent) clauses are further divided into tree types,
1. Noun Phrase, 2. Adjective Phrase, 3. Adverb Phrase

Types of Subordinate Clause

Functions of Subordinate Clause.
A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence.
On the basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can be divided in to following
types.
1. Noun Clause
2. Adjective Clause.
3. Adverb Clause
 40

Noun Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause.”
A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a sentence.

Example
What he did made a problem for his family.

In above sentence the clause “what he did” functions as a noun, hence it is a noun clause. A noun
clause works as a noun that acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a sentence. A noun clause
starts with words “that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever”.
Examples
Whatever you learn will help you in future. (noun clause as a subject)
What you said made me laugh. (noun clause as a subject)
He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as an object)
Now I realize what he would have thought. (noun clause as an object)
Adjective Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective
clause.”
An adjective clause works like adjective in a sentence. The function of an adjective is to modify
(describe) a noun or a pronoun. Similarly a noun clause modifies a noun or a pronoun.

Example
He wears a shirt which looks nice.

The clause “which looks nice” in above sentence is an adjective clause because it modifies noun
“shirt” in the sentence.
An adjective clause always precedes the noun it modifies.

Examples.
I met the boy who had helped me.
An apple that smells bad is rotten.
The book which I like is helpful in preparation for test.
The house where I live consists of four rooms.
The person who was shouting needed help.
Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, who, whom, whose, which, or whose) and
is also relative clause.
Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause
 41

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses

Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause. A
restrictive clause limits the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. A nonrestrictive clause tells
us something about preceding noun or pronoun but does not limit the meaning of preceding noun
or pronoun.
Example

•The student in the class who studied a lot passed the test. (restrictive clause)

•The student in the class, who had attended all the lectures, passed
the test. (nonrestrictive clause)
In the first sentence the clause “who studied a lot” restrict information to preceding
noun(student), it means that there is only one student in the class who studied a lot, hence it is a
restrictive clause.

In the second sentence the clause “who had attended all the lectures” gives us information about
preceding noun but does not limit this information to the preceding noun. It means there can be
several other students in the class who had attended all the lectures.

A comma is always used before a restrictive clause in a sentence and also after nonrestrictive
clause if it is within a main clause. “That” is usually used to introduce a restrictive clause while
“which” is used to introduce a nonrestrictive clause.

Example
The table that costs $ 100 is made of steel. (restrictive clause)
The table, which costs $ 100, is made of steel. (nonrestrictive clause)

Adverb Clause
“A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called adverb clause”
An adverb clause like an adverb modifies a verb, adjective clause or other adverb clause in a
sentence. It modifies(describes) the situation in main clause in terms of “time, frequency
(how often), cause and effect, contrast, condition, intensity (to what extent).”
The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses are as follows.
Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as
Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that,
Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though
Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case
Examples.
Don’t go before he comes.
 42

He takes medicine because he is ill.

Although he tried a lot, he couldn’t climb up the tree.
Unless you study for the test, you can’t pass it.
I will go to the school unless it rains.
You are safe as long as you drive carefully.
You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it.

_______________________________________________________________
 43

Active and Passive voices

Active voice: In active sentences, the subject is active or the subject performs the actions.

For example

The cow (Subject) is eating (Verb) grass (Object).—Active Voice

Passive voice: In passive sentences, the subject is no longer active or the subject is acted upon by the
verb.

For example

Grass (Subject) is being eaten (Verb) by the cow (Object).—Passive Voice

Active and passive voice with tenses

Simple Present Tense

Do, Does is,am,are+3rd verb

Active Voice Passive Voice

I light the candle. The candle is lighted by me.

You lighted the candle. The candle is lighted by you.

They lighted the candle. The candle is lighted by them.

He lights the candle. The candle is lighted by him.

He does not light the candle. The candle is not lighted by him.

Do you light the candle meat Is the candle lighted by you?

Present Continuous Tense

Is, am ,are is,am,are+being+3rd verb

Active Voice Passive Voice

I am driving a car. A car is being driven by me.

I am not driving a car. A car is not being driven by me.

Am I driving a car? Is a car being driven by me?

 44

Present Perfect Tense

Has, have has,have+been+3rd verb

Active Voice Passive Voice

She has stolen my book. My book has been stolen by her.

She has not stolen my book. My book has not been stolen by her.

Has she stolen my book? Has my book been stolen by her?

Simple Past Tense

Did+ v2 verb was,were+3rd verb

Active Voice Passive Voice

She finished work. Work was finished by her.

She did not finish work. Work was not finished by her.

Did she finish work? Was work finished by her?

Past Continuous Tense

Was, were was,were+being+3rd verb

Active Voice Passive Voice

He was revising his books. His books were being revised by him.

He was not revising his books. His books were not being revised by him.

Was he revising his books? Were his books being revised by him?

Past Perfect Tense

Had had+been+3rd verb

Active Voice Passive Voice

I had completed the assignment. The assignment had been completed by me.

I had not completed the assignment. The assignment had not been completed by me.
 45

Had I completed the assignment? Had the assignment been completed by me?

Simple Future Tense

Will, shall will,shall+be+3rd verb

Active Voice Passive Voice

My uncle will pay my tuition fee. My tuition fee will be paid by my uncle.

My uncle will not pay my tuition fee. My tuition fee will not be paid by my uncle.

Will my uncle pay my tuition fee? Will my tuition fee be paid by my uncle?

Future Perfect Tense

Will have, shall have will, shall+ have been+3rd verb

Active Voice Passive Voice

We shall have done our home-work. Our home -work shall have been done by us.

We shall not have done our home-work. Our home -work shall not have been done by us.

Shall We have done our home –work? Shall our home -work have been done by us?

Note: In Present perfect continuous tense, Past perfect continuous tense, Future perfect continuous
tense, Future perfect tense, we use the same sentence in passive voice. It means these tense cannot be
changed in passive form.

Active and passive voice with modals (What is a Modal?)

Modals Auxiliary Verb in Active Voice Passive Voice

Passive Voice

Can/ Can be/Could+ be+ I can solve these sums. These sums can be solved by me.
Could 3rd verb
I cannot solve these sums. These sums cannot be solved by me.

