COMPUTER NETWORKING

BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
 THE ADVANTAGES/USES OF NETWORK
Simultaneous Access
There are moments in any business when several workers may
need to use the same data at the same time.
Shared Peripheral Devices

Personal Communications
Videoconferencing
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP):-VoIP transmits the sound
of voice over a computer network using the Internet Protocol
(IP ) rather than sending the signal over traditional phone wires
Easier Data Backup
 REPEATERS

A repeater is a network device used to

regenerate a signal.

Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals

that are distorted by transmission loss due to
attenuation.

A repeater does not make an intelligent

decision concerning forwarding packets
 HUBS
Hubs concentrate on connections.

In other words, they take a group of

hosts and allow the network to see
them as a single unit. This is done
passively, without any other effect on
the data transmission.

Active hubs concentrate hosts and also

regenerate signals.
 BRIDGES

Bridges convert network data

formats and perform basic data
transmission management.

Bridges provide connections

between LANs.

They also check data to determine

if it should cross the bridge. This
makes each part of the network
more efficient
WHAT IS A BRIDGE?

• In the physical world, a bridge connects roads on separate sides of a river or

railroad tracks. In the technical world, bridges connect two physical network
segments.
• Each network bridge keeps track of the MAC addresses on the network
attached to each of its interfaces.
• When network traffic arrives at the bridge and its target address is local to
that side of the bridge, the bridge filters that Ethernet frame, so it stays on the
local side of the bridge only.
• If the bridge is unable to find the target address on the side that received the
traffic, it forwards the frame across the bridge, hoping the destination will be
on the other network segment.
• At times, there are multiple bridges to cross to get to the destination system.
 SWITCHES
Switches add more intelligence to data transfer management.
They can determine if data should remain on a LAN and transfer
data only to the connection that needs it.
Another difference between a bridge and switch is that a switch
does not convert data transmission formats
 ROUTERS
Routers have all the capabilities listed
above.

Routers can regenerate signals,

concentrate multiple connections,
convert data transmission formats, and
manage data transfers.

They can also connect to a WAN, which

allows them to connect LANs that are
separated by great distances.
 GATEWAY
A gateway is a piece of networking
hardware used in
telecommunications for
telecommunications networks that
allows data to flow from one discrete
network to another.

Gateways are distinct from routers

or switches in that they
communicate using more than one
protocol to connect a bunch of
networks
 8. FIREWALL
A firewall is a network device or
software for controlling network
security and access rules.
Firewalls are inserted in connections
between secure internal networks and
potentially insecure external networks
such as the Internet.
Firewalls are typically configured to
reject access requests from
unrecognized sources while allowing
actions from recognized ones.
The vital role firewalls play in network
security grows in parallel with the
constant increase in cyber attacks.
 NETWORK MEDIA
The function of the media is to carry a flow of information through a LAN.

．
A Wired Media:- uses copper and fiber media in local area network (LAN)
technology are collectively known as Ethernet

1. Copper Cable
．
a Coaxial Cables
．
b Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)
．
c Unshielded Twisted Pair

2. Fibre Optic Cable

B ．Wireless Media:- use the atmosphere, or space, as the medium.

 1. COPPER CABLE
The most common, easiest, quickest,
and cheapest form of network media to
install.

The disadvantage of sending data over

copper wire is that the further the signal
travels, the weaker it becomes.
 A. COAXIAL CABLE
It can be run longer distances than Twisted pair Cables.

• Speed: 10-100Mbps
• Cost: Inexpensive
• Media and connector size: Medium
• Maximum cable length: 500m
B. SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR(STP)
• Speed: 0-100Mbps
• Cost: Moderate
• Media and connector size: Medium to large
• Maximum cable length: 100m
C. UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
UTP is a four-pair wire Speed: 10-100-1000 Mbps*
medium used in a variety of Cost: Least Expensive
networks. Media and connector size: Small
Each of the eight copper Maximum cable length: 100m * (Depending
wires in the UTP cable is on the quality/category of cable)
covered by insulating material
 FIBER OPTIC CABLE
Glass fiber carrying light pulses, each
pulse a bit.

Based on the Total Internal Reflection

of Light.

High-speed point-to-point transmission

10-100’ s Gbps

Low error rate:

repeaters spaced far apart
immune to electromagnetic noise
 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
Internet Protocol Suite
Also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking.
It defines the addressing, identification, and routing
specifications for IPv4 and for IPv6.
It is the defining set of protocols for the Internet.
IEEE 802
It is a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks
and metropolitan area networks.
They operate mostly at levels 1 and 2 of the OSI model.
Ethernet
It is a family of protocols used in wired LANs, described by a set
of standards together called IEEE 802.3
 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
Wireless LAN
It is standardized by IEEE 802.11 and shares many properties with wired
Ethernet.

