AHMEDNAGAR JILHA MARATHA VIDYA PRASARAK SAMAJ’S

NEW LAW COLLEGE, AHMEDNAGAR

B.A.LL.B I (CEO101)
GENERAL ENGLISH (80 MARKS)
SEM-I

GENERAL ENGLISH
Objectives of the Course the purpose of the course is to acquaint the
students with the nature of English language and its grammatical concepts.
This paper focuses on strengthening the students' syntactical competence
so as to bring quality and correct grammatical constructions in their writing
and it is also meant to train them on how to study for various purposes.

SYLLABUS/INDEX
Mod. Sub. Topics Page No.
No. No
I. Language and Grammar 3
1. Defining Language
2. Nature of Language
3. Syntactical Competence (Introductory)
4. Grammar and Usage
a. Sentence Structure- Subject and
Predicate
b. Concord
c. Tenses
d. Use of Articles
e. Accurate Use of Prepositions
f. Making Questions (Why- and yes-no
questions and question tags)
g. Use of Modal Auxiliary Verbs
(making requests, suggestions,
seeking permission etc.)
h. Some Common Errors
II. Sentence Transformation 35
1. Active and Passive Voice

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 2. Types of Sentences (Statements,
interrogative, exclamatory and imperative)
3. Simple, Complex and Compound Sentences
4. Reported Speech
5. Syntactic Ambiguity
III Vocabulary Skills 57
1. Idioms and Phrases
2. One Word Substitution

IV Communication Skills 78
1. Communication - Verbal, Non-verbal and
Written
2. Significance of Communication Skills for
Lawyers- Listening, Speaking, Reading and
Writing (Introductory)
3. Electronic Communication and its Types
(Telephone, Facsimile, E-mail, Voice mail,
Teleconferencing, Video-conferencing,
Word processor, Internet, Social Media)
4. Formal Correspondence
5. Resume Writing
V Study Skills for Law Students 94
1. SQ3R (Survey Question Read Recite and
Review)
2. Reading - Types- intensive and extensive;
techniques- scanning, skimming and critical
3. Note making
4. Writing [Correct grammar, spelling,
punctuation and clarity)
5. Paragraph Writing

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 1. LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR
Important Topics in this chapter are:

1. Define Language
2. Nature of Language
3. Syntactical Competence [Introductory]
4 Grammar and Usage -
Sentence Structure- Subject and Predicate
Concord
Tenses
Use of Articles
Accurate Use of Prepositions
Making Questions (Why- and yes-no questions and question
tags)
Use of Modal Auxiliary Verbs (making requests, suggestions,
seeking permission etc.)
Some Common Errors

Defining Language

Some definition of Language is as follows:

1. Oxford English Dictionary defines language as "Words and the
methods of combining them for the expression of thoughts"
2. According to Alien, "Language is a mean of communicative
thoughts."
3. According to Bolinger, "Language is species specific."
4. According to H.A. Gleason, "Language is one of the most
important and characteristic forms of human behaviour."
5. According to Ben Jonson, "Language most shows a man, speak
that I may see thee."
6. Leonard Bloomfield says, "Each community is formed by the
activity of language."

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Explanation:
Many definitions of language have been proposed. Henry Sweet, an
English phonetician and language scholar, stated: "Language is the
expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words.
Words are combined into sentences, this combination answering to that of
ideas into thoughts."
The American linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager formulated
the following definition: "A language is a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols by means of which a social group cooperates." Any succinct
definition of language makes a number of presuppositions and begs a
number of questions. The first, for example, puts excessive weight on
"thought," and the second uses "arbitrary" in a specialized, though
legitimate, way.
A number of considerations (marked in italics below] enter into a proper
understanding of language as a subject:
Every physiologically and mentally typical person acquires in childhood
the ability to make use, as both sender and receiver, of a system of
communication that comprises a circumscribed set of symbols (e.g.,
sounds, gestures, or written or typed characters).
In spoken language, this symbol setconsists of noises resulting from
movements of certain organs within the throat and mouth. In signed
languages, these symbols may be hand or body movements, gestures, or
facial expressions. By means of these symbols, people are able to impart
information, to express feelings and emotions, to influence the activities of
others, and to comport themselves with varying degrees of friendliness or
hostility toward persons who make use of substantially the same set of
symbols.
Different systems of communication constitute different languages; the
degree of difference needed to establish a different language cannot be
stated exactly. No two people speak exactly alike; hence, one is able to
recognize the voices of friends over the telephone and to keep distinct a
number of unseen speakers in a radio broadcast. Yet, clearly, no one would
say that they speak different languages.
Generally, systems of communication are recognized as different
languages if they cannot be understood without specific learning by both
parties, though the precise limits of mutual intelligibility are hard to draw
and belong on a scale rather than on either side of a definite dividing line.
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Substantially different systems of communication that may impede but do
not prevent mutual comprehension are called dialects of a language. In
order to describe in detail the actual different language patterns of
individuals, the term idiolect, meaning the habits of expression of a single
person, has been coined.
Typically, people acquire a single language initially—their first language,
or native tongue, the language used by those with whom, or by whom, they
are brought up from infancy. Subsequent "second" languages are learned
to different degrees of competence under various conditions. Complete
mastery of two languages is designated as bilingualism; in many cases—
such as upbringing by parents using different languages at home or being
raised within a multilingual community—children grow up as bilinguals.
in traditionally monolingual cultures, the learning, to any extent, of a
second or other language is an activity superimposed on the prior mastery
of one's first language and is a different process intellectually.
Language, as described above, is species-specific to human beings.
Other members of the animal kingdom have the ability to communicate,
through vocal noises or by other means, but the most important single
feature characterizing human language [that is, every individual language),
against every known mode of animal communication, is its infinite
productivity and creativity. Human beings are unrestricted in what they can
communicate; no area of experience is accepted as necessarily
incommunicable, though it may be necessary to adapt one's language in
order to cope with new discoveries or new modes of thought.
Animal communication systems are by contrast very tightly circumscribed
in what may be communicated. Indeed, displaced reference, the ability to
communicate about things outside immediate temporal and spatial
contiguity, which is fundamental to speech, is found elsewhere only in the
so-called language of bees. Bees are able, by carrying out various
conventionalized movements (referred to as bee dances) in or near the hive,
to indicate to others the locations and strengths of food sources. But food
sources are the only known theme of this communication system.
Surprisingly, however, this system, nearest to human language in function,
belongs to a species remote from humanity in the animal kingdom.
On the other hand, the animal performance superficially most like human
speech, the mimicry of parrots and of some other birds that have been kept
in the company of humans, is wholly derivative and serves no independent
communicative function. Humankind's nearest relatives among the

