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How to select a flowmeter

Multiple flow conditions, scenarios and technologies evaluated
at ISA Will-DuPage chapter meeting in January

by Eric Loffland, Zachry Group

F
low is the basis of material balance—what’s coming into a process and what’s
going out. There are several ways to quantify flow: mass (units mass/time),
volumetric (units volume/time) and velocity (units linear distance/time). These
variables interrelate with one another, and by using other known process variables, flow
rate can be calculated through several means.

For example, if velocity is known, and the pipe schematics are known, volume can be de-
rived from Q = vAcs, where Q = volumetric flow (m3/s), v = velocity of the fluid (m/s), and
Acs is the cross-sectional area of the pipe (m2). From there, if density is known, mass flow
can be calculated from the equation M = Q, where M is mass flow (kg/s) and is the density
of the fluid (kg/m3).

The concept of developed flow is also important when selecting flowmeters. In process
industry settings, fluids pass through obstructions or around bends, and chaotically swirl,
disrupting their velocity profiles and creating bias. This chaotic flow takes time to return
to equilibrium, leading to a uniform velocity profile called “developed flow” that includes
upstream and downstream requirements based on velocity in industrial applications.

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BASIC MEASUREMENTS, 140

100
PARTS AND PRINCIPLES
142
There are many flowmeter technologies Transmitter
148
available, but many have common ana-
tomical elements and work in similar ways.
146
A typical flowmeter works by altering the
stream and measuring how it changes to 144
108 128 108
find the flow value. Sensor
114 110
124

Flowmeters typically have three basic 103

parts (Figure 1) that can be assembled in 128

different ways: Element

118
104

•E
 lement that’s responsible for altering 110 112

the flow;
120 122
• Sensor that measures the change in the
102
stream, and translates that measurement
BASIC FLOWMETER ANATOMY
into a value that can be associated with
Figure 1: Most flowmeters have three primary
flow; and parts: element that's responsible for altering the
flow; sensor that measures the change in the
• Transmitter that translates a measurement
stream, and translates that measurement into
into a protocol that the control system a value that can be associated with flow; and
transmitter that translates a measurement into a
can understand.
protocol that the control system can understand.
Source: Zachry Group
Flowmeters are available in insertion- or
spool-type designs. Insertion flowmeters to keep some key engineering principals
are inserted into a nozzle, and scale more in mind. Every measurement comes with a
economically with line sizes. However, inser- cost, and the best solution will do the re-
tion flowmeters don’t allow control of the quired job for the lowest total installed cost.
environment surrounding the probe, which Even if a flow technology and its installation
necessitates added calibration. Spool flow- were free of charge, there are still operating
meters serve as part of a pipe spool that costs, such as pump heads that contribute
includes a line of pipe. While they allow more costs of the measurement. In addition, know
control of the environment around the sen- your priorities by asking what can be sacri-
sor, spool flowmeters are often quite expen- ficed and what’s truly needed for the pro-
sive for larger lines. cess application. Also, repeatability is often
more important than accuracy because con-
When choosing a flowmeter, it’s important sistency creates a more efficient process.

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STRENGTHS AND Exciting coil

WEAKNESSES Flow velocity: V
Because every flow device Core

has limits, the strengths and Electromagnetic

flow meter detector
Magnetic field
limitations of each must be strength: B Electromotive
evaluated to find the most force: E
(voltage)
appropriate choice.
Liquid
Measurement
Pipe inner diameter: D Electrode pipe
Mechanical flowmeters
measure flow as a process ATTRACTIVE PRINCIPLES
flow moves mechanical Figure 2: Magnetic flowmeters use the E=vBD equation to find
flow by generating a magnetic field, and measuring the generated
parts within them. Typi- voltage to find velocity. In the equation, E is voltage generated, v
cally, a mechanical part is the velocity of the fluid, B is the strength of the magnetic field
and D is the distance between electrodes for conductive fluids
with a fixed volume is travels through a magnetic field. Source: Zachry Group
rotated by the stream, and
its rotations are counted
to infer a volumetric flow kinetic energy or velocity. square root of the differen-
rate. Strengths of mechani- By measuring the pressure tial pressure, which limits
cal flowmeters include low drop, velocity can be calcu- turndown.
upfront costs, the ability to lated to find flow.
be manufactured in small Vortex flowmeters rely on a
sizes, and suitability for DP meters are available turbulent flow. When a fluid
extremely low-flow applica- in many sizes and styles, contacts the shedder bar of
tions. However, mechanical including orifice plate, pitot a vortex meter, piezoelec-
meters may have higher tube, venturi, v-cone and tronics count the vortices
total installed costs, as well wedge. Not only do DP me- and translate them into flow
as mechanical parts that will ters offer low upfront costs, rate. Vortex flowmeters
degrade over time. but they’re also well under- have low upfront costs, can
stood. However, impulse measure liquids or vapors,
Differential pressure (DP) lines are prone to plugging, are tolerant of droplets in
flowmeters typically intro- and wear and tear on the vapor service, and have no
duce a velocity increase elements can “invisibly” al- stagnant zones. Limitations
and corresponding pressure ter measurement accuracy. of vortex meters include the
drop to the system, which Another important limit of need for a turbulent flow
pulls some of the pressure DP flowmeters is that flow along with a minimum flow
(or potential energy) into rate is proportional to the requirement to provide any