SONET/SDH
Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer
multiple digital bit streams over optical Fibre using lasers.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode(ATM)

It uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing and encodes data into
small, fixed-sized cells.
Good choice for a network that handle both traditional high-throughput
data traffic, and real-time, low-latency content such as voice and video.
 TYPES OF NETWORKS
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
6. Storage-Area Network (SAN)
7. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
8. Client Server Network
9. Peer to Peer Network (P2P)
 1. PERSONAL AREA NETWORK
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) is a
computer network used for data
transmission amongst devices
such as computers, telephones,
tablets and personal digital
assistants.
2. Also Known as HAN (Home Area
Network)
3. PANs can be used for
communication amongst the
personal devices themselves
(interpersonal communication), or
for connecting to a higher level
network and the Internet (an uplink)
where one "master" device takes up
the role as internet router.
 2. LOCAL AREA NETWORK
Xerox Corporation worked in
collaboration with DEC and Intel
to create Ethernet, which is the
most pervasive LAN
architecture used today.
Ethernet has evolved and has
seen significant improvements
in regard to speed and
efficiency.

An upside of a LAN is fast data transfer with data speed that can reach up
to 10Gbps.
Other significant LAN technologies are Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI) and token ring.
 3. CAMPUS AREA NETWORK

Larger than LANs, but smaller

than metropolitan area networks
these types of networks are
typically seen in universities, large
K-12 school districts or small
businesses.

They can be spread across

several buildings that are fairly
close to each other so users can
share resources
 4. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

1. A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than or equal in size to a WAN.
2. The size range anywhere from 5 to 50km in diameter.
3. MANs are typically owned and managed by a single entity.
4. This could be an ISP or telecommunications company that sells its services
to end-users in that metropolitan area.
5. For all intents and purposes, a MAN has the same characteristics as a WAN
with distance constraints.
 5. WIDE AREA NETWORK

• A Wide Area Network exist over a large area

• Data travels through telephone or cable lines
• Usually requires a Modem
• The world’s largest Wide Area Network in the Internet
 6. STORAGE AREA NETWORK
SAN may be referred to as a Sub network or special purpose network.
Its special purpose is to allow users on a larger network to connect
various data storage devices with clusters of data servers.
SANs can be accessed in the same fashion as a drive attached to a server.
 7. VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK
VPN is a private network that can
access public networks remotely. VPN
uses encryption and security protocols
to retain privacy while it accesses
outside resources.
When employed on a network, VPN
enables an end user to create a virtual
tunnel to a remote location. Typically,
telecommuters use VPN to log in to
their company networks from home.

is provided to validate the identities of the two peers.

provides encryption of the data to keep it private from prying
eyes.
is used to ensure that the data sent between the two devices or
sites has not been tampered with.
 8. CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK
In a client/server arrangement,
network services are located on a
dedicated computer called a server.
The server responds to the requests
of clients.
The server is a central computer that
is continuously available to respond
to requests from clients for file, print,
application, and other services.
Most network operating systems adopt the form of a client/server
relationship.
Typically, desktop computers function as clients, and one or more
computers with additional processing power, memory, and specialized
software function as servers.
 9. PEER TO PEER NETWORK

Usually very small networks

Each workstation has equivalent capabilities and responsibilities
Does not require a switch or a hub.
These types of networks do not perform well under heavy data loads.
 MAC ADDRESS
• MAC Addresses are
unique 48-bits hardware number of a
computer, which is embedded into
the Network Interface Card during the
time of manufacturing.

• MAC Address is also known as Physical

Address of a network device.

