MINE-390

Mineral Processing

Lesson # 9

Size-Size Separation
(Industrial Screening)

Dr. Zulfiqar Ali

Department of Mining Engineering
University of Engineering & Technoogy, Lahore
 INDUSTRIAL SCREENING

 Screening is carried out on coarse material, as the

efficiency decreases rapidly with fineness.
- Fine screens are very fragile
- Expensive
- Easily blocked with retained particles – (Blind)

 Screening is generally limited to material above 250 µm

in size , finer sizing being undertaken by classification.
 INDUSTRIAL SCREENING
 The purposes of screening :
1. To prevent the entry of undersize into crushing
machines.
2. To prevent oversize material from passing to the next
stage.
3. To prepare closely sized feed to certain gravity
concentration process.
4. To produce a closely sized end product.
 Screen Performance
 An efficiency equation can be calculated from a mass
balance across a screen.
 Screen Performance
 Mass balance F = C+ U
 Mass balance of the oversize Ff =Cc + Uu
 Mass balance of the undersize
F (1-f ) = C (1-c ) + U ( 1-u )

Ff  Cc  Uu C f u

F c u
 Fu  Cu  Uu and
_____________ U c f

F ( f  u )  C (c  u ) F c u
f = Fraction of material above the cut point size in the feed.
u = Fraction of material above the cut point size in the underflow.
c = Fraction of material above the cut point size in the overflow.
 Screen Performance
 The recovery of oversize material into the screen

Cc c f  u 
oversize

R1  
Ff f c  u 
 Recovery of undersize material in the screen undersize

U 1  u  c  f   1  u 
R2  
F 1  f  c  u   1  f 
 Screen Performance
 Combined efficiency :

c   f  u  1  u  c  f 
E
f  c  u   1  f 
2

 If there is no broken or deformed apertures , u=0 and

c f
E
c1  f 
(means recovery of coarse material in the overflow is 100 %)
 Screen Performance

 Efficiency formulas are acceptable for assessing the

efficiency of a screen under different working conditions ,
operating on the same feed. However , they do not give
an absolute value of the efficiency , if the feed is
composed mainly of particles of a size near of the screen
aperture (near mesh material ).
Concept of Partition Curve
 Partition Curve
 Partition coefficient : % of the feed reporting to the oversize
product.
 Geometric mean : e.i. For -125+63 µm particle , geometric
mean is 125 63
 Cut point : 50 % probability : The size at which a particle has
equal chance of reporting to the undersize or oversize.

Thought Question:Cut point size Vs Aperture size

PROBLEM
The given data (attached) is given for a 48 mesh
screen. It is required to check the performance of
that vibrating screen.

c f  u 1  u c  f 
Efficiency 
f c  u  1  f 
2
PROBLEM
Screen
Feed Oversize Undersize
scale
Wt % Cum. Wt Wt % Cum. Wt %
Mesh CumWt%
Retained % Retained Wt % Retained
14 1.5 1.5 5.6 5.6 - -
20 6.1 7.6 22.4 28.0 - -
28 6.6 14.2 28.4 56.4 - -
35 7.0 21.2 27.6 84.0 0.3 0.3
48 7.5 28.7 15.4 99.4 3.8 4.1
65 9.1 37.8 - - 11.8 15.9
100 10.2 48.0 - - 15.1 31.0
150 11.5 59.5 - - 15.7 46.7
200 9.5 69.0 - - 13.0 59.7

PAN 31.0 100.0 0.6 (?) 100.0 40.3 100.0

TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0

 PROBLEM
0,994  0,287  0,041  1  0,041  0,994  0,287 
E
0,287  0,994  0,041  1  0,287 
2

0,994  0,246  0,959  0,707 

E
0,287  0,908  0,713

0,165
E  0,8918
0,185

E  89,18%
PROBLEM
If u0

c-f
E
c1 - PROBLEM
f

0,994  0,287
E  0,997
0,9941  0,287 
Factors Affecting Screen Performance

1. CAPACITY AND TIME OF SCREENING

Low feed rate and long screening time give complete
separation.
High feed rate reduces dwelling time of particle.
High efficiency and high capacity are opposing
requirements.
Factors Affecting Screen Performance

 2. NUMBER OF STRIKES (= VIBRATION OF THE

SCREEN )
- The overall probability of passage of particle = Nm of
strikes x Probability of its passage through the screen
during a single contact.
- Screens are vibrated in order to increase efficiency
(blinding is reduced)
 Factors Affecting Screen Performance
 Too high vibration rate reduces the efficiency. (as the
particles may bounce from the surface and thrown so far
that there are very few strikes)
 Higher vibrating rates can be used with higher feed rates (
deeper bed has a cushioning effect which inhibits particle
bounce)
Probability of passage
Ratio of particle to Chance of passage per Number of apertures
aperture size 1000 required in path