Can I solve these sums? Can these sums be solved by me?

Has to/ Has to/ Have He has to complete his His assignment has to be completed by
Have to+3rd verb assignment. him?
to

Must Must+3rd verb You must learn this book. This book must be learnt by you.
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May may+be+3rd verb I may buy the book. The book may be bought by me.

Might might+ be+ They might play chess. Chess might be played by them.
3rd Verb

Should should+ Students should learn all lessons. All lessons should be learnt by students.
be+3rd verb

Active and passive voice with Imperative Sentences

These are the sentences in which we express our feeling and emotions like command, order, advice, and
request.

Rules

1. Lets + new object + be/Not be +past participle or 3rd form.

2. For sentences containing, Request, advice and order, we will use you are Requested to, advised
to and ordered to .

Note: Always remove please and kind if they are given in the sentence.

Active Voice Passive Voice

Shut the door. Let the door be shut.

Post the letter at once. Let the letter be posted at once.

Always speak the truth. Let the truth always be spoken.

Do not starve the cow. Let the cow not be starved.

Let him help his brother. Let his brother be helped by him.

Clean your room. Let your room be cleaned.

Learn your lesson. Let your lesson be learnt.

Please do me a favor tonight You are requested to do me a favor tonight.

Get out of my house. You are ordered to get out of mu house.

Kindly do not smoke in public place. You are requested not to smoke in public place

To make passive voice, first of all you have to use following rules.

1. Change the object into subject. If in object, we have a pronoun of object case convert that by
following rules.
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me I

You You

her She

them They

us We

him He

it It

whom Who

2. Change the subject into object. And use by before the object. If in subject, we have a pronoun of
nominative case convert that by the following rules.

I by me

You by you

She by her

They by them

We by us

He by him

It by it

Who by whom

Some basic rules of active voice and voice are given below

 First of all, find subject, object and the main verb it means find SVO .

 Convert the object into subject.

 Use the suitable helping verb or auxiliary verb according to the tense. If helping verb is given,
use verb as it is. But note that the helping verb used should be according to the object.

 Convert the verb into past participle or 3rd form of the verb.

 Use the preposition “by”.

 Convert the subject into object.

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Direct and Indirect Narration in English

We can report the words of a speaker in two ways (i). Direct Reporting Or Direct Narration (ii). Indirect
Reporting Or Indirect Narration.

 Direct Narration

 Indirect Narration

 Reporting Speech

 Reported Speech

 Rules for Changing Direct Narration into Indirect Narration

Direct Narration

It is the method in which the actual words of the speaker are reported within Inverted commas. For
Example

(i) Mohan says, “he is my friend”.

(ii) Ram said, “he is going”.

Indirect Narration

It is the method in which the substance or idea of the speaker’s words is reported without using his
actual works.

The sentence given above is converted into Indirect Narration.

For Example

(i) Mohan says that he is my friend.

(ii) Ram said that he is going.

Reporting Speech

The part of the whole sentence outside the Inverted Commas is called Reporting Speech.

Reported Speech

The part of the whole sentence within the Inverted Commas is called the Reported Speech.

Rules for Changing Direct Narration into Indirect Narration

The rules for changing the Direct Narration into Indirect Narration is divided into four parts.

1. Rules for Connectives

2. Rules for change in Sentence

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3. Rules for change of Persons

4. Other rules for Miscellaneous Changes

Rules for Connectives (That)

When the entire sentence is required to be change from Direct Narration into Indirect Narration. the
two parts of the sentence is likely to be joined by some connectives. The following are these rules.

(A) Interrogative Sentence: If the Reported speech is in the form of an Interrogative sentence, it can be
connected in two ways according to the structure of the Interrogative sentence.

(i) If the interrogative sentence begins with an Interrogative Adverb( What, Why, Where, How, When
etc ) or with an Interrogative Adjective / Pronoun ( Who, Whose, Whom, What, Which etc. ) no
connectives is required to join it. It is a mistake to use that to connect such a sentence. For Example

Direct: He said, “where are you going” ?

Indirect: He asked me where i was going ?

(ii) If the Interrogative sentence begins with the Auxiliary Verb / Helping Verb, the
connective Whether or if is used to join it. For Example

Direct: Ha said, “Is he doctor ?

Indirect: He said whether he was doctor.

Direct: I said, ” Do you smoke”?

Indirect: I asked whether you smoke.

(iii) If the reported speech begins with the Do or Does, then Do and Does is removed from the
reported speech,and in their place the Past Indefinite Tense of the main verb is used. For Example

Direct: He said to Ram,”Do you know his name”.

Indirect: He asked Ram whether he knew his name.

Direct: Ram said to him,”Does Suresh Go to School”.

Indirect: Ram asked him whether Suresh goes to School.

(iv) If the Reported Speech begins with the Auxiliary Verb Did then the did is removed and the Past
Perfect form of the main verb is used. For Example

Direct: I said to him,”Did you go to School yesterday”.

Indirect: I asked him whether he had gone to school the previous day.

(B) Assertive Sentence: If the reported speech is in the form of assertive sentence, then the
connective that is used to join two sentence. For Example

Direct: He said, “He is going to home”.

Indirect: He said that he was going to home.

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(C) Imperative Sentence: If the reported speech is in the form of Imperative sentence, then the no
connective is used to join two sentence but the main verb of the Imperative sentence is converted into
an Infinite Verb. For Example

Direct: He said to the servant,”Close the door.”

Indirect: He asked the servant to close the door.

Direct: He said,”Please give me a glass of water.”

Indirect: He requested to give him a glass of water.

(D) Exclamatory Sentence: If the Reported Speech is in the form of Exclamatory Sentence ( indicating
surprise, fear, wish or contempt etc. ), it is changed into an assertive sentence in the Indirect Narration
form and connective that is used to join it with the Reporting speech. For Example

Direct: He said,” What a horrible scene ?

Indirect: He said that it was a horrible scene.

(E) Exclamatory sentence: The sentences which carry the sense of sudden joy, sorrow, Wonder,
disappointment are called exclamatory sentence. These sentences generally begins with word Alas, Oh,
Hurrah, Bravo, How, What a, etc.

(i) In place of the Reporting Verb ‘Said’ some other verbs as Exclaimed, Wished and Prayed are used
according to the sentence.