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primates, though possessing a vocal physiology similar to that of humans,
have not developed anything like a spoken language. Attempts to teach
sign language to chimpanzees and other apes through imitation have
achieved limited success, though the interpretation of the significance of
ape signing ability remains controversial.
However, sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic studies have drawn
attention to a range of other functions for language. Among these is the use
of language to express a national or local identity (a common source of
conflict in situations of multiethnicity around the world, such as in
Belgium, India, and Quebec). Also important are the "ludic" (playful)
function of language—encountered in such phenomena as puns, riddles,
and crossword puzzles—and the range of functions seen in imaginative or
symbolic contexts, such as poetry, drama, and religious expression.
In most accounts, the primary purpose of language is to facilitate
communication, in the sense of transmission of information from one
person to another.
Language interacts with every aspect of human life in society, and it can
be understood only if it is considered in relation to society. This article
attempts to survey language in this light and to consider its various
functions and the purposes it can and has been made to serve. Because each
language is both a working system of communication in the period and in
the community wherein it is used and also the product of its history and the
source of its future development, any account of language must consider it
from both these points of view.
The science of language is known as linguistics. It includes what
are generally distinguished as descriptive linguistics and historical
linguistics. Linguistics is now a highly technical subject; it embraces, both
descriptively and historically, such major divisions as phonetics, grammar
(including syntax and morphology), semantics, and pragmatics, dealing in
detail with these various aspects of language.

Nature of Language

Language is the most important phenomenon in the world. From birth to

death, all our activities are regulated by language. The human knowledge
and culture is stored and transmitted in language.

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Thinking is only possible through language. In our dreams, we make use
of language. Language dominates every aspect of human life. In fact, it is
a yardstick to separate us from other beings. Language is a mean of
communication. With the help of language, we can express our thoughts
and feelings to others. Without language, society would be impossible.
1. Language is learnt: Learning of language is not an automatic
process. Of course, it is a behaviour but it is not type of behaviour
like walking and crawling that comes to child in natural way.
Language by imitation and practice. Language is not possible
without effort.

2. Language is related to the culture of society: Every language is

related to culture of society to which it belongs. The culture of the
people naturally influences the language. Every language is the
product of society. We cannot separate language from the culture in
which that language exists. It has meaning only in relation to that
society and culture.

3. Language is species specific: Language is species specific. Only

human beings have got the gift of language. Of course, the other
species do communicate but only human beings can make use of
language.

4. Language is species uniformed: Language is species uniformed.

All human children are capable of acquiring any language natively
if they are provided the right kind of environment.
5. Language is a system: Each language is a unique system. The
system of language consists of sounds, structures and vocabulary. A
person who wants to learn a new language will have to learn new
sounds, new structures and new vocabulary. The sound system of
language differs from language to language depending upon the
culture to which a language belongs. Each language has its own
system of vocabulary. Thus each language is systematic.

6. Language is a system of systems: Each language is a system of

systems. There are phonological and grammatical systems in all
languages. There are several sub systems with in a language. The
phonology of a language forms its own system as the various sounds
function in a systematic way.

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7. Language is a system of symbols: Each language works through
symbols. Different words used in a language are the symbols. They
stand for certain things. The language will function well if its
symbols are known both to the speaker and the person for whom
they are being used.

For example the world cup has three sounds (K, JI, P) It is a symbol
of English because a meaning is attached to it. But if we take the
same three sounds like, K, JI, P they do form Puc, but that is not a
symbol of English language as no meaning is attached to it.

8. Symbols of language are vocal: Different symbols are used in a

single language. These symbols are vocal. A language system does
not exist in a vacuum. It is primary used in speech. Only speech
provides all essential signals of a language. There are other kinds of
symbols which cannot be called vocal symbols.

For example, gestures and signal flags are visual symbols and
ringing of the bells and beating of a drum are auditory symbols. They
do not form any language. In language the sounds are produced
through vocal organs. Reading and writing are no doubt important.
But speech is the basic form of language. A language without speech
is unthinkable.
9. Language is a skill subject: Learning of a language is a skill
subject. It is skill like swimming and cycling. We can not learn
swimming or cycling just by studying rules. We can learn it by
practice. In the same way, we can learn a language y constant
practice of that language. So a lot of repetition for major linguistic
skills like listening, speaking, reading and writing is required.

10.Language is for communication: Language is the best means of

communication and self-expressions. Human beings express their
ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions through language. In this way
language is a means to connect past present and future.

11.Governed by a particular set of rules: Each language is governed

by a particular set or rules. For example English is S.V.O. language.
In forming sentence, we put subject, then verb and after verb we put
object.
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Concept of Syntactical Competence (Introductory)

The concept of Syntactical Competence is as explained below:

The goal of semantics is to properly characterize semantic competence.
What is semantic competence? To see the answer to this question, let us
consider what syntactic competence consists of.
It consists of the ability to judge which strings of words form grammatical
sentences. Similarly, semantic competence consists of the ability to
determine the meaning of a particular string of words. Since a particular
string of words may correspond to more than one syntactic structure, we
can take semantic competence to consist of the ability to determine the
meaning of a particular syntactic structure.
This ability also consists of the ability to determine the relationships
between the meanings of distinct syntactic structure. These relationships
include entailment, equivalence, and contradiction. It is not clear exactly
what kind of objects meanings are.
We will treat them as mathematical objects that provide us information
about the world. In particular, we will use the truth conditions of a sentence
to reason about its meaning. To make clear the notion of semantic
competence, let us construct a thought experiment: suppose a Martian
visits earth and develops syntactic competence.
What does the Martian need to know in order to be semantically competent
The Martian needs to know what individual words mean. But this is not
enough (We know that just knowing the meaning of the words in a sentence
is not the same as knowing its meaning)
(1) a. Jim saw Bill/Bill saw Jim. b. Gina saw the girl with a telescope. The
words Jim, saw, Bill can be combined in at least two ways as in
(la). These two orders have distinct meanings. So in addition to knowing
the meaning of the words, the Martian must also be aware of the role played
by order. That order is not quite the primitive notion that is relevant is
revealed by the ambiguity of (1b), where the same order (but two distinct
structures) corresponds to two distinct meanings. The two distinct syntactic
structures available for

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(1b) lead to distinct meanings. So the Martian also needs to be aware of the
role played by syntactic structure in the construction of meaning. To sum
up, semantic competence consists of:
(i) Knowledge of the meaning of individual lexical items
(ii) Knowledge of how the syntactic structure guides the construction of
sentence (and phrase-level) meaning from the meanings of individual
lexical items, and of the operations by which meaning is constructed. Both
(i) and (ii) are finite i.e. any language has only a finite number of lexical
items, and the number of rules that guide the construction of meaning is
also finite. However, the nature of the knowledge in (ii) is such that it
allows us to compute the meaning of an infinite number of arbitrarily
complex syntactic structures.
Our goal in this class will be to formally and explicitly characterize what
semantic competence consists of. We will find that we will go back and
forth between (i) and (ii). Cases where we have clear intuitions about word
meaning (i.e. i) as well as sentence meaning will provide us evidence about
the nature of the combinatorial rules (i.e. ii).
Then once we have some confidence in our combinatorial rules, we can
use them and our intuitions about sentence meaning to deduce the meaning
of lexical items like a, no, every. We will be adopting the principle
articulated by
David Lewis that meaning is what meaning does. Note that in both
directions we make appeal to our intuitions about sentence meaning. These
intuitions concern relations of implication, ambiguity, synonymy,
contradiction, anomaly, and appropriateness.
They are the raw material of semantics.
The goal of semantic theory is to build a theory that can explain why we
have these intuitions. Like any theory, it will be based on the basic data of
the theory - semantic intuitions. Further, if our theory is any good it must
have predictive power i.e. given novel syntactic structures, our theory
should be able to predict their meaning i.e. their truth conditions and their
semantic relationships with other structures. Quoting from Davidson
(1984):
The theory reveals nothing about the conditions under which an individual
sentence is true; it does not make those conditions any clear than the
sentence itself does. The work of the theory is in relating the known truth

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conditions of each sentence to those aspects ("words") of the sentence that
recur in other sentences, and can be assigned identical roles in other
sentences. Empirical power in such a theory depends on success in
recovering the structure of a very complicated ability - the ability to speak
and understand a language.

Importance of Grammar and Usage for the following:

a. Sentence Structure- Subject and Predicate
b. Concord
c. Tenses
d. Use of Articles
e. Accurate Use of Prepositions
f. Making Questions (Why- and yes-no questions and question tags)
g. Use of Modal Auxiliary Verbs (making requests, suggestions,
seeking permission etc.)
h. Some Common Errors

Importance of Grammar and Usage is as explained below:

a. Sentence Structure
Every word in a sentence serves a specific purpose within the structure of
that particular sentence. According to rules of grammar, sentence structure
can sometimes be quite complicated. For the sake of simplicity, however,
the basic parts of a sentence are discussed here.
Subject and Predicate
The two most basic parts of a sentence are the subject and predicate.

SUBJECT
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, or thing that is performing
the action of the sentence. The subject represents what or whom the
sentence is about. The simple subject usually contains a noun or pronoun
and can include modifying words, phrases, or clauses.

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The man...
PREDICATE
The predicate expresses action or being within the sentence. The simple
predicate contains the verb and can also contain modifying words, phrases,
or clauses.
The man / builds a house.
The subject and predicate make up the two basic structural parts of any
complete sentence. In addition, there are other elements, contained within
the subject or predicate, that add meaning or detail. These elements include
the direct object, indirect object, and subject complement. All of these
elements can be expanded and further combined into simple, compound,
complex, or compound/complex sentences.
DIRECT OBJECT
The direct object receives the action of the sentence. The direct object is
usually a noun or pronoun.

The man builds a house.

The man builds it.

INDIRECT OBJECT
The indirect object indicates to whom or for whom the action of the
sentence is being done. The indirect object is usually a noun or
pronoun.
The man builds his family a house.
The man builds them a house.
[
SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
A subject complement either renames or describes the subject, and
therefore is usually a noun, pronoun, or adjective. Subject complements
occur when there is a linking verb within the sentence (often a linking verb
is a form of the verb to be).
The man is a good father. [Father = noun which renames the subject]
The man seems kind. [Kind = adjective which describes the subject]

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Note: As an example of the difference between parts of speech and parts
of a sentence, a noun can function within a sentence as subject, direct
object, indirect object, object of a preposition, or subject complement.
Parts of speech have specific tasks to perform when they are put together
in a sentence.
A noun or pronoun functions as the sentence subject when it is paired with
a verb functioning as the sentence predicate.
Every sentence has a subject and predicate.
A subject can be a noun or pronoun that is partnered with an action verb.
Example:

Subject verb

Philanthropists donated millions to charity.

The action of this sentence is expressed by the verb - donated.
The noun philanthropists DOING the action of donating.
Therefore, philanthropists is the the subject of the sentence.

Sometimes a verb will express being or existence instead of action.

Example:
Subject verb

Good friends are loyal people.

The verb in this sentence-are- does not express action.

Instead, it expresses being or existence - tells us that something is alive.
The noun friends is DOING the existing or being.
Therefore, friends is he subject of the sentence.

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Sometimes we use sentences in which a subject is not actually
stated, but is, nevertheless, understood in the meaning.

Example:

Call the plumber, please.

A sentence like this gives an order or a request to someone.

Subject verb

(You) call the plumber, please.