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measurement at all. Vortex flowmeters are able in two primary types: transit-time and
also generally limited in size to between 0.5 doppler. Transit-time flowmeters use mul-
and 12 inches and tend to increase in price tiple sensor/transmitter elements upstream
with size. and downstream on the outside of a line.
Because the fluid moves with one beam and
Magnetic flowmeters determine flow by against the other, the difference in time for
generating a magnetic field, and measur- the two beams to travel between the ele-
ing the generated voltage to find velocity ments is used to calculate the flow rate. It
(Figure 2). Magnetic flowmeters are gener- should be noted that transit-time ultrasonic
ally moderate in cost for their size, have an flowmeters require clean service, as par-
unrestricted flow path, good turndown and ticles and bubbles will alter the pulse, and
are offered with various electrode designs create noise and a loss of signal.
for different services. However, they can
only measure conductive liquids, and metal- Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters use one sen-
lic solutions can generate magnetic fields sor/transmitter, which shoots an ultrasonic
that can cause inaccurate measurements. pulse into the line that reflects off particles
and bubbles, and uses the Doppler effect to
Coriolis flowmeters use the Coriolis force measure shifts in pulse frequency to infer
to find mass flow. Most Coriolis flowmeters the flow rate. Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters
vibrate two tubes at a natural frequency, require particles or bubbles in the stream to
and measure the change in vibration when function.Ultrasonic flowmeters generally are
the flow stream is introduced. Coriolis high precision and turndown, don’t restrict
flowmeters offer extremely high precision, flow path, are available in clamp-on type,
accuracy and turndown; they measure mass and are often low-cost. However, when using
directly; provide a density measurement an ultrasonic flowmeter, again, particulate
even without flow; and are insensitive to content must be known. These meters also
solids. However, Coriolis meters contain have significant upstream and downstream
precisely machined elements that are sensi- requirements, and their sensors must be pre-
tive to corrosive or abrasive surfaces. Other cisely positioned to be effective.
drawbacks include a high permanent pres-
sure loss, relatively low maximum tempera- Optical flowmeters use two lights and cor-
ture, difficulty with low-pressure gases, and responding detectors to measure how long
larger sizes that are very expensive. it takes for a shape to pass, and employ the
equation v = d/t where v is the velocity of
Ultrasonic flowmeters use ultrasonic beam the fluid, d is the distance between probes,
pulses to measure fluid flow. They’re avail- and t is the time interval between sensor

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detection. There are two basic types of BASELINES AND WARNING SIGNS
optical flowmeters: laser two-focus (L2F), By understanding the available technologies,
which measures the velocity of particles users can consider which flowmeter is the
and bubbles moving in the fluid, and scin- most appropriate for an application. A good
tillating, which measures the velocity of practice is to start with a baseline technol-
shadows and irregularities caused by tur- ogy that’s inexpensive, and will blanket the
bulent flow. Scintillating meters measure majority of the facility’s applications. Dif-
a cross-section area of the flow, capturing ferential pressure (orifice plate), vortex and
the entire 3-D shape of the shadows or magnetic flowmeters are common baseline
irregularities. This makes them relatively solutions. Once a baseline technology is se-
insensitive to velocity irregularities, but they lected, more expensive solutions can be con-
do require minimum turbulence (Figure 3). sidered for applications that diverge from
Strengths of optical flowmeters include high the facility’s norm. This strategy will help
precision and turndown, unrestricted flow keep maintenance and training costs down.
path, low cost for line size, and they’re ideal
for changing fluids. However, optical flow- After an application is defined, if the base-
meters are often overlooked by the industry line technology isn’t a good enough fit, then
as a relatively new technology. other, potentially more expensive options
can be considered. The following are some
Thermal mass flowmeters rely on the H = of the warning signs that a specialized flow
mCP(T2-T1) equation, where H is enthalpy technology might be necessary:
change/unit time, m is mass flow rate, CP • High accuracy or turndown requirements,
is specific heat, T2 is downstream tempera- • Extremely low flow,
ture and T1 is upstream temperature. As a • Large line size,
result, heat dispersion between two points • Variable/unknown composition,
in a stream is proportional to mass flow, • Dirty/erosive surface,
and by heating an element and placing it • Multiphase flow,
upstream of a temperature sensor, mass • Short upstream/downstream straight
flow can be measured. Strengths of thermal pipe runs,
mass flowmeter are their ability to directly • Low available pressure drop,
measure mass, availability in insertion type, • Bidirectional flow, and
and high accuracy and precision. However, • Crystallization concerns.
it should be noted that thermal mass flow-
meters require consistent fluid composition RIGHT CHOICES FOR
of known properties, and typically are only THE REAL WORLD
used to measure vapor flow. So which flow technologies are the best

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Pulse signal
Signal-processing
computer
Pulse signal
Optical sensors Optical sensors
scattered
Fluid velocity
light

particle scattered
light
Light
Fluid velocity Fluid velocity
Optical window Optical window