0,001 998 1
0,01 980 2
0,1 840 2
0,2 640 2
0,3 490 2
0,4 360 3
0,5 250 4
0,6 140 7
0,7 82 12
0,8 40 25
0,9 9,8 100
0,95 2,0 500
0,99 0,1 10000
0,999 0,001 1000000
Factors Affecting Screen Performance

 3. ANGLE OF APPROACH AND PARTICLE

ORIENTATION TO THE SCREEN
- The closer the angle of approach to perpendicular, the
higher chance of passage.
(Non spherical particle , orientation will present a
small cross-section for passage,
Large cross-section –mica- screen badly)
Factors Affecting Screen Performance

 4. OPEN AREA
- Ratio of Net area of the aperture / Whole area of the
screening surface
- Open area decreases with the fineness of the aperture of
the screens with wires of the same diameter.
- Very thin wires makes the screen fragile.
Factors Affecting Screen Performance
 5. NATURE OF THE FEED
a -) Near mesh material
The efficiency is markedly reduced by the presence
of particles close to aperture size (blinding)
Close circuit crushing builds-up near mesh material
which progressively reduced efficiency.
Screens are often used having apertures slightly
more than the set of crusher.
Factors Affecting Screen Performance

b-) Amount of moisture

Screening must always be performed on perfectly
dry or wet material , but never on damp material.
Wet screening efficiency is always superior
(adherent finest are washed off and no dust problem)
Disadvantage : Cost of dewatering
Industrial Screening

INDUSTRIAL
SCREENS
Stationary Moving
Grizzly Revolving
Sieve bend Shaking
Reciprocating
Gyratory
Vibrating
 Grizzly
 Very coarse material screening.
 Consist of a series of heavy parallel bars set in a frame
(inclined usually 20-50)
 Used sizing the feed to primary crushers (to scalp or
remove undersize)
 The bars are usually tapered in cross-section to
minimize clogging
 Grizzlies sometimes are shaken or vibrated
mechanically.
 Size of feed can be as large as 30 cm or as small as 2
cm. The capacity can be up to 1000 t / h.
 Sieve bends
Dutch State Mines (DSM) or Dorr Rapifine
screens are used for very fine wet screening.
Sieve bend has a curved screen composed of
horizontal wedge bars.
Feed enters the upper surface of the screen
tangentially , flows down in the direction
perpendicular to the openings between the
wedge bars. A thin layer is peeled off and
directed of the undersize .
The thickness of the layer peeled off is a
function of the space between the bars ( 25 %
of the slot width)
 Sieve bends
Separation can be down to 50 m and
capacities are up to 180 m3 / h (concentration of
the pulp : 30 –40 % by wt)
Problem : Whilst separation occurs , a thin layer
passed through the aperture tends to continue
down the back. (convex side ), being held on by
wall effect.
Solution : A series of crimps on the back can
divert the pulp or periodically the sieve bend is
rapped.
 Sieve bends
Screening surface commonly is curved in 60
arc at some radius between 20 –60 inches (30
inches being the most common). The feed end
of the sieve is tangent to the vertical , so that the
discharge end is at 30 from the horizontal for a
60 sieve bend.
Sieve bends have found an important
application in closed circuit grinding of heavy
mineral ores. Overgrinding of the heavy minerals
, which can occur in conventional classification
can be greately reduced by the combination of
classifiers and sieve bends.
Sieve bends
Revolving Screens

Rotating cylindrical screen , which is slightly inclined.

Used in wet
or dry condition.
Revolving Screens
Trommels may be arranged in series or in compound
form.
 Revolving Screens

 Feed size : 55 to 6 mm . Used for grading of sands. Poor

capacity (since only part of the screen surface is in use)
Shaking Screens
 Have reciprocating movement , mechanically induced in
the horizontal direction.
 Operate in the range of 60 – 800 strokes/min.
 Used for relatively large sized feeds , down to 12 mm.
Widely used dry in coal preparation.
 Reciprocating Screens
Have horizontal gyratory motion to the feed end
by means of a unbalanced rotating shaft
(rotating 1000 rpm)
Circular motion : Spreads the feed to whole
width
Elliptical motion : Screening
Diminishing screening motion aid the screening
out of the near-mesh material.
Used for fine screening , mainly dry , in the
range of 10 mm to 250 m , sometimes down to
40 m.
Reciprocating Screens
 Gyratory Screens

Impart gyratory motion

For fine screening , down to 40 m, wet or dry.
Nest of sieves supported on a table.
Motor is suspended beneath the table.
Vertical motion is imparted by the bottom
weights (producing circular tipping motion to the
screen )
GYRATORY SCREEN
 Vibrating Screen