You is the DOER of the action verb - call.

Therefore, you is the subject of the sentence.

Because we use such statements when we are talking directly to someone,

we omit the word you. It is understood in the sentence. Therefore, in
statements like this one, we say the subject is
You (understood).
This kind of sentence is an imperative sentence.
A predicate is a verb that expresses the subject's action or state of being.
Example:

Subject predicate

Philanthropists donated millions to charity.

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Sometimes the predicate will be composed of two or three verbs that fit
together -the main verb preceded by one or more auxiliary (helping)
verbs.

Subject predicate

philanthropists donated

Subject predicate

philanthropists have donated

Subject predicate

philanthropists will be donating

IMPORTANT NOTE: To be a predicate, a verb that ends in -ing must

ALWAYS have a helping verb with it. An -ing verb WITHOUT a helping
verb cannot be a predicate in a sentence.
A subject and predicate may not always appear together or in the normal
order, as the following examples show:

Subject predicate

The dog on the hillside howled at the moon.

Prepositional phrase

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 Subject predicate

The dog has often howled at the moon.

adverb

predicate

Has the dog howled at the moon lately?

subject

b. Concord:
When we use the word 'concord' in everyday speech, it means 'agreement
or harmony between people or groups' (Oxford Dictionary). When we use
the word in the context of grammar, it has a similar meaning: grammatical
agreement between two parts of a sentence. An important language skill to
master is subject-verb concord.
The basics of concord
Subject-verb concord is when the subject of a sentence and the verb of a
sentence agree. Simply, if the subject of the sentence is singular, the verb
must be singular. If the subject of a sentence is plural, the verb must be
plural. Look at these examples:
1. The pages (subject) is (verb) held together by a staple.
2. The pages (subject) are (verb) held together by a staple.
Number 2 is correct, because the subject, 'pages', and the verb, 'are', are
both plural. They agree. It's easy, yes? Let's gear up and try something
more difficult.
A phrase in between the subject and the verb
Look at these examples:

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 3. The message between the lines is that we need to finish
before Monday.
4. The message between the lines are that we need to finish before
Monday.
The temptation here is to look at the word in front of the verb (the plural
'lines') and choose the verb that agrees with it (the plural 'are'). This is
wrong. The subject of the sentence is not 'lines'. It's 'message'. So,
because the subject, 'message', is singular, we use the singular verb 'is'.
The phrase 'between the lines' is a prepositional phrase (starting with a
preposition), which is why it's not the subject of the sentence.
Try these:
5. The case of champagne bottles are for the year-end party.
6. The case of champagne bottles is for the year-end party.
The correct answer is number 6. 'Case' is singular, so use the
singular verb 'is'.
7. The sentiment in our offices is that our bonuses were measly this
year.
The sentiment in our offices are that our bonuses were measly this
year.
The correct answer is number 7. 'Sentiment' is singular, and the singular
verb 'is' agrees with it.
Two subjects connected by either/or, or neither/nor
If you have two singular subjects that are connected by either/or, or
neither/nor, use the singular verb. Look at this:
9. Neither Sibongile nor Ted has the keys to the stationery cupboard.
10. Either Mary or Shandu is manning the info desk at the conference.
Even though you're discussing two people, only one of them (singular) is
taking action, so the verb is singular.
What do you do when one of the subjects is plural and the other isn't?
Look at these
Examples:
11. Neither Sibongile (singular) nor the personal assistants (plural)
have the keys to the stationery cupboard.
12. Either the stewards (plural) or Mary (singular) is manning the info
desk at the conference.
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Do you see how the verb agrees with the subject closest to it? However,
the second sentence sounds awkward, so rather write sentences like this
with the second subject being plural, and then make the verb plural.
Sentence number 12 should rather be rewritten as:
13.Either Mary or the stewards are manning the info desk at the
conference.
Two subjects connected by 'and'
When you have two subjects connected by 'and', use the plural form of
the verb.
14.Tshepiso and Sbo are responsible for the exchange server.
15.Elize and Raveshan are our new project managers.
There are two exceptions to the rule. The first (see number 13) is
when a compound subject connected with 'and' is seen as a singular
subject due to popular use. The second is when the subjects
connected by 'and' are the same person or entity (see number 14).
16.Pap and wors is my favourite meal.
17.The creator and distributor of the software is Energesix Ltd.

Plural subjects that call for singular verbs

Use a singular verb when you have a subject that conveys a single
unit of distance, time, or money.
18.Ninety-five cents is a great bargain for a SIM card.
19.One hundred kilometres is a gruelling daily commute.
20.Twenty minutes is all I have to prepare for the meeting.
Other subjects that call for singular verbs
The following words need singular verbs: each, everyone, everybody,
anyone, anybody, somebody, nobody, someone, none, and no-one.
Look at these examples:

21.Each of our staff members has to fill in an evaluation form.

22.Anyone who wants a day off in lieu of overtime must still fill out a
leave form.
23.Someone has left a coffee cup on the glass of the photocopy
machine.
24.None of us wants to admit to being behind on filing.

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 Subjects that are collective nouns
Look at these examples:
25.The board wants to make the decision by next Thursday.
26.The staff is in a meeting.
27.The team is due to fly out today.
The board, staff, and team are made up of many individual members,
but each forms a collective, singular subject. Thus, a singular verb is
used. Be careful not to make this mistake, though:
28.The staff is in a meeting to discuss their appraisals.
Now, you have a singular subject (staff), a singular verb (is), and a
plural pronoun (their) in the same sentence. To improve concord,
rather rewrite the sentence in one of the following ways:
29.The staff is in a meeting to discuss appraisals.
30.The staff members are in a meeting to discuss their appraisals.
a. Tenses
There are only three basic tenses in the English language: the past, the
present, and the future.
• The past tense is used for anything that happened before this
moment in time.
• The present tense is used for anything that happens right now or for
general statements.
• The future tense is used for anything that will happen at some point
later than right now.
(There is also a perfect tense, but this article will stick to the three basic
tenses described above.)
Of course if it were that simple, you wouldn't be reading this guide!
These tenses have a few variations that make them more specific.
These variations talk about the exact time during which actions happen.
All three tenses have two main types of variations: simple and
continuous.
• The continuous tenses are used for actions that happen repeatedly
over a period of time.
• The simple tenses are used for...everything else!
You'll discover exactly when to use either in the guide below.