• MAC address is represented by CC:46:D6 - Cisco

3C:5A:B4 - Google, Inc.
Colon-Hexadecimal notation. 3C:D9:2B - Hewlett Packard
00:9A:CD – HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD
 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Network topology defines the structure of the network.
A ．Physical topology:- It define the actual layout of the wire or media.
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Tree(Hierarchical)
5. Mesh
B． Logical topology:- It defines how the hosts access the media to send data.
1. Broadcast
2. Token passing
C． Hybrid Topology
 1. BUS TOPOLOGY
All devices are connected to a central
cable, called bus or backbone. T T
There are terminators at each end of the
bus that stops the signal and keeps it
from traveling backwards.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. There is no central controller. 1. It is possible that more than one station may
attempt transmission simultaneously (collision or
2. Control resides in each station
contention).
3. The less interconnecting wire is
2. Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.
required.
3. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all
4. Ease of installation.
transmission, even between devices on the same
5. Backbone cable can be laid along the side of the problem.
most efficient path, and then
4. The damaged area reflects signals in the direction
connected to the nodes by drop lines
of origin, creating noise in both directions
of various lengths
 2. RING TOPOLOGY
• All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a
closed loop.
• Each device is connected directly to two other devices, one
on either side of it.
Advantages:
1. Avoids the collisions that are possible in the bus topology.
2. Each pair of stations has a point-to-point connection.
3. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
another, until it reaches its destination.
4. Each device incorporates a repeater.
5. Relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
6. Fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantages:
1. A break in the ring (such as station disabled) can disable the entire
network.
2. Unidirectional traffic.
RING
 3. STAR TOPOLOGY
• All devices are connected to a central hub.
• Nodes communicate across the network by passing data
through the hub or switch.
Advantages:
1. Easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Robustness, if one link fails; only that link is affected. All other links
remain active.
3. Easy fault identification and isolation. As long as the hub is working, it
can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.
Disadvantages:
1. The devices are not linked to each other.
2. If one device wants to send data to another, it sends it to the controller,
which then relays the data to the other connected device.
 4. TREE/HIERARCHICAL TOPOLOGY
Advantages:
1. It allows more devices to be attached to a
single central hub and can therefore increase
the distance a signal can travel between
devices.
2. It allows the network to isolate and prioritize
communications from different computers.

Disadvantages:
1. The devices are not linked to each other.
2. If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends it to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device.
 6. MESH TOPOLOGY
Each host has its connections to all other hosts.
Mesh topology is implemented to provide as much
protection as possible from interruption of service.
1. A nuclear power plant might use a mesh
topology in the networked control systems.
2. Although the Internet has multiple paths to any
one location, it does not adopt the full mesh
topology.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each 1. A large amount of cabling required.
connection can carry its data load, thus eliminating 2. A large amount of I/O ports required.
the traffic problems that can occur when links must 3. Installation and reconfiguration are
be shared by multiple devices. difficult.
2. It is robust, if one link becomes unusable, it does 4. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater
not incapacitate (affect) the entire system. than the available space (in the walls, ceiling,
3. Privacy and Security (every message sent travels or floors) can accommodate.
along a dedicated line; only the intended recipient 5. The hardware required to connect each
sees it). link (I/O ports and cables) can be
4. Point-to-point links make fault identification and prohibitively expensive.
fault isolation easy.
 MESH
1. The nodes are connected to every other completely via a dedicated link
during which information is travel from nodes to nodes and there are
N(N-1)/2 links in mesh if there are N nodes.
2. Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1.
Ex: there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of
ports required by each device is 4.
3. Total number of ports required=N*(N-1).
4. Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them
is NC2 , N(N-1)/2.
Ex: there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of
links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
 WIRELESS NETWORKS
Wireless network is a type of
computer network that uses
wireless data connections for
connecting network nodes.
Example
Bluetooth
Wi-Fi
 BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth is a short-range
wireless technology standard
used for exchanging data
between fixed and mobile
devices over short distances.
It is using UHF radio waves in
the ISM bands, from 2.402 GHz
to 2.48 GHz.
The IEEE standardized
Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but
no longer maintains the
standard.
 WI-FI
Wi-Fi Stands for Wireless Fidelity.
W i-Fi, is a Local Area Wireless
technology.
Wi-Fi networks use radio technologies to
transmit and receive data at high speed.
It is based on the IEEE 802.11 family of
standards.
Access point: The access point is a
wireless LAN transceiver or “ base station”
that can connect one or many wireless
devices simultaneously to the internet
 THE INTERNET
How Information Travel Through the Internet
A page on the Internet—whether it's full of words, images or both—
doesn't come to you in one shipment. It's translated into digital
information, chopped into 1500 byte pieces called PACKETS, and
sent to you like a puzzle that needs to be reassembled. Each part
of the packet has a specific function:

Sequence ID
ID’s where the information
Header
belongs in relation to the rest of
Provides the
the information
complete
destination
address for the End of Message
packet ID’s the end of the
packet

Data Block
The portion of the overall information
carried by the packet
 THE INTERNET
How Information Travel Through the Internet
When you connect to a Web site through an ISP and start exchanging information, there isn't
a fixed connection between your computer and the Web server computer hosting the Web
site. Instead, information is exchanged using the best possible path at that particular time.
Special computers called routers determine these paths, avoiding slow links and favoring
fast ones.

Your Web Servers

Computer ISP
Routers
 CLOUD COMPUTING
Cloud computing is Inter net-based
computing, whereby shar ed r esour ces,
softwar e, and infor mation are provided to
computers and other devices on demand, like
the electricity grid.
A Cloud is a type of par allel and distr ibuted
system consisting of a collection of
interconnected and vir tualized computer s
that are dynamically pr ovisioned and
presented as one or more unified computing
r esources based on ser vice-level agr eements
established through negotiation between the
service provider and consumers.