 Most important screens. Handle material up to 25 cm

in size down to 250 m.
 Vibration is induced vertically by :
1. Mechanical device (applied to the casing)
2. Electrical device (mounted directly to the surface)
Vibrating Screen
Electrically vibrated screen :
Operate with high frequency.
Motion is created by a moving magnet activated
by alternating current. Used for fine feed (< 12
mm ,usually <0.3 mm)
Mechanically vibrating screens:
Used for coarse feed
- Eccentric motion : > 4 cm feed , 900-1800 rpm
- Unbalanced pulley : 4-0.3 cm , 1200-3600 rpm
Vibrating screens have highest capacity , can
work at low slopes , need little headroom.
 Screening Surfaces
The type of screening surface is chosen according
to aperture required and the nature of the work.
- For heavy-duty work : Parallel iron or steel bars
(grizzly)
- Punched Plate : - For heavy duty:
Circular or square holes
- For fine work : Slotted openings.
- Wedge wire screens : For fine screening (sieve
bends)
- Woven-wire cloths : In crushing section
Square mesh : For coarse screening
Rectangular mesh : For fine screening
 Screening Surfaces

Rectangular screen apertures have a greater

open area than square mesh screens of the
same wire diameter.
Increasing the thickness of wire increases the
strenght of the screen, but decreases open area
and hence capacity.
Non-metallic screen surfaces are also used as
they reduce wear. Polyurethane or rubber
provides resistance to abrasion and impact ,
reducing noise and are lighter in weight.
Elutriation
Elutriation
MINE-390
Mineral Processing

Lesson # 11

COMMINUTION

Dr. Zulfiqar Ali

Department of Mining Engineering
University of Engineering & Technoogy, Lahore
 Liberation
 Physical detachment of minerals from one another
 One of the major objectives of comminution
 Maximize liberation at coarsest possible particle size

Modes of Fracture
 Transgranular - fracture across grain boundaries

 Intergranular - fracture along grain boundaries

 Particle Composition Types
 Free (or liberated) - a particle consisting of only one mineral
type

 Locked (or middlings) - a particle consisting of more than

one mineral type
 Particle Composition Types
 Degree of intergrowth
 Degree of Liberation

 Methods of Determining Optimum Mesh of Grind

 Methods of Determining Optimum Mesh of Grind
 Locking Factor:
 Gives additional weight to underestimated locked particles
since locked particles can appear as free under a microscope,
but free particles can never appear as locked.

Locking Factor Plot (Gaudin

Note: Value of 1.4 often used as first approximation.)
 Methods of Determining Optimum Mesh of Grind
 Procedure:
 Grind sample for a given period of time
 Screen product into various size fractions
 Determine average particle size of the material
 Mount size fractions into briquettes
 Count particles under microscope and determine DOL
 Repeat for as many grind times as necessary
 Plot DOL vs. average particle size
 > 80% DOL is generally required for an effective separation

Average Particel Size

 Methods of Determining Optimum Mesh of Grind
 Indirect - Separation Test (Flotation)
Procedure
 Grind sample for a given period of time
 Determine average grind size
 Conduct flotation test to determine recovery
 Repeat for as many grind times as necessary
 Plot recovery vs. average grind size
 Differential Liberation
 Separate or discard some material at a coarse size and
regrind the remaining material to produce a concentrate
(save on grinding costs).
MINE-390
Mineral Processing

Lesson # 10

COMMINUTION

Dr. Zulfiqar Ali

Department of Mining Engineering
University of Engineering & Technoogy, Lahore
 What is Comminution?
 Particle Size Reduction
 Purpose:
 liberate minerals (most common)
 reduce particle size (crushing)
 produce material of a controlled particle size (crushed-
stone production)
 increase surface area (chemical processing)
 Classification of Comminution Processes
Comminution
 Liberation of the valuable mineral from its associated
gangue is accomplished by comminution.
 Comminution: Size reduction of particles until the
valuable mineral and gangue are produced as
separate particles.

 Comminution involves ;
 Crushing ( compression or impact)
 Grinding (attrition-abrasion and impact)

 Crushing reduces the r.o.m ore to a level that grinding

can be carried out (Crushing produces the feed of
grinding)
 Comminution
 Crushing : The ore is compressed or impact against rigid
surfaces.It is a dry process.
 Grinding : Abrasion and impact of ore by the free motion of
the media( rods, balls, pebbles).It is a wet process.
 Impact breaking : Due to the rapid loading, the particle
absorbs more energy and tends to break rapidly, by tensile
failure. The products are often very similar in size of shape.
 Attrition (shear) : Produces more fines due to the particle-
particle interaction.
 Novel Methods of Comminution
 Steam or Chemical Expansion (tensile)