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Since the past and the present tenses are very closely linked, it's better to
look at them together.
The future tense will be discussed later in this article. (Actually, that last
sentence used the future tense! Did you notice?)

Here is a basic guide that will help you begin to understand when to use
which tense.

Simple Tenses

Look back at the very first example used in this blog: "I eat fish." This
sentence uses the simple present tense.

Simple Present
The simple present tense is mostly used for three things:
1. To describe things that are permanent or unchanging.
2. To describe how often something happens.
3. To talk about scheduled events.

To use the tense, add an -s to the end of the verb when "he" or "she" is
doing the action (he speaks, she eats).

Use the unchanged verb when anyone else is doing it (we speak, I eat).

So you would use this tense if you wanted to tell someone about yourself
or your hobbies, share something you believe to be true, or ask about when
you can catch the next bus at the stop.

Here are some examples:

If your hobby is the violin, you can say "I play the violin." Since it's just a
hobby though, you can add: "I am not a professional violinist."
You might be worried about your friend if you notice he's biting his nails
because "he bites his nails when he's nervous."
You'll need to get ready quickly if you want to make it to your friend's
party, because she just told you that "the party starts in an hour."
Maybe you should remind your friend to bring a gift since "he never
remembers birthdays."

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Simple Past
The simple past is used in a very similar way to the simple present.
Simple past verbs use -ed (I walked, he smiled). There are many irregular
verbs that don't use the -ed form, which you will need to learn (I spoke, he
ate).

Instead of talking about now, this tense talks about something that has
already happened or is no longer true.

Use the simple past if you want to describe an action that already happened.

This description of a trip uses the simple past tense: "Last year I visited
New York. I lived in a hotel for a month. I rode the train, took many
pictures and walked all around Central Park."

You can also use this tense for many of the same reasons as the simple
present. It can be used to describe a hobby or habit you had in the past, or
something you used to believe was true.
In fact, the words "used to" are often used for this tense. You can say it
either way: "I used to play the violin when I was young" has the same
meaning as "I played the violin when I was young."

Continuous Tenses
The word continuous means something that's ongoing, happening right
now.
The continuous tense uses the -ing ending of a verb (eating, speaking) in
both the present and the past.

But wait, if the continuous tense is happening "right now," how can you
have a past continuous tense? Read on to find out!

Present Continuous
You can use the present continuous to talk about something ongoing that's
happening now or soon.
Right now, you are reading this article. Maybe you're drinking some
coffee or taking a break from work. Later today you might be meeting
some friends for dinner.
By adding the words "always" or "constantly" you can express the
frequency of the action.

21 | P a g e
For example: "My mother-in-law is always complaining," or "that child
is constantly crying." These are not good things, but they do use the right
tense!

Past Continuous
This tense is used to describe a continuous action that got interrupted. If
you got a phone call late at night, you could say "I was sleeping last night
when I got the call." You can also use this tense to say what you were doing
at a specific time in the past. For example: "I was already writing at 6 in
the morning," or "yesterday in the evening I was eating dinner."

Looking to the Future

The future is anything that hasn't happened yet. It can be a few seconds
from now or a few years from now.

Simple Future
Speaking about the future is pretty simple: just add the words "will" or "is
going to" before an unchanged verb.

How do you know when to use "will" and when to use "is going to"?
Don't worry about it too much—you can usually use either one! You can
say "I will call you later," or "I am going to call you later." They are both
correct.
The slight difference is in the meaning: "going to" is used more often for
things that are planned. So in the above example, the first sentence is more
offhand (without giving it too much thought), but the second sentence
sounds like you will make sure to call later.

The difference is subtle (not too big) and you can get away with using
either one. Just remember that "will" is used more often for promises and
things you do by choice, and "going to" is used for making plans.

Both can be used for predictions too, or things you think will happen. You
can say "the world will end in ten years," and you can also say "the world
is going to end in ten years." Either way is correct—but hopefully the
prediction is wrong!

Future Continuous
This last way to talk about the future has the same uses as the past
continuous.

22 | P a g e
You use this tense to talk about things that might be interrupted in the
future, or to say what will be happening at a specific time in the future.

Just add the -ing form of a verb after the words "will be" or "am going to
be." If you know your friend is corning to visit you tomorrow, for example,
you could tell her to come before 7 because "we will be eating dinner at
7." You can also tell her: "I will be waiting for you at the train station."

Summary of English Tenses

Simple present
Something that is unchanging, general, scheduled or happening at certain
intervals. Uses: "verb-s."

Present continuous
Something that is happening now or in the near future.
Uses: "Is + verb-ing."

Simple past
Something that happened before now.
Uses: "Verb-ed."

Past continuous
Something that got interrupted by an event or a time.
Uses: "Was + verb-ing."

Simple future
Something that will happen later than now.
Uses: "Will + verb," "Is going to + verb."

Future continuous
Something that will be interrupted by an event or a time.
Uses: "Will be + verb-ing," "Is going to be + verb-ing."

b. Use of Articles
Articles are something that are very important to the English language, but
for some reason many students do not use them when they are speaking. In
this post I want to stress the importance of articles, as native speakers are
very quick to identify that a sentence was said incorrectly because an article
was not used.
So first, let's discuss what an article is. The English language has three
articles, 'a', 'an', 'the '(Each of these articles is used before a noun.)

23 | P a g e
a/an
These articles are known as the 'indefinite articles' because (they do not
specify which noun you are talking about) For example, 'a table' could be
any table, or you may want to eat 'an apple' without choosing a specific
one. The way to know which article to use is if the noun starts with a vowel
(the letters 'a', 'e','i', 'o' or V) it will use 'an'. If it starts with any consonant
however, then you will use 'a'.

