1

UNIT-1
Mobile Communications:-
Introduction to Mobile Communication:-
The rapidly expanding technology of cellular communication, wireless LANs, and satellite services
will make information accessible anywhere and at any time. Regardless of size, most mobile computers
will be equipped with a wireless connection to the fixed part of the network, and, perhaps, to other
mobile computers.
Mobility and portability will create an entire new class of applications and, possibly, new massive
markets combining personal computing and consumer electronics.
Mobile communication entails transmission of data to and from handheld devices. The location of the
device can vary either locally or Globally.
Mobile Communication takes place through a wireless, distributed or diversified network and it is a
two-way transmission or reception of data streams. Signals from a system can be transmitted through
a fiber, wire, or wireless medium
GUIDED TRANSMISSION:-
Metal wires and optical fibers guided or wired transmission of data.
Guided transmission of electrical signals takes place using four types of cables
- Optical fiber, Coaxial cable, Twisted-pair cable, Power line
Fiber- and wire- based transmission and their ranges
Advantages:-
Transmission along a directed path from one point to another
Practically no interference in transmission from any external source or path
Using multiplexing and coding, a large number of signal-sources simultaneously transmitted
along an optical fibre, a coaxial cable, or a twisted-pair cable
Disadvantages:-
Signal transmitter and receiver fixed.
Number of transmitter and receiver systems limits the total number of interconnections
possible
UNGUIDED (WIRELESS) TRANSMISSION:-
Wireless or unguided transmission is carried out through radiated electromagnetic energy.
Electromagnetic energy flows in free space (air or vacuum).
The radiated energy is of frequency in MHz or GHz spectrum range.
Spectrum means a set of frequencies in a range.
a) Signal Propagation Frequencies:-
Electrical signals transmitted by converting them into electromagnetic radiation.
These radiations are transmitted via antennae that radiate electromagnetic signals.
There are various frequency bands within the electromagnetic spectrum.
The various types of frequencies are,
- Long Wavelength (LW) radio, very low frequency.
- Medium Wavelength (MW) radio, medium frequency.
- Short Wavelength (SW) radio, high frequency.
- FM radio band frequency.
- Very High Frequency (VHF).
 2

- Ultra High Frequency (UHF).

- Super High microwave Frequency (SHF).
- Extreme High Frequency (EHF).
- Far infrared
- Infrared
- Visible Light and Ultra-violet
b) Antennas:
Devices that transmit and receive electromagnetic radiations.
Most antennae function efficiently for
relatively narrow frequency ranges.
If an antenna not properly tuned to the
frequency band in which the transmitting
system connected to it operates, the
transmitted or received signals may be
impaired.
The forms of antennae used are chiefly
determined by the frequency ranges they operate in and can vary from a single piece of wire
to a parabolic dish.
c) Modulation:-
Modulation means modification to original action so that the modification in the action is
clearly presented.
For example, a professor’s voice is modulated and reflects his command over the subject.
Similarly, electrical signals are modulated with information or electrical signals which is then
communicated over long distances.
Types of modulation are,
- Analog signal modulation, Digital signal modulation, Amplitude modulation
- Amplitude shift keying, Frequency modulation, Frequency shift keying
- Phase modulation, Phase shift keying
- Binary phase shift keying, Gaussian minimum shift keying,
- Quadrature phase shift keying, Eight phase shift keying
- Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).
- 64-QAM
d) Modulation methods and standards for voice-oriented data communication standards:-
1G:- Devices have only voice-oriented communication.
2G:- 2G devices communicate voice as well as data signals.
-Came onto the market in 1988.
-Support data rates up to 14.4 kbps.
2.5G and 2.5G+: -Support data rates up to 100 kbps.
3G:
-Higher data rates than 2G and 2.5G.
-Uses 2 Mbps or Higher for short distance transmission.
-Uses 384 Kbps for long distance transmission.
-Supports voice, data and multimedia streams.
-enable transfer of video clips and faster multimedia communication.
4G:
-Higher data rates than 3G.
-Support streaming data for video.
-Enables multimedia news paper, high resolution mobile TV.
-Support data rates up to 100 Mbps.
 3