 Microwave Heating
 Modes of Fracture
 Rapid Compression - impactors and tumbling mills
 Slow Compression - crushers and tumbling mills
 Abrasive Shear - crushers and tumbling mills
 Tension - 1/10 of compressive strength; no available
commercial method (Spin rock - F. Bond)
 Prıncıples of Commınutıon
 Most minerals are crystalline in nature in which the atoms
are regularly arranged in 3-dimensional arrays.The
physical and chemical bonds are holding them
together.Such inter atomic bonds can be broken by tensile
or compressive loading.
 Distribution of load (stresses) are not uniform in ore as it
consists of variety of minerals.
 Minerals are assumed as brittle , but crystals store energy
without breaking , and they release energy when the
stress is removed.( Elastic Behaviour )
 When fracture occurs , some of the stored energy is
transformed into free surface energy.( Formation of new
active surfaces)
 Prıncıples of Commınutıon
 Distribution of stresses depend upon;
 Mechanical properties of minerals.
 Presence of cracks or flaws in the matrix.
 When an regular partical is crushed,coarse particles
resulting from tensile failure; fines from compressive failure
near the points of loading.
 Comminution Laws/Theories
 A method of relating Energy Consumption to Size Reduction
 Relationship between energy input, and particle size of product
 Useful in design of comminution devices
 Three basic “laws” of comminution:
 Rittinger’s Law/Theory (1867)
 Kick’s Law/Theory (1885)
 Bond’s Law/Theory (1951)

Note:
All the comminution theories assume that the material is brittle
and no energy is absorbed by the material
Rittinger’s Law (1867, Oldest)


 Kick’s Law

 Bond’s Law

 Practical Form of Bond’s Law
 1 1 
WorkInput(kwh / ton)  E  10Wi  
 P F
Where
E = Energy Required for Communitation
Wi = Bond Work Index
P = 80% passing size of the Product
F = 80% passing size of the feed

Let Wi (Bond Work Index) equal the energy (kwh/ton)

required to break a material from infinite size to 80%
passing 100 μm.
 Applicability of Energy Laws
 Kick’s Law is reasonably accurate above 1 cm diameter.
 Bond’s Theory is reasonable in the rod and ball mill size.
 Rittinger’s Law is applicable in the fine grinding (10-
1000m).

(Hukki, 1975)
 Grındabılıty

Refers: How easy to crush and grind the materials.

 Grindability data are used to evaluate crushing and grinding

efficiency.
 The most widely parameter to measure ore grind is the
Bond Work Index (Wi).
 For most naturally occuring raw materials, grindability
change with particle size (e.g. Minerals break easily at the
boundaries but individual grains are tough, then grindability
(resistance) increases with the fineness of grind).

 Consequently, work index values are generally obtaing for

some specified grind size.
 Standart Bond Test is time consuming. It is based on
constant screening out of undersize material in order to
simulate closed-circuit operation.
 Comparative Method: To determine the grindability of an
ore by using a reference ore of known grindability.
Procedure: Reference ore is ground for a certain
time and the power consumption recorded. An
identical weight of the unknown (tested) ore is
ground for a length of time such that the power
consumed is identical with that of the reference
ore .
 10 10   10 10 
Wr  Wt  Wir     Wit   
 Pr Fr   Pt Ft 
 10 10 
  
Wit  Wir  Pr Fr 
 10 10 
  
 Pt Ft 
IMPORTANT : In comparative method , the
reference and test ores must ground to about the
same size distribution.( in order to get reasonable
Wi values)
As the efficiency of grinding is varying with the
types of equipment, work indices obtained from
grindability test on different sizes of several types
of equipment, using identical feed materials are
used to compare the efficiencies of the machines.
IMPORTANT : The equipment with highest work
indices and the largest power consumption has low
efficiency.
- Jaw and Gyratory Crusher and Tumbling Mills
have highest Wi and power consumption.
- Intermediate power consumers are Impact
Crushers and Vibration Mill
- Smallest energy consumer-Roll crusher (apply
steady , continuous compressive stress on the
materials)
 HARDGROVE GRINDABILITY INDEX DETERMINATION

Procedure:
- 50 gram sample (-14+25 mesh )
- 60 revolution (total)=20 rev/min
- Grinding ring weight=64 lb.

HI  6,93 Wt  13
435
Wi 
HI : Hardgrove grindability ( HI )
0,91

index
Wt : Weight of the ground product passing
200 mesh size
Hardgrove Grindability of Various
Materials

MATERIAL HI MATERIAL HI
Antracite 21-50 Graphite(amorph) 73
Barite 116 Graphite(crystalline) 47
Bauxite 39-76 Hematite 96-35
Chromite(African) 35
Limestone 54-78
Chromite (Turkish) 62
Talc 67-130
Clay 97
Sulphur (raw) 104
Coal (bituminous) 37-105
Turkish çay seam 87 Rutine 26
Turkish pirinç seam 102 Mica 7
 PROBLEM
 A magnetite ore exploited from an open-pit mine shows a
size distribution so that 80% of it is passing through 250
mm screen. After crushing , 80% of the product passes
through 85mm screen.
What is the power required to crush 230 tph ?
Wi (magnetite)=11.02 kwh/sh.t
F = 250 mm = 250 000 µm
P = 85 mm = 85 000 µm