(ii) Connective ‘that’ is used.

(iii) After the Reporting Verb, we use such expressions as Joyfully, Sorrowfully, With Sorrow, With Joy,
In astonishment, according to the sense.

(iv) Exclamatory sentence is changed into assertive sentence.

(v) The rules for change for Tense and Pronoun are the same as used in assertive sentence.

Direct: He said,”Alas, I am ruined”.

Indirect: He exclaimed that he was ruined.

Direct: He said, “O, what a chance !.

Indirect: He exclaimed that it was a fine chance.

Rules for Change in Tense

Rule 1

It should first be remembered that no change is ever made in the Tense of the Reporting Verb. but of
course, without changing the tense, the verb can be changed according to the sense of the Reported
Speech. For Example, In place of say or said , we can use tell or told , or we can use replied, remarked,
asked, observed, declared etc. according to the sense. But in no case there should be a change in the
tense of the Reporting Speech.
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Rule 2

If the Reporting Verb is in the Present or Future Tense, no change is made in the tense of the Reported
Verb, But of course, the form of the auxiliary verb will change according to the change in the person of
the Subject in the Indirect Narration Form. For Example am can be changed
into is or are; or do and have can be changed into does or has, but no change can be made in the tense
in the process of this change. For Example

Direct: He says, ” I am not feeling well today”.

Indirect: He says that he is not feeling well today.

Direct: He will say to me, “you are not kind to me.”

Indirect: He will tell me that I am not kind to him.

Rule 3

If the reported speech is in the Past Tense, the tense of the reported speech is changed according to the
following rules.(I) (A) Present Indefinite is changed into Past Indefinite tense. For Example

Direct: He said,”I am unwell”.

Indirect: He said that he was unwell.

(B) Present Continuous is converted into Past Continuous Tense. For Example

Direct: He said,”my father is reading a books”.

Indirect: He said that his father was reading a book.

(C) Present Perfect is changed into Past Perfect Continuous Tense. For Example

Direct: He said,”I have passed the examination”.

Indirect: He said that he had passe the examination.

(D) Present Perfect Continuous Tense is converted into Past Perfect Continuous Tense. For Example

Direct: Mohan said,”I have been working hard since July”.

Indirect: Mohan said that he had been working hard since July.

(II) (A) Ordinarily no change is made in the Past Indefinite Tense, but sometimes it is changed into Past
Perfect Tense. For Example

Direct: Rams said,”He visited Delhi last year”.

Indirect: Ram said that he visited Delhi last year.

Direct: He said,”the horse died last night”.

Indirect: He said that the horse had died last night.

(B) Past Continuous Tense is converted into Past Perfect Continuous Tense. For Example
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Direct: He said,”my brother was working in this factory”.

Indirect: He said that his brother had been working

(C) No change is made in the Past Perfect and Past Perfect Continuous Tense. For Example

Direct: He said,”I had finished my work long ago”.

Indirect: He said that he had finished his work long ago.

Direct: Ram said,”I had been doing that work for several years”.

Indirect: Ram said that he had been doing these work for several years.

Rule 4

Will and Shall of the future tense are changed into Would and Should. For Example

Direct: He said,”Ram will go to the market”.

Indirect: He said that Ram would go to the market.

Direct: He said,”I shall definitely do this work”.

Indirect: He said that he should definitely do this work.

Rule 5

May is changed into Might and Can is changed into Could. For Example

Direct: He said,”I can do this work”.

Indirect: He said that he could do this work.

Direct: The teacher said,”he may be allowed to go”.

Indirect: The teacher said that he might be allowed to go.

Rule 6

No change is made in the Must. For Example

Direct: He said,”I must go at once”.

Indirect: He said that he must go at once.

Rule 7

If the reported speech refers to some universal truth or habitual action, no change is made in the tense
of the reported verb, even if the reporting verb in the past tense. For Example

Direct: The teacher said in the class,”the sun rises in the east”.

Indirect: The teacher said in the class that the sun rises in the east.

Direct: He said,”Man lives by beard”.

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Indirect: He said that man lives by beard.

Rule 8

When words like sir, your Honour, Your majesty, Please, Kindly etc. are used in the reported speech,
their sense is expressed by using the following expressions with the reporting Verb, and these are
dropped. For Example

Direct: The student said to the teacher,”Sir, mark me present”.

Indirect: The student respectfully requested the teacher to mark present.

Rules for change in Person

All pronouns (I, We, You, He, she, they) used in the reported speech are changed according to the
following rules.

Rule 1

Every First Person Pronoun used in the reported speech is changed according to the person of
the Subject of the Reporting Speech. For Example

Direct: He said,”I am doing my work”.

Indirect: He said that he was doing his work.

Rule 2

Every second person in the reported speech is changed according to the person of the Object of the
reporting speech. For Example

Direct: Mohan said to you,“you are not doing your work seriously”.

Indirect: Mohan told you that you were not doing your work seriously.

Direct: Ramesh said to me, “You are not doing your work seriously”.

Indirect: Ramesh told me that i was not doing my work seriously.

Rule 3

No change is made in the third person pronoun.

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Miscellaneous Changes

Some words used in the reported speech are changed as listed given below

Words Changed From

Now – Then

This or These – That or Those

Hither – Thither

Here – There

Hence – Thence

Thus – So

Come – Go

Tomorrow – Next day

Today – That Day

Yesterday – The Previous Day

Last Night – The Previous Night

Ago – Before

Sentence Beginning With ‘Let’

Sentences beginning with ‘Let’ express the sense of Order, Wish, Proposal, Imagining, Condition
etc. They are converted into Indirect Narration according to the sense. The Reporting Verb is changed
into Ordered, Requested, Proposed,Wished, support etc. according to the sense.In all such
sentences, ‘Let’ is removed and connective ‘That’ is used. In Place of ‘Let’ we use should. For Example

Direct: The Principal said,”Let no student stand here”.

Indirect: The Principal ordered that no student should stand there.

Direct: The boy said,” Let me go out to play”.

Indirect: The boy wished that he should go out to play.