GSM and CDMA based standards and mobile communication network for long distance
communication.
GSM: Global System for Mobile communication. It was developed by Groupie Special Mobile
(GSM) and Founded in Europe in 1982. It Support data rates up to 14.4 Kbps and Supports Cellular
networks.
GSM900: It is using GMSK for transmitting 1’s and 0’s.
-Uses FDMA for channels and TDMA for user access in each deployed channel.
ii) EDGE and GPRS 2.5G and 3G:
-GSM has been enhanced to tri-band series and packet oriented data communication.
-GPRS is a packet-oriented service for data communication of mobile devices.
-Utilizes the unused channels in the TDMA mode in a GSM network.
-EDGE is an enhancement of the GSM phase 2.
-it has the data rates up to 48Kbps per 200KHz channel.
EGSM – Extended GSM.
GPRS – General Packet Radio Service.
EDGE – Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution.
EGPRS – Enhanced GPRS.
e) Modulation methods and standards for data and voice communication:
- CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access,
- FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access,
- TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access,
- WCDMA – Wireless CDMA
- UMTS – Upgraded WCDMA methods for downlink and uplink:
- High Speed Packet Data Access is provided by HSPDA and HSUPA.
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice and video via a computer
or any other wireless enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed physical link.
Mobile Computing is also an umbrella term used to describe technologies that enable people to access
network services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere.
A communication device can exhibit any one of the following characteristics:
Fixed and wired: This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an office.
Neither weight nor power consumption of the devices allow for mobile usage. The devices use
fixed networks for performance reasons.
Mobile and wired: Many of today’s laptops fall into this category; users carry the laptop from
one hotel to the next, reconnecting to the company’s network via the telephone network and a
modem.
Fixed and wireless: This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical buildings to
avoid damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast network setup.
Mobile and wireless: This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user, who can roam
between different wireless networks. Most technologies discussed in this book dealwith this
type of device and the networks supporting them. Today’s most successful example for this
categoryis GSM with more than 800 million users.
MOBILE COMPUTING ARCHITECTURE:
It represents the architectural requirements for programming a mobile device.
The requirements are Programming Languages, Functions of OS, and Functions of
middleware for mobile systems.
 4

Mobile computing Architectural Layers, protocols and Layers

i) Programming Languages:
A variety of programming languages are used in mobile computing architecture.
Popular language used is Java
J2ME and Javacard (Java for smartcard)
J2EE is used for web and enterprise server-based applications of mobile services.
DOTNET and Python 2.7 are also used.
ii) Functions of OS:
An OS enables the user to run an application without considering the hardware specifications
and functionalities.
Scheduling multiple tasks.
Management functions for tasks and memory.
Interfaces for communication.
Configurable libraries for the GUI in the device.
Middleware.
iii) Functions of middleware for mobile systems:
Middleware are the software components that link the application components with the
network-distributed components.
Mobile OS also provides middleware components.
Examples are
-to discover the nearby Bluetooth device, discover the nearby hotspot.
-to retrieve data from a network database.
-for service discovery
Mobile computing Architectural Layers:

It refers to defining various layers between the user applications, interfaces, devices and
network hardware.
A well-defined architecture is necessary for systematic computations and access to data and
software objects in the layers.
Protocols:
GSM900, GSM900/1800/1900, CDMA, WCDMA, HSPA, UMTS, i-Mode, LTE, and
Wi Max.
WPAN protocols such as Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee.
WLAN protocols such as 802.11a, and 802.11b and WAP
 5