 1 1 
W  10 x11.02  
 85000 250000 
W  0.175kwh / sh.ton
1kw  1.341HP
0.175 x 230 x1.341  53.64 HP
76
 CRUSHERS
 It is the first stage of comminution.
 Dry operation ; performed in 2 or 3 stages

R.O.M ore Primary Crusher Secondary Cr

(<1.5m size) (Product 10-20 cm) (0.5-2 cm)

Tertiary Crusher (For extra hard ore)

IMPORTANT : If the ore tends to be slippery and

tough, the tertiary crushing stage may be substituted
by coarse grinding in rod mills.
CRUSHING PLANT FLOWSHEET
Run-of-mine Ore

Surge bin

Feeder

Grizzly (-)
(+)
Primary Crusher

Washing Plant

Washed Ore Sands Slimes

Bins or Stockpile

Screens (-)
(+)
Secondary Crusher

Screens
(-)
(+)
Tertiary Crusher Fine Ore bin
Crushing may be open or closed circuit
Open circuit Closed circuit
Feed Feed

Crusher Crusher

Product (+)
Screen
(
-
)
 Open-circuit crushing is often used in intermediate crushing
stages or when the secondary crushing plant is producing a
rod mill feed.
 If the crusher is producing ball mill feed, it is good practice
to use closed-circuit crushing.
Rod Mill Feed
Feed
Primary Crusher Secondary Crusher
(+)
Screen
Product
Ball Mill Feed (-)
Feed
Primary Crusher Secondary Crusher
Screen
Product (+)
(-)
In most mills the crushing plant does not run for 24
hour a day, as hoisting and transport of ore is
usually carried out on two-shifts only, the other
shift being used for drilling and blasting. The
crushing section must therefore have a greater
hourly capacity than the rest of the plant which is
run continuously.
Ore is always stored after the crusher to ensure a
continuous supply to the grinding section.
It is not practicable to store large quantities of
r.o.m. ore , as it is long ranged.
 PRIMARY CRUSHERS
 Heavy duty machines
 Always operated in open-circuit , with or without heavy-
duty scalping screens (grizzly).
 Primary crushers
1. Jaw
2. Gyratory
 JAW CRUSHERS
 Jaw crusher has two plates which open and shut like
animal jaws.
 The jaws are set at an acute angle to each other.One
jaw is pivoted so that it swings relative to other fixed
jaw.
 Material is alternately nippet and fall further into the
crushing chamber and then falls from the discharge
aperture.
 Classification of jaw crusher by the method of pivoting
the swing jaw
1. Blake
2. Dodge
3. Universal
 Blake Crusher
-Jaw is pivoted at the top
-Fixed receiving area
-Variable discharge
opening

1. Double - toggle
2. Single – toggle
Dodge Crusher
-Jaw is pivoted at the bottom
-Variable feed area
-Fixed discharge area (Restricted by lab. use where
close sizing is required)
Universal Crusher
-Jaw is pivoted in an intermediate position.
-Variable discharge
-Variable receiving area.
 Blake-Double Toggle Jaw Crusher
 The oscillating movement of the swing jaw is effected by
vertical movement of the pitman.
 Pitman moves up and down under the influence of the
eccentric.
 Back Toggle plate causes the pitman to move sideways
as it is pushed upward. Motion is transferred to the front
toggle plate and this causes the swing jaw to close on
the fixed jaw.
Since the swing jaw is pivoted at the top , it moves
minimum distance at the entry point , and a
maximum distance at the delivery. The maximum
distance is called throw.
The horizontal displacement of the swing jaw is
greatest at the bottom of the cycle of the pitman.
Set is diminishing through when the angle
becomes less acute.
The crushing force is least when the angle
between toggle is most acute and strongest when
angle is less acute.
All jaw crushers are rated according to their
receiving areas (width x gape)
Maximum size jaw crusher has 1680 mm gape
by 2130 mm width. This machine will handle ore
with maximum size of 1.22 m at a crushing rate
of 725 t/h with 203 mm set.
 Arrested (free crushing ) X Choked Crushing