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Paragraph Writing
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that discuss usually one main idea. A paragraph can
be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant;
however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly.
The following model contains all the elements of a good paragraph. Read it carefully two or three
times. Then answer the Writing Technique questions that follow, which will help you analyze its
structure.
Gold
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous
beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental
purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a
Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was made centuries ago. Another
important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has
been used in hundreds of industrial applications, such as photography and dentistry. The most
recent use of gold is in astronauts' suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection
when they go outside spaceships in space. 1n conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty
but also for its utility.
The Three Parts of a Paragraph
All paragraphs have a topic sentence and supporting sentences, and some paragraphs also have
a concluding sentence.
The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of the
paragraph, but it also limits the topic to one specific area that can be discussed completely in the
space of a single paragraph. The part of the topic sentence that announces the specific area to be
discussed is called the controlling idea. Note how the topic sentence of the model states both the
topic and the controlling idea:
TOPIC CONTROLLING IDEA
Gold a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.
Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence. That is, they explain or prove the topic sentence
by giving more information on about it. Following are some of the supporting sentences that
explain in the topic sentence about gold.
First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.
For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was made 25 centuries
ago.
Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science.
The most recent use of gold is in astronauts' suits.
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The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with important
points to remember:
In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.
Concluding sentences are customary for stand-alone paragraphs. However, paragraphs that are
parts of a longer piece of writing usually do not need concluding sentences.

Characteristics of a Good Paragraph:

1. Unity:
An effective paragraph has unity when its body part closely relates to its topic sentence. In other
words, all the supporting sentences in the body part should remain focused and relevant to the
main (controlling) idea of one's topic. (Meanwhile, the concluding sentence usually restates and
reinforce the main idea in the topic sentence.)
2. Adequate development
As explained in the previous section, the ideas of support allow to develop the central idea of the
paragraph. The correct thing is that the development of the paragraph is adequate, that is, that
describes, explains and supports the central idea. If the writer does not fulfill the promise in the
central idea, then the reader will be left with questions once the paragraph ends. This is a sign that
the paragraph has not been adequately developed.
3. Coherence:
"Coherence in a paragraph means that the ideas have a logical flow: the relationship between the
sentences is clear, and one idea connects to the next. One common way to achieve coherence in a
paragraph is to organize one's ideas (in the supporting sentences) with an ordering principle, such
as using chronological ordering for a narrative paragraph, spatial ordering for a descriptive
paragraph, and logical reasoning for an expository paragraph.
4. Cohesion: (This characteristic is considered an inseparable part of "coherence" by some who
do not single it out as another characteristic of good writing.)A paragraph has cohesion when all
the supporting sentences are well connected to each other. A paragraph has cohesion when all the
supporting sentences are well connected to each other.
Types of Paragraphs Followings are the different kinds of paragraphs:
Narrative Paragraph

Narrative paragraphs tell stories. They differ from short stories or novels in length as well as in
the amount of detail provided; they sometimes are little more than brief vignettes. True narrative
paragraphs, however, are similar to short stories in that they feature characters, follow a plot line,
include a conflict which is resolved and are told from an identifiable point of view. They may
also establish a setting or include a moral. E.g. A paragraph on describing a road side accident.
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Descriptive Paragraph
The purpose of a descriptive paragraph is to allow the reader to experience the item, phenomenon
or event being described as vividly as possible without physically sensing it. That is, the reader
cannot see it, but knows what it looks like; cannot taste it, but knows whether it is salty or sweet;
cannot touch it, but knows its texture. E.g. A paragraph on eating pizza for the first time.
Expository Paragraph
An expository paragraph explains something; its purpose is to help the reader
understand. Exposition often includes techniques such as the use of examples or illustrations to
support a point. Exposition needs to be clear; language is often quite direct. E.g. A paragraph on
love or unity
Persuasive Paragraph
The purpose of a persuasive paragraph is to convince the reader of something, such as the
writer's position on a controversial topic or a proposal for a new project. The language can be
highly charged; the intent is to get a reaction. E.g. A paragraph on careless driving
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Presentation Skills

1. Preparation and knowledge

of subject of presentation are the pre-requisites for a successful presentation, which importantly
produce confidence and control. It is important for relaxing the presenter, and the audience.
2. Structure your Presentation Effectively: The best way to do this is to start with telling the
audience, in the introduction, what you are going to present. What are your main points and what
are your sib points.
3. Preparation and rehearsal are usually very manageable elements. It's a matter of making the
effort to prepare and rehearse before the task is upon us. Presentations which do not work well
usually do so because they have not been properly prepared and rehearsed.
4. Learn How to Skip Around Poor presentation skills for most people involve a monotonous,
robotic delivery. Knowing how to handle changes is an important part of a performance. Therefore,
it is important to know where to skip and where to resume a point.
5. Speak Passionately About Your Topic when you are passionate about the topic of your
presentation, the audience senses it. It leaks through your pores and reflects from your eyes.
6. Tell Stories in Your Presentations Storytelling is one of the most effective presentation skills.
Crowds love stories. They give great examples of what the presenter is talking about, and they
earn that rapt attention which any presenter aims for much more easily.
6. Know Your Audienc This one requires research in advance to know about the age, language,
education, culture and sensitivities of your audience.
7. Film Yourself Try filming yourself delivering the presentation and playing it back. You can
learn a lot just by seeing your own mistakes and working to improve them.
8. Tell Them You’re Nervous This is one of my favorite presentation tricks, as I get super anxious
before any kind of public speech or demonstration. If you feel nervous, consider starting off by
telling the audience such (“Forgive me, please, if my voice is wobbly, I’m a bit nervous…”). The
audience is sure to empathize with your situation, and you don’t have to go through the entire
presentation with some higher bar of confidence.
9. Use Humor Add some jokes and humorous comments throughout your presentation. Like
storytelling, it connects with the audience on a deeper level, and getting them to laugh helps to
earn their attention back if you were losing it.
10. Remove Filler Sounds & Crutch Words For example, do you, um, give, like, uh, sounds like
this?
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There’s nothing wrong with these in everyday speech. In linguistics, these are called filler
sounds (or crutch words), and it is a common way to allow your brain to catch up with your words.
However, in presentations, these only make you look incompetent.