Layers: The OSI (open standard for interchange) seven-layer format is

-Physical for sending and receiving signals (TDMA or CDMA coding)
-Data link (Multiplexing), Networking (for linking to the destination)
-Wireless transport layer security (for establishing end-to-end connectivity)
-Wireless transaction protocol, Wireless session protocol, and Wireless application
environment (for running a mob.appln., e.g., mobile e-business)
Novel Applications:-
A large number of applications are available.
Recently made mobile TV realizable and developed ultra-mobile PC in march-2006
Some applications include,
Smart-phones, Enterprise solutions, Music, Video and E-books, Mobile Cheque,
Mobile Commerce, and Mobile based supply chain management.
Smart Phones:-
A Smartphone is a mobile phone with additional computing functions so as to enable multiple
applications.
For example, Blackberry 8530 curve has additional computational capabilities
-SMS, MMS, phone, email, address book, web browsing
-PIM software
-Integrated attachment viewing
-QWERTY style layout
-Send/End keys
-Bluetooth capability for hand-free talking via headset, ear buds, and car kits
-Speakerphone
-polyphonic ringtones for personalizing your device
-bright high resolution display, supporting over 65,000 colours
-WiFi 802.11b and WiFi 802.11g
-GPS Tracker
-Media voice or video or camera picture recording and communication
-Live TV
-Micro SD card 256MB
Enterprise Solutions:-
Enterprises or large business networks have huge database and documentation requirements.
The term ‘enterprise solutions’ therefore refers to business solutions for corporations or
enterprises.
It includes specialized hardware or software programming for,
-Storage management
-Security
-Revision
-Distribution and so on.
Music, Video and E-books:-
The Apple iPods or iPhones or iPods have made it possible to listen one’s favorite tunes
anytime anywhere.
iPods have made it possible to read one’s favorite book anytime anywhere.
Besides storing music these players can also be used to view photo albums, slide shows and
video clips.
Mobile Cheque and Mobile Commerce:-
Mobile Cheque is a mobile based payment system employed during a purchase.
The service is activated through text message exchanges between the customer, a designated
retail outlet, and the mobile service provider.
 6

M-commerce is also a new trend, such as buying or selling of items through

mobile internetbetween customers and organizations. Mobile devices also used
for e-ticketing, i.e, for booking cinema, train, flight and bus tickets.
Mobile-based Supply Chain Management:-
The producer-consumer problem is called as SCM problem.
Leading IT companies have developed mobile device software for SCM systems.
The sales force and the manufacturing units use such mobile devices to maintain SCM.
Limitations of Mobile Computing:-
Resource Constraints : Battery
Interference: Radio transmission cannot be protected against interference using shielding and result in
higher loss rates for transmitted data or higher bit error rates respectively.
Bandwidth: Although they are continuously increasing, transmission rates are still very low for
wireless devices compared to desktop systems. Researchers look for more efficient communication
protocols with low overhead.
Dynamic changes in communication environment: variations in signal power within a region,
thus link delays and connection losses
Network issues : discovery of the connection-service to destination and connection stability
Interoperability issues:
Security constraints: Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the radio interface is
also prone to the dangers of eavesdropping. Wireless access must always include encryption,
authentication, and other security mechanisms that must be efficient and simple to use.

Mobile System Networks:-

Mobile networks are networks of mobile devices ,servers ,and distributed computing systems.
There are three types of mobile networks
Cellular network:-
A cell is the coverage area of a base station connected to other stations via wire or wirelessly through
switching centers.
The coverage area defines a cell and its boundaries. Each cell has a base station a base station
functions as an access point for the mobile service.
Each mobile device connects to the base station of the cell which covers the current location of the
device
Cellular broadband:-
Cell towers are now 3G enabled and provide support to EVDO,HSPDA and HSUPA .
The service providers support internet broadband access using mobile phone
A USB cellular modem or cellular broadband-router is used for this purpose
A router connects several computers .A Computer just connects USB cellular modem and it attaches
with the USB port like a pen drive.
WLAN network and Mobile IP:-
A mobile device such as a pocket computer or a laptop connects to an access point called a hotspot.
The access point in turn connects to a host LAN which links up to the internet through a router.
The connectivity is established between the internet and two LANs, mobile devices and computers
Mobile IP is an open standard defined by the internet engineering task force(IETF) RFC 2002.It is
based on the internet protocol. A mobile IP network provides the mobile IP service using home agents
and foreign agents.
Mobile Devices and Systems:-
Cellular Networks for Mobile smartphones:-
Mobile communication using a cellular network
A mobile service region is divided in to cells
Size of the cell depends on the technology and frequency bands used with in a cell.
For Example in a CDMA 950MHz network the cell radius is 27Kms and in a CDMA1800MHz
network it is 14 Km
The cells maybe taken as Hexagonal in shape is show in fig
 7