During crushing process , the rock piece is

nipped by the jaws. The fragments fall to a new
arrest point as the jaws move apart and are then
gripped and crushed again. The ore falls until it
is arrested.
During each bite of the jaws the rock swells in
volume due to the creation of voids between the
particles.
Since the ore is also falling into a gradually
reducing cross-sectional area of the crushing
chamber , choking of the crusher would soon
occur.
In arrested crushing , the crushed material is
discharged at a rate sufficient to leave space for
material entering crusher. In arrested crushing ,
crushing is by the jaws only.
In choked crushing , the volume of material
arriving at a particular cross-section is greater
than that leaving.
The particles break each other. This interparticle
comminution can lead to excessive production of
fines.
If choking is severe , it can damage the crusher.
The discharge material size is controlled by the
SET which can be adjusted by using toggle
plates of the required length.
Since jaw crusher works on half-cycle only, due
to its alternate loading and release of stress , a
heavy FLYWHEEL is attached to the drive to
store the energy on the idling half and to deliver
it on the crushing half.
 Single Toggle Jaw Crusher

 Swing jaw is suspended on the eccentric shaft. More

compact and light design.
Swing jaw not only moves towards the fixed jaw,
under the action of the toggle plate , but also
moves vertically as the eccentric rotates. This
elliptical jaw motion assists in pushing rock through
the crushing chamber.
Single toggle machine has a somewhat higher
capacity than the double-toggle machine with the
same gape.
 Direct attachment of the swing jaw to the eccentric imposes
a high strain on the drive shaft and so the maintenance
costs tend to be higher than double-toggle.Rate of wear on
the jaw plates is also high.
 Double-toggle machines are 50% more expensive than
single-toggle of the same size. Double-toggle machines are
used on tough , hard , abbrasive materials.
 Jaw Crusher Construction

 Main frame : Cast iron and steel (which is made in

sections)
 Jaws : Cast steel with replaceable liners.
 Main frame sections are connected with tie-bolts. Liners
are bolted in sections on to the jaws to reduce wear.
 Cheek plates are fitted to the sides of crushing chamber
to protect the main frame from wear.
 Jaw plate : May be smooth (small size feed ) or
corrugated (coarse size feed ).
 The angle between jaws < 26 (more angle causes
slippage )
 Curved plates are used to prevent choking near the
discharge of the crusher.
 Speed of jaw crusher : 100-350 rpm
 Throw : 1-7 cm ( Highest throw for tough , plastic
material and lowest for hard , brittle ore).

The greater the throw , less danger of choking

To avoid damage when an uncrushable material
enters the chamber , crusher is protected by a
weak line of rivets on one of the toggle plates or by
an automatic trip-out device.
 GYRATORY CRUSHERS
Consists a long spindle , carrying a hard steel
conical grinding element (head) , seated in an
eccentric sleeve.
The spindle is suspended from a spider. It rotates
between 85-150 rpm. It sweeps out a conical path
within the shell.(due to the gyratory action of the
eccentric.)
Maximum movement of the head occurs near the
discharge (like in jaw crusher). It overcomes the
choking. Figure
 Gyratory crusher is an arrested crusher
Gyratory crusher can be regarded as an
infinitely large number of jaw crushers , each of
infinitely small width.It crushes on full cycle , it
has a much higher capacity than a jaw crusher
of the same gape.
Above 545 tph , economic advantages of the jaw
crusher over gyratory diminishes > 725 tph
gyratory is preferred.
Maximum capacity of gyratory crusher with a
gape of 1830 mm which can crush ores with a
top size of 1370 mm is 5000 tph with 200 mm
set.Power consumption is around 750 kW.
The ore can be fed directly from trucks (no need
to expensive feeders)
The crushing shell is protected by manganese steel
or Ni-hard cast iron liners (concaves). In small
crusher , concave is one bolted to the shell. Large
machines use sectionalize concaves (staves) which
are wedge-shaped , bolted to the shell.
The head is protected by a manganese steel
mantle which is fastened on the head by means of
nuts.
Gyratory crusher is identified by the dimensions of
the feed opening and the mantle
diameter.(Capacity is roughly proportional to the
diameter of the head ).
 Uncrushable Material or Overloading

Gyratory crushers have a hydraulic mounting.

When overloading occurs , a valve is tripped
which release the fluid , thus dropping the
spindle and allowing the tramp material to pass
out between the head and the shell.
Hydraulic mounting is also used to adjust the set
to compansate for wear on the concaves and
mantle.
 Selectıon of Prımary Crushers
 Gyratory
- Used for high capacity (provided that the chamber can be
kept full since the crusher can work with the head buried in
ore ). The capacity is 3 times more than jaw crusher with
the same gape.
- Installation cost is lower (because it occupies 2/3 the
volume and 2/3 the weight of the jaw of the same capacity).
- Better self-feeding capability.
- Suitable for hard , abrasive material (gives more cubic
particles).
Jaw
- Used where gape is more important than capacity
(maximum diameter material).
- Capital and maintenance cost is slightly less.
- It can be sectionalised (easy to transport and
installation).
- Perform better on clayey , plastic material due to the
greater throw.

 If th-1 <161.7 (gape in metres)2 , use a jaw crusher.