11. Use the Right Visual Aids & Presentation Media With some presentations, the medium of
delivery is set (aside from the speech element). On a school project, for example, you may be
required to use Microsoft PowerPoint.
12. Take an object in hand like pen or marker will Improve Your Confidence and will help to
control your trembling hands.
13. Breathe Breathing is so involuntary and commonplace that you likely wouldn’t consider it to
be a potential presentation booster. However, with the right breathing techniques, you can
definitely lower your stress and anxiety, whether it’s on stage or at an interview.
14. Arrive Extra Early You might have planned to arrive a few minutes early anyway, right?
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What is Precis Writing

Precis Writing is a summary. A precis writing is a gist of any passage in as few words as possible.
A precis should mention all important details of the original paragraph so that anyone who is
reading it is able to understand the idea of the original passage. You express or rewrite a
paragraph or any piece of writing and make it as concise as possible without having to change
the crux of the subject matter.
In precis writing, you must be carefully objective and maintain the theme of the passage
without excluding the important points. Comprehend the passage carefully to conclude about what
is important in an article or a story. You might take a while to read it the first time, but as you keep
reading it, the later times might just be an easy skim over the pages. Precis writing requires a very
strong understanding of the story/ text to convey the same message in a miniature form.
The word Precis comes from old French ‘précis’ which means abrupt, abridged, cut off, or
shortened. The word Precis is pronounced as (Pray-see).
Use of Precis Writing
Precis writing plays an essential role in the following areas:
 Precis writing can be used to describe a chapter so that students get the gist of the basics.
 Precis writing is also used in companies for job descriptions, meeting highlights, etc.
 The use of precis writing is also seen in movies to describe the main events or plot of the
film.
 Precis writing is also used in scientific reports and researches to give the gist of its
content.
How to write a Precis?
Owing to the repeatedly mentioned importance of keeping a precis short, writing a precis requires
you to carefully understand the points that will provide the necessary highlights of the content. It
might sound easy, but comprehending a text and keeping its theme intact requires strong skills and
a lot of brainstorming. Here are the steps that can easily help you compose a clear precis.
1. Understand the text/narrative.
The main and the most crucial point is to read the text multiple times. It is possible that you might
have missed on some point or not have understood it. Reading it persistently can take you through
some overlooked points and explain certain points in a better manner. After perusing the text a few
times, you will easily connect through the points and also form a mental outline of the content.
2. Highlight and Divide the Text
Divide the text into smaller parts and make sure you use a highlighter to highlight the main details
for further reference. Create an order of the texts so that you line up each event and do not muddle
up the points.
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3. Create a Mind Map

Before constructing your precis, have a rough outline or a map with all the points you think are
necessary. Read it and compare it to the text. You might want to add/omit certain points to make
it clearer. Make sure your outline follows the order of the text.
4. Writing your Precis
Start constructing your precis and make sure you compress the text by using shorter sentences and
cutting out redundancy. Make sure you keep a word count of your precis. It should be 1/4th of the
main text. The four main points to remember while constructing your precis are:
 Add a suitable title for your precis which is in line with the content.
 It should be written in the third person.
 The text should be in indirect form.
 Use appropriate past tense.
5. Review your Precis
Reread your precis multiple times and check for errors or grammatical mistakes. Compare it with
the original text and check if both the compositions exhibit the same themes and convey the exact
message. In the end, add the number of words used in your precis in a bracket.
Qualities of a Good precis
What are the parameters to judge a precis writing? The following are some attributes that describe
a good precis.
 Accurate and Precise
 Clear and coherent
 Well connected
 Original
 A suitable title
Essential rules for a good Precis Writing
After understanding how to write a precis, let’s look at a few tips that can help you ace your precis.
 Keep the text terse and up to the point.
 Use shorter words. For example, use ‘because’ instead of ‘owing to’, use ‘although’
instead of ‘in spite of the fact that, etc.
 Make sure your text is lucid to understand. Avoid using jargon and complex sentences.
 Retain the core of the text.
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 Your text should be a miniature reflection of the original text and should state the correct
facts and figures.
Points to Avoid for Precis Writing
Precis writing can be complicated since you need to cut down all points that aren’t important.
While keeping the tips in mind, avoid making the following mistakes while writing a precis.
 Do not elaborate a lot on a single point.
 Do not use your own interpretation, criticism, or assumption about the text.
 Do not copy sentences from the original text or use abbreviations.
 Do not break the flow of events and keep the text well connected.
Example of Precis Writing
Here is an example of precis writing with solution:
The basic core of evolution – survival, and reproduction- has been proven over and over through
our various behavioral patterns. Let’s retrograde and explore what are some exciting concepts that
have been performed by humans before us and how did it occur.
Almost every organism has the tendency to react to certain stimuli for survival. This reaction to
each and every situation has an evolutionary basis of adaptation. The study of human emotions
dates back to the 19th century and psychologists have since then discovered many reasons for
every emotion, yet these are just theories. The arousal of emotions and their assumed structures is
said to occur due to repeated encounters with a situation followed by the adaptation of the
encounter. Human emotions have been linked to adaptively regulate emotion-gathering
mechanisms. The emotion of fear which is associated with ancient parts of the brain has
presumably evolved among our pre-mammal ancestors while the emotion of a mother’s love called
the ‘filial emotion’ has seen to evolve among early mammals. Various emotions work as
manipulative strategies that favours survival. Feigning emotions by an accused person may help
him be saved from the punishment. An exaggerated display of anger is also associated with
manipulating or threatening someone.
Despite there being several emotions for various events, ironically the most interesting emotion is
the emotion of disgust. Disgust is aroused when the body senses a danger to the immunity or
the physiology of the human. The disgusted memory is associated with alerting the brain of a
potentially dangerous substance. A few studies have shown that the encoding triggered in adaptive
memory for problems is stronger than any other behaviour. This makes us instantly have a
disgusted expression at the sight of something that makes us uncomfortable or uneasy. These
expressions are also closely linked to self-protective communication.
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Precis
Title: Human Evolution and Emotions
The emotions that humans express and react to stimuli in the environment have an evolutionary
basis. Emotions are assumed to be a result of repeated encounters with a certain event.
According to evolution, emotions like fear, love, feigning, anger, and disgust are results of
consistent reactions in particular situations. Some expressions are often built up or adapted as a
form of self-protection.