Fig shows the region of cell A0 Which is surrounded by six cells A1,A2,A3,A4,A5,A6
Each cell has a base station and assume that BS0,BS1,BS2,BS3,BS4,BS5 and BS6 are the base station
in the cellsA0,A1,A2,A3,A4,A5, and A6
A boundary exists between the adjacent cells
Cell boundaries of A0 touches the boundaries of A1,A2,A3,A4,A5 and A6.Cell boundaries defines
the coverage area
The base stations connect through guided or wireless networks
A station can also connect to a public switching telephone network (PSTN)
Frequency resuse in Networks:-
Each cell in a cellular network is surrounded by cells in all directions
Same Frequency bands used at same instance at the same point causes interference
Adjacent cells have distinct frequencies
A FDMA standard specifies that there must be at least a one cell gap between cells reuse the same
frequency
If cell A0 is using frequency f0 then the cells A1,A2,A3,A4,A5 and A6 must be use different
frequencies
This avoids interference between the signals transmitted by different cells
Assume that cell A0 using frequency f0 then cell A1 uses f1,A2 uses f2 and A3 can reuse f1
This is because A1 and A3 are not adjacent and there is a gap of one cell between them
Cell A4 reuses f2,cell A5 reuses f1 and cell A6 can reuse f2
The separate frequencies f0,f1 and f2 are requires f0,f1 and f2 are required in case frequencies are
reused. Frequency reuse factor 1/3.
Frequency reuse factor.it is denoted as u and can be 1/3,1/4,1/7,1/9 and 1/12
 8

The cell sizes can also be reduced when more frequencies are available for use in the cells.
1/2
The formula for the frequency reuse distance d=(3*N)

Mobile Smart phones, Smart Mobiles, and Systems:-

Mobile phones are now smart phones which communicate with other phones using a cellular service
provider’s network
Smart phones are packed with smart functions and are available in smaller sizes
The applications of mobile phones are no longer confined to telephonic communication.
Mobile phone can synchronize upload and download data from a PC
A smart phone includes a personal information manager a handheld computer and an entertainment
device
Smart phone features:-
A mobile smart phone is a handheld computing device.
It is essentially a network connected computer.
The main features of a smart phone are as follows:-
A GSM,CDMA or tri-band wireless radio interface to a cellular network provided by a mobile service
provider
A smart T9 keypad. A smart keypad is one that remembers previously keyed entries
T9 stands for text-on-keys
T9 enables entering of textual characters
The key arrangement in a QWERTY keyboard is similar to that in a computer keyboard
LCD display or touch screen
Provide functions like phone calls as well as Personal Information Manager (PIM) which provides
 9

applications such as phone calls, contact address and emails.

Ability to send and receive SMS messages up to 160 characters per SMS
Ability to send and receive MMS i.e; messages containing digital images ,video clips andanimations
Provisions for games , e-commerce and e ticketing
Bluetooth communication with PCs and neighboring devices