Exceptions
There are some exceptions to the rule of always using 'a' before consonants
and 'an' before vowels. If your noun starts with V but makes the sound of
'you' then you will use 'a.' For example, "I went to a university". Also, if
your noun starts with a silent 'h' then you will use 'an.' For example, "we
have an hour before the movie starts".

The
This is 'definite article'. When you use this article, it means that you are
talking about something very specific. For example, if "I bought the table"
then I am talking about a very specific table that I bought.
Articles are used before a noun but it is important to know when to use
them and when not to use them.

You don't use an article:

Before a proper name such as Queen Elizabeth, Steve Jobs or John Smith.
• Names of most countries such as Italy, Brazil or Saudi Arabia.
• Sports such as basketball, football or soccer
• Languages such as English, Spanish or Portuguese
• Academic subjects such as Mathematics, English or Literature.

Always use articles before:

• Names of rivers, seas, oceans such as, the Atlantic Ocean, the Black
Sea and the Missouri River.
• Deserts, gulfs, forests or peninsulas such as the Amazon, the Sahara
Desert and the Gulf of Mexico.
• Jobs such as an engineer, a doctor, or a lawyer.

c. Accurate Use of Prepositions

d. Making Questions (Why- and yes-no questions and question

tags)

24 | P a g e
 e. Use of Modal Auxiliary Verbs (making requests, suggestions,
seeking permission etc.)

In English, we use Modal auxiliary verbs to indicate the mood of the

speaker. See examples of modal auxiliary verbs:

Non-Negative Non-contracted Negative Contracted Negative

Can Cannot/ Can not Can't
Could Could not Couldn't
May/Might May not / Might not Mayn't/Mightn't
Shall/Should Shall not / Should not Shan't/Shouldn't
Will/Would Will not / Would not Won't /Wouldn't
Must Must not Mustn't
Ought to Ought not to Oughtn't to
Used to Used not to Didn't use to
Need (to) Need not (to) Needn't (to)
Dare Dare not Dare’t

Things to Note
1. We refer to 'Used to', 'Need' and 'Dare' as quasi or marginal modal
auxiliaries.
2. Normally, we do not use 'Mayn't'; instead we use 'mustn't'.
3. We usually accompany 'Ought' with 'to-infinitive'. 'Ought' is not
used without the addition of 'to'.
4. 'Used' always takes the 'to-infinitive' and occurs only in the past
tense.
5. We can use 'Dare' and 'Need' either as modal auxiliaries (with a bare
infinitive and no inflector’s’ form) or as lexical verbs (with 'to-
infinitive' and with inflector’s’ form).
6. The modal verb construction is restricted to negative and
interrogative sentences whereas the lexical (main) verbs
construction can be used in positive constructions. Let us take some
exemplifications:

Examples Modal Auxiliary Lexical Verb

Construction Construction
Positive He needs to go
home now.
Negative He needn't go home He doesn't need to
now. go home now.
Interrogative Need he go home now? Does he need to go
home now?
Negative Needn’t he go home Doesn’t he need to
Interrogative now? go home now?

25 | P a g e
Uses of Modal Auxiliary Verbs
Modal auxiliaries have different uses that are explored below.

Can
This is used to express the following:

Ability
• Sola can sew very well
• I can drive,
• The lady can speak French.

Permission
• Can I read in your office?
• Can I go with you?
• You can leave the room now.

Theoretical Possibility
• Anybody can make mistakes.
• The examination can be postponed.
• The task can be done.
• The equation can be solved.

Could
This is used to express to the following:

Past Ability
• She could jump when she was younger
• I could eat a lot when I was in America.

Present or Future Permission

• Could I read in your office? (now or sometime in the future)
• Could 1 have my documents signed?

Present Possibilities (theoretical or factual)

• We could see the President.
• The meeting could be postponed.

Polite Request
• Could Mary go with them?
• Could you be kind enough to lend me some money?

26 | P a g e
NOTE:
1. It is not in all cases that 'could' or 'should' is used to indicate past
tense.
2. The ability can bring in the implication of willingness.
Examples:
a. I can help you (I can help and I am also willing to help)

May
This can be used to express the following:
Permission
It means 'be allowed to'. It is more formal than 'can'.
1. You may stay here till tomorrow if you wish.
2. You may eat whatever you like. Possibility
3. The meeting may be postponed.
4. We may sell the car.

Might
We use 'Might' to express the following: Permission
We rarely use this though.

1. Might I go with you? Possibility

2. She might come here next week.
3. The money might he stolen if you leave it on the table.
4. It might rain this evening.

Shall
This is used at the following levels:

Expression of simple futurity

(Intention of what one is likely to do; intention on the part of the speaker).
In this context, 'shall' will go with the First Person (I/We), while 'will' will
go with the Second and Third Persons. E. g.
1. I shall be there tomorrow.
2. We shall come to your party.
3. I shan't stay too long.
4. We shall be victorious.

Willingness on the part of the speaker

(in the second and third person), for example:
• You shall have the book. (Restricted use)
• He shall do exactly as he wishes. (Restricted use)

27 | P a g e
Insistence (Restricted use)
• You shall wash the plates.
• You shall not go there even if it becomes dark.

Legal Injunction
• The tenants shall take good care of the complex.
• You shall not sublet the room.

Should
We use this for the following:
Expression of Obligation and Logical Necessity

(in this context, it connotes "Ought to")

• The students should have eaten by now.
• The children ought to be sleeping by now.
• We should obey the constitution of the country.
After certain expressions like 'it is a pity', 'it is surprising', I am sorry',
etc.
• It is a pity that you should experience such disappointment.
• I am sorry that this should have happened to you,
• It is surprising that he should leave so soon.

Contingent Use in the Main Clause/Expressing Condition

In this sense, it means 'would'.
• He would love to go abroad if he had the money.
• I should inform you if the man comes.
• I should travel if my father permits me.

Will
We use this to express the following:

Willingness
Here, we use this in a polite request, with or without the addition of 'please'.
For example:
• She will train you if you ask her.
• Will you have another plate of food?

Intention
• We won't come to your house.
• will go to the party tonight.

28 | P a g e
Specific Prediction
• The match will be over by now.
• The soldiers will be here soon.