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COMPREHENSION QUESTION ANA ANSWER

STRATEGIES FOR ANSWERING READING QUESTIONS

The Reading Assessment Test challenges you to read short passages and answer questions that
require you to:
1) Identify the main idea of a passage
2) Read a passage for specific details
3) Identify the author’s purpose for writing a passage or the author’s tone
4) Make inferences based on the facts presented in a passage.
In addition to general strategies for taking standardized reading tests (see separate handout), the
following strategies are useful for tackling each of the above question types:

1. Identifying the Main Idea of a Passage

The main idea of a passage is its point – the central idea or primary focus of the writing. The
correct answer in a main-idea question must be entirely true and complete. Main idea questions
will usually include one of the following key words: main idea, emphasizes, focuses on, is
primarily or chiefly concerned with, author’s point of view, essence, will go on to discuss.
In reading test passages, sometimes the main idea is stated in the opening sentence and developed
with examples and evidence in the sentences that follow. Or a passage may conclude with the main
idea – a point that the author has been building toward throughout the passage with supporting
evidence. But don’t be fooled into thinking you only need to read the first and last sentences of the
passage. The main ideas of complex passages are not so easy to identify.
Strategies for Answering Main Idea Questions:
• Look for key words that identify the question as a main idea question. If the question includes
any of the main idea key words listed above, this will help you focus on identifying the author’s
point as you read.
• Read the passage and make notes. Once you’ve identified the question as a main idea question,
read the passage, making mental notes on your scrap paper as you read.
* Remember to pay special attention to words such as but, yet, although, since, except, moreover,
unless, nonetheless, however. These words signal a shift, a qualification, something you should
note. The ideas that follow these words are usually important to the overall meaning of the passage.
• Learn to spot wrong answers. Use the process of elimination to rule out wrong answers. Wrong
answers for main idea questions are often:
a) Too broad – the answer covers too much, is too “big” in some way
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b) Too narrow – the answer is too restricted in outlook, too “small

c) Irrelevant – the answer is not directly related to the question
d) Incorrect – the answer distorts or contradicts facts in the passage
e) Illogical – the answer is not supported by facts in the passage.
2. Reading a Passage for Specific Details
An author often supports his or her main idea with key facts and examples that help make the
overall meaning of the text clear. You may be asked a question based on one of these facts or
examples. Your job is to make sense of the fact or example in the context of the overall main idea
that is being conveyed. Questions about specific details are a matter of reading carefully for
meaning.
Strategies for Answering Specific Detail Questions:
• Identify the most important word(s) in the question. This general strategy is critical for specific
detail questions. Identify the word or phrase that will guide you toward the answer as you read the
passage.
• Make mental notes related to the word or phrase as you read. If the question is a straightforward
question about a fact or example from the text, your answer will likely appear in the same sentence
in which the word or phrase appears -- or in the sentence before or after that sentence. However,
be sure to read the entire passage. Understanding the main idea of the passage is often critical to
choosing the correct answer for specific detail questions.
*Some questions will contain a key word or phrase that is a synonym for another word or phrase
in the passage. In this case, look for the word or phrase in the passage that means nearly the same
as the word or phrase in the stem.
*Some questions will simply ask you to identify the statement that is true or accurate among the
answer options. In this case, take brief notes on the main idea as you read and test each answer
choice against the facts presented in the passage.
3. Identifying the Author’s Purpose
Questions about the author’s purpose ask you to determine why an author wrote a particular
passage. For example, an author might write a passage in order to persuade an audience, describe
something, explain a process, define a term, refute a claim, analyze a text, or convey personal
feelings. Understanding the author’s tone – his or her attitude toward the subject and audience --
will help you understand the purpose. Authors convey purpose and tone through their choice of
words and the impression those words create.
Author’s purpose questions will usually include one of the following key words: author’s purpose,
reason, why, the passage can best be described as. You may also be asked to identify the tone of
the passage or the profession of the author based on his or her words.
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Author’s purpose answer options often incorporate the following vocabulary words: Analyze,
compare, contrast, critique, evaluate, examine, investigate, characterize, define, depict, describe,
explain, identify, introduce, narrate, recount, summarize, acknowledge, advocate, assert, promote,
propose, support, condemn, criticize, oppose. Familiarize yourself with the subtle distinctions in
meaning among these various words. For instance, to describe is to trace out or give a pictorial
account of, to explain is to make clear or to give a reason for, and to analyze is to examine in detail.
Strategies for Answering Author’s Purpose Questions:
• Look for key words that identify the question as an author’s purpose question. If the question
includes any of the author’s purpose key words listed above, make a note that you are looking for
the author’s purpose – the reason the author wrote the passage. This will help you focus on the
author’s tone as you read, which in turn will help you identify his or her purpose.
• Read the passage and make notes. Once you’ve identified the question as an author’s purpose
question, read the passage, making note as you read.
• Consider the vocabulary of your answer options. Is the author really analyzing something, or is
she describing it? Use your knowledge of key vocabulary words to eliminate wrong answers and
identify the better answer.
4. Making Inferences from a Passage
To “infer” is to draw a logical conclusion from what is known or assumed to be true, in this case
from what is written in the passage. Inferences are not stated explicitly in the passage. Rather,
inference questions require you to draw conclusions from the factual knowledge or evidence
presented. In order to answer an inference question, you must understand the logic of the author’s
statements and decide what is or is not reasonable. Inference questions are as much about critical
thinking as they are about critical reading.
Most inference questions will include one of the following key words: imply, suggest, infer,
assume, most likely, probably, seem, predict, indicate, and conclude.
One type of inference question will ask you to draw a conclusion that is supported by facts
presented in the passage. Another type of inference question may ask you the meaning of a word
or phrase that is included in the passage. Such questions are not meant to test your vocabulary.
Rather, they are designed to test your ability to understand a word or phrase by the context in
which it appears.
Strategies for Answering Inference Questions:
• Look for key words that identify the question as an inference question. When you come upon a
question that contains one of the words listed above, make a note that you are looking for an
inference. This will help you later on as you consider the answer choices by reminding you that
you must draw a logical conclusion based on the facts presented in the passage.
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• Identify the most important substantive word(s) in the question. In addition to the key word(s),
you will want to identify the word or phrase that will guide you toward the answer as you read the
passage.
• Read the passage and make notes. Read the passage, making a note related to the substantive
word or phrase you’ve identified in the question.
* Remember to pay special attention to words such as but, yet, although, since, except moreover,
unless, nonetheless, however in the passage. These words signal a shift, a qualification, something
you should note. The ideas that follow these words are often the subject of inference questions.
• Learn to spot wrong answers. Wrong answers for inference questions often make a wild leap not
supported by the details of the passage or contain a factual error, a conclusion that runs counter to
the details of the passage.
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What are the main techniques of translation