Handheld pocket computers:-

handheld pocket computers were widely available and commonly known as smart phones. Smart
phones are portable electronic devices that combine the functionality of a mobile phone with that of a
small computer. They typically offer a touch screen interface for user interaction, various built-in
sensors, and support for running various applications.
Smart phones have evolved significantly over the years and have become an integral part of modern
life, offering a wide range of features beyond just making phone calls, such as internet browsing,
email access, GPS navigation, social media, gaming, and much more. These devices are capable of
running various operating systems, with iOS (Apple's operating system) and Android (Google's
operating system) being the most dominant.
New types of pocket computers or wearable devices could have emerged or gained popularity. To get
the most current and accurate information, it's best to refer to the latest sources and news in the
technology industry.
Handheld devices:-
Handheld devices, commonly known as mobile or portable devices, a broad category of electronic
gadgets designed to be carried and used on the go. These devices have become an integral part of our
daily lives and offer various functionalities to meet different needs. Here are some examples of
handheld devices:
1. Smart phones: smart phones are advanced mobile phones that offer a wide range of features
beyond just voice communication. They provide internet access, email, social media, gaming,
productivity apps, and much more. Smart phones typically have touch screens and run
operating systems like iOS and Android.
2. Tablets: Tablets are larger than smart phones but still portable enough to be held in one hand.
They offer a more significant screen real estate, making them suitable for multimedia
consumption, reading, and productivity tasks. Tablets can run the same operating systems as
smart phones, making them versatile devices.
3. E-Readers: E-readers are handheld devices designed primarily for reading digital books and
other digital publications. They use electronic ink displays to mimic the appearance of printed
paper and are well-suited for extended reading sessions.
4. Handheld Game Consoles: These devices are designed specifically for gaming on the go.
Popular examples include the Nintendo Switch, PlayStation Portable (PSP), and the Nintendo
3DS.
5. Handheld GPS Devices: Dedicated GPS devices are used for navigation and outdoor activities
like hiking, camping, and geo caching. They provide accurate positioning and mapping
features even in areas without cellular coverage.
6. Handheld Scanners: Portable scanners allow users to digitize documents, photos, and other
physical items while on the move. They are useful for professionals and individuals who need
to capture content quickly.
7. Handheld Medical Devices: There are various medical devices designed for portable use, such
as portable ultrasound machines, glucose meters, and pulse ox meters.
8. Handheld Gaming Devices: Apart from dedicated handheld game consoles, there are smaller
gaming devices that come preloaded with classic arcade games or simple games designed for
casual entertainment.
Please note that the technology landscape is constantly evolving, and there might be newer
types of handheld devices or updates to existing ones beyond my last update in 2021. For the most up-
to-date information, it's best to refer to current sources and news in the technology market.
 10

Smart systems:-
Smart systems, also known as smart technologies or smart solutions, refer to intelligent and
interconnected systems that use data, sensors, and automation to enhance efficiency, convenience, and
functionality in various domains of life. These systems leverage cutting-edge technologies such as
artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), and machine learning to provide advanced
capabilities and automation.
1. Examples of smart systems:-
2. Smart Home: A smart home system integrates various devices and appliances within a
household to create an interconnected ecosystem. Home automation allows residents to
control lighting, heating, cooling, security cameras, locks, and other appliances remotely
through smart phones or voice-controlled virtual assistants like Amazon Echo or Google
Home.
3. Smart Grid: A smart grid is an intelligent electrical grid that uses two-way communication
between power suppliers and consumers to optimize electricity distribution and consumption.
Smart grid technology enables more efficient energy management and enhances the
integration of renewable energy sources.
4. Smart City: Smart city initiatives aim to use technology to improve urban infrastructure,
services, and overall quality of life for residents. These systems may include intelligent
transportation systems, smart waste management, energy-efficient buildings, and data-driven
urban planning.
5. Smart Healthcare: Smart healthcare systems leverage AI, machine learning, and IoT devices
to improve patient care, diagnostics, and medical decision-making. These systems can
monitor patient health remotely, assist in diagnosing diseases, and streamline medical
processes.
6. Smart Manufacturing: Also known as Industry 4.0, smart manufacturing integrates
automation, data exchange, and IoT technologies to create more efficient and flexible
manufacturing processes. It can improve productivity, reduce downtime, and enable
predictive maintenance.
7. Smart Agriculture: Smart agricultural systems use IoT devices and data analytics to optimize
farming practices, conserve resources, and increase crop yield. These systems can monitor
soil conditions, weather, and crop health to make informed decisions about irrigation and
fertilization.
8. Smart Transportation: Smart transportation systems aim to improve mobility and reduce
traffic congestion. They utilize real-time data, GPS, and AI algorithms to manage traffic flow,
optimize public transportation, and support autonomous vehicles.
9. Smart Retail: In the retail industry, smart systems enable personalized shopping experiences,
inventory management, and real-time analytics to optimize supply chains and enhance
customer satisfaction.
10. Smart systems have the potential to transform various industries and aspects of everyday life,
making them more efficient, sustainable, and user-friendly. However, with increased
connectivity and reliance on technology, it is essential to address cyber security and data
privacy concerns associated with these systems. As technology continues to the potential
applications of smart systems are likely to expand further.