Timeless Prediction (a prediction that holds for all time)

• Oil will float on water.
• The sun will continue to shine.

Habitual Prediction (something that happens always)

• He will sleep for hours if he is not hungry.
• Ants will find sugar jars if not properly sealed.

Would
This shows the following:

Willingness
• Would you wash the clothes?
• He would love to work in the bank.

Insistence
• He would take nothing.
• You would eat the cold food.

Characteristic activity in the past (characteristic ability)

• Every morning, he would read newspapers.
• The lazy student would come late to class.

Contingent use in the main clause of a conditional sentence

He would spend his earnings on betting if no one stopped him.
He would not go to school if he had his way.

Probability
• That would be the teacher speaking.

Must
We use this to express:

29 | P a g e
Obligation or Compulsion in the Present Tense
(this means 'be obliged to', 'have to' or 'have got to', consider these
examples:
• You must come there tonight.
• You must tell me the truth.
• She must change her ways.
• I must eat three times daily.

NOTE: In the Past Tense, we do not use 'must'. Rather, we use 'had
to'.E. g.
• Yesterday, you had to sleep on the couch.

In Reported Speech, one can have:

• Yesterday, you said you must sleep on the couch.

Logical Necessity
• There must be a policeman on duty.
• There must be a solution.
• It must be a mistake.
• He must work hard to succeed.

NOTE: We do not use 'Must' in sentences with negative or interrogative

meanings, instead, we use 'can'. Examples:
• There cannot be a solution.
• There cannot be a policeman on duty.
• Who can go on our behalf? (Someone must go on our behalf).

Ought to
We use this to express

Logical necessity or expectation

In this context, it is equivalent to 'should'. See these examples:
• You ought to do your homework.
• She ought to attend the ceremony.
• The criminals ought to be in jail by now.
• The rains ought to have begun.

Used to
This usually expresses:
a habitual action in the past

30 | P a g e
Examples include:
• He used to love singing as a child.
• They used to travel abroad frequently.

NOTE: We should not confuse 'Used to' with 'accustomed to'. E. g.

• We are used to sleeping late at night.
• I am used to watching the news every morning.

The above examples express habits that are not in the past. They are still
sustained habits.

Dare
We use this to express:

Impossibility
Consider the following Examples:
• Nobody dare insult his father,
• You dare not spend that money.
• The man dare not go to his office.

Need to
This is the equivalent of ‘ought to'. In the negative sense, it shows:

Absence of obligation
.E.g. :
• They need to see what he did to her.
• You needn't accept the offer.

As noted earlier, some scholars have described these auxiliaries: 'ought to',
'need to' and 'dare' as "quasi-auxiliaries".

f. Some Common Errors

Problems in English grammar and language are the number one troubles
students face in India. Recent troubles have also pointed to the same. When
a country with 122 major languages and more than a 1599 other languages
and dialects studies in a single foreign language –

English, problems are bound to crop up. But in this globalised world of
digitisation, we need to ensure that the language we study in since entering
school is used flawlessly as it is the medium on which most of us would
build our professional lives.

31 | P a g e
1. Incorrect Verb Form:

Most students don't have a proper grip on the tenses and so, using incorrect
verb forms and losing marks for the same is probably the most common
issue student’s face. Master the chart below on basic tense forms and
improve your reading habits to fix this problem once and for all.

2. Subject - Verb Disagreement:

In a sentence, the subject and verb need to agree with each other. This
means that you need to pay close attention to the subject of the sentence
and notice if it is singular or plural. Singular subjects need to go with
singular verbs and plural subjects need to go with plural verbs.

Example:
Incorrect: The efforts of the cat to reach the cookie jar was in vain.
Correct: The efforts of the cat to reach the cookie jar were in vain.
Here, at a quick glance, the subject seems to be 'cat'. But the subject here
is actually
'Struggles'. Since the subject is plural, the associated verb also needs to be
the plural
'Were' instead of the singular 'was'.

Example:
IC: He, along with a few other officials, were charged in the paper leak
case.
C: He, along with a few other officials, was charged in the paper leak case.
The verb 'were' describes the action of the subject 'he'. Don't be misled into
believing that the subject itself is plural here. The clause, 'along with a few
other officials', which is enclosed within a pair of commas, can be
discarded with 'along with' is not a conjugation.
Compound subjects will always go with plural verbs:

Example:
Rahul and Aditya are joining a stand-up comedy club this weekend.

3. Run-on Sentences & Comma Splices:

Run-on sentences and comma splices are two common errors that go hand
in hand. When two or more independent clauses are connected by a
coordinating conjunction (for/and/nor/but/or/yet/so) but if the connecting
punctuation is missed, it becomes a run-on sentence. A comma must be put
before the coordinating conjunction. When you use a comma to join two

32 | P a g e
independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction, it is called a
comma splice.

Every independent clause in a sentence must be set off either with a

punctuation mark or with a comma plus conjunction. The punctuations you
can use to mark complete, independent clauses are full-stops, semicolons
and em dashes.

To understand if a particular clause in a sentence is independent, check if

it has its own subject and verb. If it does, the clause can be used
independently as a separate sentence as well.

Example:
IC: I love painting and I am getting enough time for it as well but the
exhibition deadline is stressing me out.
The above sentence has three separate clauses:
• I love painting
• I get enough time for it as well
• the exhibition deadline is stressing me out
There are two ways to correct this:
C: I love painting, and I am getting enough time for it as well, but the
exhibition deadline is stressing me out.
C: I love painting; I am getting enough time for it as well, but the exhibition
deadline is stressing me out.

4. Comma Misuse:

Commas are the most diverse punctuation marks with multiple uses. And
the more number of ways they can be used, the more number of mistakes
can be made. One misplaced comma can change the meaning of the entire
sentence. As seen below, the right comma can even save lives!

Example:
IC: Let's eat grandpa.
C: Let's eat, grandpa.
Read all about the 11 uses of comma here along with examples and never
get confused again!