At its core, translation is when you transfer the meaning of a written text from one language to
another. While the translator will choose just one method for the whole text, there are a number of
techniques that can be used for individual words and phrases. By carefully choosing the right
technique, the translator can convey each linguistic element in the most accurate way.
Here are ten common translation techniques that we can use to translate your document and
achieve the best translation.
Direct Translation Techniques
These translation techniques are used when the concepts and structure of the source language (SL)
can be used in the target language (TL).
1. Borrowing
Borrowing is where words or expressions are taken directly from the source text and carried over
into the target language. This technique is often used when there is no target language equivalent,
For example,
SL: may chaye k sath anda aw parata kata hon.
TL: I take egg and parta with tea.

2. Calque (loan translation)

This is the literal translation of a phrase from one language into another, coining a new term in the
target language. In other words, this is the literal translation of a borrowed word.
Example: SL: KABBA K TAWAF K BAAD HUM GHARE Hiira gaye.
TL: After the tawaf e Kaaba we went to Ghare Hira.
3. Literal Translation
When using literal translation, each word is translated directly. The target text must be idiomatic
and retain the same word order, meaning and style as the source text.
This technique can miss the nuances of the original text, and is only possible with languages and
cultures that are extremely close.
Example: SL: Do aur do char hotay hain
TL: Two and two makes four.
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Indirect Translation Techniques

Indirect or oblique translation techniques are used when the two languages and cultures are further
apart. These techniques change structural and conceptual elements in order to preserve the
meaning and nuance of the text.
1. Transposition
Transposition involves a shift from one grammatical category to another, while still preserving the
meaning. This translation technique is often necessary between languages with different
grammatical structures.
Example: SL: Wo safaye se likta hay. (Adjective)
TL: He writes neatly. (Adverb)
2. Modulation
This involves a change of perspective, adjusting what has been written in order to express the same
idea and preserve the meaning. This translates the text in a way that conforms to the natural patterns
of the target language.
Example: SL: Ye samajna mushkil nahi.
TL: It is easy to understand.
3. Equivalence/Reformulation
Similar to modulation, this allows you to preserve the meaning of an expression, name or proverb
by finding a target language equivalent.
Example: SL: Wo bewaqoof hay.
TL: He is nonsense.
4. Adaptation
Also known as cultural substitution, cultural elements of the source language are replaced with an
equivalent cultural element of the target language. This makes the text more familiar and easier to
understand, especially with units of measurement.
Example: SL: Christmas
TL: Eid
5. Compensation
This technique compensates for being unable to translate a nuance or phrase in one specific place
by expressing the information at another point in the document.
Example: SL: While the English language only has one way of saying ‘you’
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TL: In urdu we have “Tum” and “AAP”.

6. Reduction
When using reduction, the translator chooses to remove any words forming the original text which
are considered redundant in the target language.
Example: SL: The French ‘sciences politiques’ [literally; political sciences]
TL: can be rendered in English as just ‘politics’ or Syasat in urdu.

7. Expansion
The opposite of reduction, this is when words are added in order to preserve meaning. This can be
due to differences in sentence structure, grammar or terminology.
Example: The reverse of reduction, ‘politics’ in English would be rendered as ‘sciences politiques’
in French. Since French also uses gender articles, expansion is natural when translating from
English into French.

Language knowledge. The ability to speak and write fluently in at least two languages is the top
skill of a translator.
Read in Target Language
Reading is extremely important as it helps grow your vocabulary and increase knowledge of
language, both of which are essential when translating. Read the newspaper, novels, the
dictionary, etc. Reading will help your word choice and sentence structure when translating.
Increase Cultural Awareness
One of the hardest difficulties when translating are the barriers of languages due to cultural
differences. Languages are complex and translators require a deep understanding of cultural
awareness when translating or the translation may not make sense. The best way of improving
this skill is observing and practicing with native speakers.
Dictionary USE
The dictionary is the translator's friend; the learners should get a lot of training on how to use a
dictionary, besides gaining skill in using it.
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Don’t go for word to word Translation

Language cannot be translated word for word. All languages have idiomatic expressions which
carry connotations that are above and beyond the meanings of the separate words themselves.
Mentor up
Do you know how Michelangelo became an artist known and loved centuries after his death? He
had the best teachers. If you find an experienced translator who’s willing to help you grow, it can
benefit you more than any training exercise ever could.

Travel for language immersion

Traveling abroad and talking to people who speak your target language is just about the best
thing you can do to hone your translator skills. It would be even better if you traveled with your
friends who don’t speak the language. You’d not only talk to the locals but interpret for your
friends. If you speak a language such as Spanish, that is spoken in multiple countries, traveling to
different places that speak the language will help expand your knowledge of the linguistic
differences from country to country.
Best practice translation and review processes
Translation is mentally challenging, and it’s dead easy for the odd shortcoming to slip through. A
little inaccuracy here, less than ideal wording there. That’s why good translators stick to best
practice translation and review processes always.
Computing and CAT skills
You’ll need to have good command of commonly used office programs – Word, Excel,
PowerPoint, etc.
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What are Punctuation Marks