SECONDARY CRUSHERS
Much lighter than primary crushers.
Feed : Usually < 15 cm size ( Product of primary
crusher) Tramp metal , wood , clays have
already been removed.
Operate in dry condition.
Produces a product which is suitable ( in size )
for grinding.
Secondary Crushers :
- Cone Crushers
- Rolls
- Hammer Mills
- Impact Crushers
CONE CRUSHERS

Modified form of gyratory

Difference : Shorter spindle of the cone crusher
is not suspended from a spider , but is supported
in a curved , universal bearing below the head or
cone.
- The crushing shell (bowl) flares outwards by
providing an increasing cross-sectional area
towards the discharge end (Excellent arrested
crusher)
- Head angle in much more than in the gyrator
crusher.
 Cone crusher is rated (identified) by the diameter of the
cone lining.
 Diameter : 559 mm to 3.1 m
 Capacity : Up to 1100 tph
 Product size : 19 mm
- South African Fe- ore plant : Use 3.1 m Symons Cone
Crushers with capacities 3000 tph each.
- The throw of cone crushers can be up to 5
times that of primary crushers ( Ore particles is
subjected to a series of hammer like blows
rather than being compressed).
- Operated at much higher speeds.
- Fast discharge and non-choking characteristics
allow a reduction ratio 7/1, even higher.
- Head is protected by a replaceable mantle.
SYMONS CONE CRUSHER

 Most widely used secondary crusher .

1. Standart (for normal secondary crushing purposes)

2. Short – head (for tertiary duty)

- Difference : Shapes of their crushing chambers.

Standart Cone : Has
stepped liners which
allows a coarser feed
than in short-head.

Product size : 0.5 – 6 cm

 Short – Head Cone : Has
steeper head angle than
standart which prevent
choking (although handling
more finer feed )
 Narrower feed opening
 Longer parallel section
 Product size : 0.3 – 2.0 cm
 Common Feature :
Parallel section between
liners at the discharge to
maintain a close control on
product size.
 Uncrushable material :
In cone crusher , the head is held down by hydraulic
mechanism. These allow the bowl to yield if tramp iron
enters the crushing chamber. Head will be forced down ,
causing hydraulic oil to flow into the accumulator.
 The SET on the crusher can be changed by screwing the
bowl up and down or by adjusting the hydraulic setting.
The springs allow the bowl to rise.
 GYRADISC CRUSHER

A special form of cone crusher used to produce

very fine material. It is different from cone
crusher having very short liners and very flat
angle for the lower liner.
Crushing is by interparticle comminution by the
impact and attrition of a multilayered mass of
particles
The angle of the lower liner is less than the
angle of repose of the ore so that when the liner
is at rest , the material does not slide.
 Gyradisc may be used in open-circuit : Produce sand and
gravel (good cubic shape). Excellent ball mill feed (-19 mm
feed to 3 mm )
 It may also be used in closed-circuit : To produce large
quantities of sand.
 ROLL CRUSHERS
They are suitable to friable , sticky , frozen and
less abrasive feeds such as limestone, coal ,
chalk , gypsum , phosphate and soft iron ores. (
because jaw and gyratory have a tendency to
choke near the discharge when crushing friable
rock).
It consists of 2 cyclinders which revolve towards
each other. The set is determined by shims
which cause the spring loaded roll to be held
back from the solidly mounted roll. The crushing
process is due to one of single pressure.
Roll crushers are also manufactured with only
one or 3 , 4 , 6 cylinders (in case of one
cylinder, it is revolving towards a fixed plate).
In modern rolls , each roll is driven by V-belts
from separate motors.
 DISADVANTAGES :
- For a reasonable reduction ratio , very large rolls are
required in relation to the size of the feed particles.
- They have the highest capital cost of all crushers.
 ADVANTAGES :
- Rolls are characterized by the production of small
proportion of fines than the other crushers (due to the
limited duration of material between rolls).
- Whenever gravity seperation is used as the principal
concentrating method, rolls remain the best device for
intermediate crushing.
 - D : Diameter of roll
- d : Diameter of particle
- s : Distance or set
between rolls
- n : Angle of nip
 Forces acting on the
particle
- N : Normal force
- T : Tangential force
- R : Resultant force
 If R is directed
downward, the particle
will be nipped and
crushed.
Equating the vertical components of N and T :
n
Ny  N  sin
2
n
Ty  T  cos
2
When Ny  Ty
n n
N  sin  T  cos
2 2
n
sin
T n
 2  tan   (coefficient of friction)
N cos n 2
2
Coefficient of friction () decreases with speed
which depends on angle of nip.
For larger nip angle (coarse feed)--- Slower
peripheral speed.
For small nip angle (finer feed) --- Peripheral
speed is high.
 Let’s express the nip angle interms of D, d, s :