Laser light beams Lens

Dual-beam laser LED light source

light source

SEEING AND BELIEVING

Figure 3: The two basic types of optical flowmeters are laser two-focus (L2F) that measures the
velocity of particles and bubbles moving in the fluid, and scintillating that measures the velocity of
shadows and irregularities caused by turbulent flow. Scintillating meters measure a cross-section
area of the flow, capturing the entire 3-D shape of the shadows or irregularities, which makes them
relatively insensitive to velocity irregularities, but they do require minimum turbulence. Source: www.
InstrumentationTools.com

options for which process applications? It lines, they’re often the first choice for lines
depends on the operating characteristics less than 8 inches in diameter.
and goals of those processes. • Ultrasonic flowmeters also have high ac-
curacy and turndown, so they’re economi-
For instance, the aim of custody transfer cal for large lines, and are used more often
is to track how much important chemicals, lately for such applications.
products or other fluids are leaving or • Scintillating optical flowmeters have high
entering an area, which could be for mass accuracy and turndown, and they’re eco-
balance or point of sale. Inaccuracy means nomical for large lines, too. They aren’t a
lost revenue, so accuracy is more impor- standard yet, but may become one soon.
tant, and turndown is a plus.
Options include: Injection quills add tiny flows of costly,
•T
 urbine/positive displacement flowmeters commodity chemicals to larger streams, or
have high accuracy and turndown, but are used in labs with low flows and small
moving parts mean more maintenance, so pipes. At extremely low flows, the regimes
they’re used less now. are laminar, but there’s variance across pro-
•C
 oriolis flowmeters are the most accurate, files. This makes injection quills and other
but even though they’re pricey for big low-flow applications difficult for velocity-

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based flow measurement, especially as flow • Insertion-type thermal mass flowmeter is

approaches zero. Options include: also inexpensive for most line sizes, less
• Positive displacement because their me- sensitive to turbulence, and benefits from
chanical rotation isn’t very sensitive to air’s well-known properties.
flow profiles.
• Coriolis that comes in small sizes, has very As the vapor garbage disposals for refiner-
high turndown, and measures mass, so ies, flares can have a huge range of com-
velocity isn’t very important. positions, environmental requirements that
require accuracy, and need premium turn-
Large air duct processes typically involve downs to cover flows from a trickle to the
intakes to large compressors, operate at whole plant venting at once. Big lines for
low pressures that favor instruments with flaring mean they favor devices that scale
minimal pressure drops such as insertion or well with line size, while handling many
no flow obstructions; have huge line sizes, vapor densities and properties means they
often with square profiles that favor insertion also need technologies that are insensitive
types or external sensors; and are exposed to those vapor properties. Options include:
to particles in the air such as dust solids and • Ultrasonic flowmeters scale well with size,
condensates that favor devices that are re- have great turndown and accuracy, and
sistant to plugging. Options include: aren’t heavily influenced by fluid proper-
• Insertion-type DP pitot tube (purged) ties if the stream is relatively clean.
flowmeter, which measures velocity at a • Optical flowmeters scale well, have great
representative point that may be difficult turndown and accuracy, and aren’t heavily
to obtain. Purge devices may protect the influenced by fluid properties.
unit from plugging, but they also require a
constant expense for air pressure. Wastewater/high solids feeds are only
• Low-pressure loss DP venturi (purged) mostly liquid, so plugging is a concern that
flowmeters, which deal with condensate favors open flow paths and no stagnant
well, are often used on suction of com- zones, while erosivity is a concern that fa-
pressors, but are costly at large line sizes, vors hardened flow elements or no element
and also require a constant operating cost. in the stream. Options include:
• Clip-on ultrasonic is inexpensive for most • Magnetic flowmeters are great for con-
line sizes; non-contact, so there’s no pres- ductive liquids, work with straight paths,
sure loss, so they may seem attractive, and have erosion-resistant electrodes.
but they have high upstream-downstream • Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters thrive in
straight pipe run requirements and may be areas with particulates, and also work with
difficult to place on a square duct. straight flow paths.

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• DP wedge flowmeters with hardened, • DP V-Cone flowmeters designed to condi-
indirect impact surfaces for maximum tion flows as a part of measurement, and
erosivity resistance also feature the ability are resistant to entrained particles.
to handle non-conductive fluids. • Coriolis flowmeters that measures mass
• Optical (L2F) flowmeters thrive in ar- directly, and are insensitive to flow profiles.
eas with particulates, and also work with
straight flow paths. REFERENCES

www.instrumentationtoolbox.com; www.engineering-

Brownfield process applications typically toolbox.com; and

need to add a flow sensor to an existing Liptak, Bela, et al. Instrument Engineers’ Handbook, 4th

line, can’t take up much space, and have edition, Chapter 2, CRC Press, 2003

tight piping with very short upstream and/

or downstream lengths. Options include: Eric Lofland is senior engineer in the Instrumentation

• Mechanical flowmeters that count volumes and Controls Dept. at Zachry Group (www.zachrygroup.

directly, but have moving parts requiring com). He can be reached at [email protected]

more maintenance.

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