Punctuation Marks are 14 in number in the English language. They are known as symbols or
signs that give your writing a professional look. So, we use these signs to make better sense in
writing. Because the reader develops an understanding of the meaning of written language with
them. After all, a punctuation mark makes the reader aware of the expression of a sentence.
Moreover, these symbols also give strength of emotion put a question, declare a statement,
show a warning, etc.
List of Punctuation Marks with Use
1. Period (.)
A period is usually known as a full stop. It states that the sentence has ended here with the use
of a full stop. Also, it expresses a complete thought and declares something in a single sentence.
A Period has more usages:
a. We use a period at the end of a declarative or imperative sentence.
 This hero is a man of action.
 Kindly hand over this pen to me.
b. The Period is also used in names or titles and initials or abbreviations e.g.
 Mr. Ahsan
 M.A. Education
 Dept. of English
 Mrs. Khanam is my favorite teacher.
 Dr. Mehdi is the heart specialist.
c. We use a period instead of a question mark after an indirect kind of question.
 She wants to know if you like to go with her.
 Tell me if you like to visit the zoo.
2. Question Mark (?)
We use a question mark with sentences like:
a. The writers apply a Question mark at the end of a sentence
that puts a direct question. The interrogative statement starts with ‘Wh’ words like What, Why,
When, Where, and How, etc.
 Where is your phone?
 What’s your good name?
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b. It is also used in a sentence having more than a single question, each question uses a question
mark. But if a question is incomplete unless the last word of the sentence, we put the question
mark only at the end.
 Are you sure of his name? His age? His address?
 Will you return on Monday, Saturday, or Sunday?
3. Exclamation Mark (!)
Exclamation Mark is used:
a. We use an exclamation mark at the end of an exclamatory sentence. The sentence
expresses intense emotions like anger, love, sadness, happiness, etc.
 This is an absolutely true story!
 What an awesome play!
b. We can use an Exclamation mark after interjections.
 Ugh! It’s a very difficult time.
 Oh! you’re looking awesome.
c. We need to use the exclamation mark after commands which specify sudden action.
 Write as fast as you can!
 Drink three glasses of water currently!
d. The exclamation mark used after an interrogative sentence is meant to be exclamatory.
 Why are you doing that, I don’t know!
 What’s going on, is out of my control!
4. Comma (,)
We use a comma to show the separation of phrases and ideas within the structure of a sentence
by inserting a pause. So, it helps us to understand the actual meaning of a sentence.
a. The comma is practiced in separate clauses of a sentence. For example:
 If you go to the market, bring one Kilogram of grain for us.
 If you help me today, I’ll help your lifetime.
b. Commas are also used to separate alike things. For example:
 My brother went to the local market and bought fine flour, cooking oil, sugar, tea,
cookies, etc.
 She bought four books, English Grammar, Stories, Modern Essays, and Poetry.
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c. We can use a Comma to address someone directly. For example:

 Listen to me, “You have the right to a good decision.
 My dear brother, you need to think over it again.
5. Colon (:)
a. We use a Colon to introduce something like: an example, a list of things, a quotation, or
an elaboration. For example:
 He has given three job interviews: software engineering, management, and civil services.
 You have many choices to opt for a profession: a job, a business, a shop, etc.
b. A colon is also used to connect two independent clauses in case the second clause completes
the first one. For example:
 I wouldn’t act upon your advice: I’ve already tested you.
 She will support you well: because you’re a reliable person.
c. A colon may emphasize a particular subject within a sentence. For example:
 I only love you: my princess, you’re great.
 We can’t afford this expensive car now: my son, let’s work hard first.
6. Semicolon (;)
a. We use a Semicolon to connect two independent clauses, especially in a complex sentence.
For example:
 She is much busy now; I would not disturb her.
 Let’s play cricket today; we will enjoy it.
7. Dashes (- —)
These two dashes vary by size and use, one is shorter, and the other is longer. One uses the
shorter dash to signify a particular range of numbers and dates. For example:
 We lived in Lahore from 2010-2020.
 I’ll see you on Monday, 20-10-2030.
While we use long dashes in place of commas, colons, or other punctuation marks, etc. For
example:
 You have taken the first step — No doubt, but you need to do more.
 The principal has heard a noise inside the class — I know, she’ll investigate it.
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8. Hyphen (-)
When there are two or three words connected, they make use of the hyphen to make
a compound word. For example:
 WI-fi
 Father-in-Law
 ice-cream
9. Brackets ([ ])
We use Brackets to explain technical terminology and to make a subject clear to the reader. And,
we use it to give references to another text or thing. For example:
 They [classmates] are not agreeing with me.
 She says this juice [sugarcane] “is our national beverage”.
10. Braces ({})
a. We use Braces in mathematical questions, scientific text, operations, etc. For example:
 3+{a=b}
 2+1 {c=d}
11. Parenthesis (())
We put Parenthesis to give additional detail about a particular thing under discussion. For
example:
 My home (which I bought last year) has been locked now.
 The car (you saw on the road) is a fresh new model of Corolla Motors.
12. Apostrophes (‘)
a. We put apostrophes in the omission of words, to signify possession and contractions. For
example:
 Ahmad’s phone was lost yesterday.
 It’s our responsibility to provide the team with a bat and ball.
 Don’t sit back, I can’t afford it, I’m going now, You’re my friend, I Wouldn’t attend the
meeting.
b. The apostrophe is also used to indicate more than one copy of a word.
 The report says that there are five work’s in the paragraph.
 The V.I.P’s have reached.
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c. The apostrophe is further used to show plural or some other kind of abbreviation. For
example:
 The V.I.P’s have reached.
 I have bought a new WAPDA meter.

13. Quotation Mark (” “)

Quotation Mark has several uses:
a. One of the active uses of Quotation marks is to quote the direct words of a speaker or writer in
a speech or text.
 “Would you take tea?” I asked.
 “You have given the best of yourself”, said the boss.
b. We put Quotation marks to enclose the titles of stories, chapters, essays, films, etc.
Shakespeare has written many plays, including, “A Midsummer Night’s Dream.”
Punctuality is the soul of business.
Quotation Marks example
c. Put a comma before the quotation marks end.
 “We do not try to convert others,” the Salome Follower said. “Only to live our way.
 “Life is the time”, so don’t waste it in idleness, said, my teacher.
14. Ellipsis (…)
Ellipsis is used as a set of dots to omit words, which we don’t want to repeat in a sentence.
With Ellipsis, we can also shorten a quote without distorting its original meaning.
For Example:
 Before you leave the home… complete your task first...right!
 I’ll take action… so be aware of it.


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