D s

n 2 2 Ds
cos  
2 D

d Dd
2 2

n Ds
cos 
2 Dd
 EXAMPLE
 If the coefficient of friction between rock and steel is 0.4 ,
what is the minimum diameter of roll to reduce 1.5 inches
piece of rock to 0.5 inches ?
n
tan    0.4
2
n
 2148'
2
n
cos  0.9285
2
n Ds D  0.5
cos    0.9285
2 Dd D  1.5

D  12.5 inches 131

 Maximum size of rock if  = 0.3

Roll Diameter Max. size of rock

9 inch 0.36 inch
12 inch 0.48 inch
18 inch 0.72 inch
30 inch 1.20 inch
42 inch 1.68 inch
48 inch 1.92 inch
54 inch 2.16 inch
IMPORTANT : Unless very large diameter rolls
are used , the angle of nip limits the Rr of the
crusher.(Rr > 4 are rarely used)

Smooth- surfaced rolls are usually used for fine

crushing , Coarse crushing is often performed in
rolls having corrugated surfaces.Their crushing
action is a combination of compression and
ripping (dig into the rock).Main application is in
the coarse crushing of soft or sticky iron ores ,
friable limestone or coal.Rolls of 1 m diameter is
being used to crush top size feed 400 mm.
 Wear on the rolls surfaces is very high and Mn-steel tyre
can be replaced when worn.
 The feed should be spread uniformly over the width.
 The feed should be send in “starvation” amount to
prevent choking.
 The theoretical capacity of the rolls :

188.5 N D W  s ......kg/h

 N : Speed of rolls , (rpm)

D : Roll diameter , (m)
W : Roll width , (m)
 : Specific gravity of feed , (kg/m3)
s : Distance between the rolls , (m)
 Actual capacity is  25 % of the theoretical.
 IMPACT CRUSHERS

 Comminution is by impact rather than compression.

Sharp blows due to moving beaters are applied at high
speed to free falling rock.
 Internal stresses created in the particles cause them to
shatter.These forces are increased by putting a breaker
plate (Internal stresses can cause immediate fracture
with no residual stresses while breakage by compression
cause later cracking).
Stress – free fracturing is particularly valuable in
stone used for brick – making, building and road
making. (wider use in quarrying industry)
The feed entering from the top is immediately
struck by the ribs , rigidly mounted on the fast
turning rotor-core , and is hurled more or less
tangentially against the steel plates of the casing
(breaker plates)
Breakage of particles occurs preferably at
inherent zones of weakness , therefore , elective
crushing occurs. They are suitable to plastic and
pack ores.
Large impact crushers will be reduce 1.5 m top
size r.o.m ore to 20 cm at capacities of around
1500 tph , although crushers with capacities of
3000 tph have been manufactured.
Since they depend on high velocities , the wear
is greater than for jaw and gyratory crusher.
Impact crushers should not be used on ores
containing over 15 % silica.
They are good choice when high Rr is required
(can be as high as 40:1) and high percentage of
fines, and the ore is relatively non-abrasive.
HAMMER MILL

Swing hammers are pivoted so that they exert

less force than they would if rigidly attached
(impact crusher) so they tend to be used for
crushing soft material. The swing hammers align
radially by centrifugal force.
The exit from the mill is perforated , so that
material which is not broken to the required size
is retained for further impacting.
Size reduction is due to the severity of the
impact with hammers and to the subsequent
impact with the casing or grid.
Since the particles are given very high velocities,
much of the size reduction is by attrition , and
this leads production of higher proportion of
fines
The speed of rotor varies between 500 – 3000
rpm.
In case of a moisture content >12 % H2O, the
crusher may be equipped with heated breaker
plates.
The hammers are reversible and replacable to
even out wear.
ROTARY COAL BREAKERS

Where large tonnages of coal are treated , rotary

breaker is often used.
It is similar to the trommel screen , consisting of
a cylinder of 1.8 – 3.6 m in diameter and the
length 2.5 times the diameter , revolving speed
of about 12-18 rpm.
The cylinder has a perforated surface. The size
of the perforations being the size to which the
coal is to be broken.
Capacity of the breaker is up to 1500 tph in the
larger machines.
 The machine utilises differential breakage, the coal being
much friable than the associated stones and shales.
 The small particles of coal and shale quickly fall through
the holes , while the larger lumps are retained , and are
lifted by longitudinal lifters within the cylinder and fall to
the bottom of the cylinder , breaking by their own impact
and pass through the holes. Large pieces of shale and
stone do not break as easily and discharged from the
end of the breaker (thus cleans the coal to a certain
degree).
 Although the rotary breaker is an expensive piece of
equipment , maintenance costs are relatively low and it
produces positive control of the top size of product.
Fun Fact
Communication: Language of Traffic!!!

(Reading Assignment Pp:90 -107)

Chapter 4, Particle Size Analysis