5. Apostrophe Misuse:

Besides commas, it is the apostrophe that causes the most errors in writing.
The apostrophe has two main uses:
• To show a noun in a possessive case
33 | P a g e
Example:
Ravi's book, (a book belonging to Ravi)
• To make letters and acronyms plural. Apart from this, apostrophes
are strictly never used to make something plural

Examples:
Dot your i's and cross your t's.
I brought home all the faulty CD's to make some art piece out of them.

6. Spelling Mistakes:
With education becoming increasingly digitised, we spend a lot of our time
on the computer or our smartphones where our text is automatically spell
checked. So, we tend to put little effort into remembering correct spellings
and tend to lose a lot of marks in exams for the same.

Take extra care with differing variations in the spellings of the same words
in UK and US English.

Another common area for errors is the similar spellings of homophones

which have the same pronunciation, but different spellings.

Students make errors very often in spellings when changing certain words
from one tense form to the other. There are other pairs of words which
sound similar and we frequently misuse them..

7. Ambiguous Modifiers:

Ambiguous modifiers or squinting modifiers are words, phrases or clauses

which describe the word before it or after it. It is a misplaced modifier.
Students often place modifiers next to the wrong word. The meaning of the
sentence becomes confusing and ambiguous if the wrong word is modified
or described.

34 | P a g e
 2. SENTENCE TRANSFORMATION

Most common transformations

1. From active to passive
They offered James a job James was offered a job

2. From active to causative form (have sth done)

They are painting my room I am having my room painted
next week

3. From direct speech to reports speech

"I have a Sot of work to do", lan said that he had a lot of
lan said. work to do

Important Topics in this chapter are:

1. Active and Passive Voice

2. Types of Sentences (Statements, interrogative,
3. Simple, Complex and Compound Sentences
4. Reported Speech
5. Syntactic Ambiguity

Active and Passive Voices

Active and Passive Voices are as explained below:

Active voice describes a sentence where the subject performs the action
stated by the verb.

In passive voice sentences, the subject is acted upon by the verb.

Examples of Sentences in Active and Passive Voice:

Here are examples of sentences written in both the active voice and the
passive voice, with the active voice sentence appearing first:

35 | P a g e
• Harry ate six shrimp at dinner, [active)
At dinner, six shrimp were eaten by Harry, (passive)
• Beautiful giraffes roam the savannah, (active)
The savannah is roamed by beautiful giraffes, (passive)
• Sue changed the flat tire, (active)
The flat tire was changed by Sue. (passive)
• We are going to watch a movie tonight, (active)
A movie is going to be watched by us tonight, (passive)
• I ran the obstacle course in record time, (active)
The obstacle course was run by me in record time, (passive)
• The crew paved the entire stretch of highway, (active)
The entire stretch of highway was paved by the crew, (passive)
• Mom read the novel in one day. (active)
The novel was read by Mom in one day. (passive)
• The critic wrote a scathing review, (active)
A scathing review was written by the critic, (passive)
• I will clean the house every Saturday, (active)
The house will be cleaned by me every Saturday, (passive)
• The staff is required to watch a safety video every year, (active)
A safety video will be watched by the staff every year, (passive)
• She faxed her application for a new job. (active)
The application for a new job was faxed by her. (passive)
• Tom painted the entire house, (active)
The entire house was painted by Tom. (passive)
• The teacher always answers the students' questions, (active)
The students' questions are always answered by the teacher,
(passive)
• The choir really enjoys that piece, (active)
That piece is really enjoyed by the choir, (passive)
• Who taught you to ski? (active)
By whom were you taught to ski? (passive)
• The forest fire destroyed the whole suburb, (active)
The whole suburb was destroyed by the forest fire, (passive)
• The two kings are signing the treaty, (active)
The treaty is being signed by the two kings, (passive)
• The cleaning crew vacuums and dusts the office every night,
(active)
Every night the office is vacuumed and dusted by the cleaning
crew, (passive)
• Larry generously donated money to the homeless shelter, (active)
Money was generously donated to the homeless shelter by Larry.
(passive)
36 | P a g e
 • No one responded to my sales ad. (active)
My sales ad was not responded to by anyone, (passive)
• The wedding planner is making all the reservations, (active)
All the reservations will be made by the wedding planner, (passive)
• Susan will bake two dozen cupcakes for the bake sale, (active)
For the bake sale, two dozen cookies will be baked by Susan,
(passive)
• The science class viewed the comet, (active)
The comet was viewed by the science class, (passive)
• Who ate the last cookie? (active]
The last cookie was eaten by whom? (passive)
• Alex posted the video on Facebook. (active)
The video was posted on Facebook by Alex. (passive)
• The director will give you instructions, (active)
Instructions will be given to you by the director, (passive)
• Thousands of tourists view the Grand Canyon every year, (active)
The Grand Canyon is viewed by thousands of tourists every year,
(passive)
• The homeowners remodelled the house to help it sell, (active)
The house was remodelled by the homeowners to help it sell,
(passive)
• The team will celebrate their victory tomorrow, (active)
The victory will be celebrated by the team tomorrow, (passive)
• The saltwater eventually corroded the metal beams, (active)
The metal beams were eventually corroded by the saltwater,
(passive)
• The kangaroo carried her baby in her pouch, (active)
The baby was carried by the kangaroo in her pouch, (passive)
• Some people raise sugar cane in Hawaii, (active).
Sugar cane is raised by some people in Hawaii, (passive)

These sentences illustrate how different the same sentence can sound when
written in active or passive voice. Generally, it's better to write in the active
voice. It's clearer and more direct. Passive voice sentences tend to be more
wordy and vague but can still be useful in some situations, such as formal
or scientific writing.

37 | P a g e
 Types of Sentences (Statements (Declarative), Interrogative,
Exclamatory and Imperative) Explain each type with suitable
examples

Types of Sentences are as explained below:

Introduction:
When we are writing and speaking, we use different types of sentences to
say what we want to say. There are four main types of sentences:
declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory; each with its own
specific purpose.

Don't be afraid of their fancy names—all of the types of sentences are

actually pretty simple!

a. Statements (Declarative) Sentences:

Declarative sentences give information. We use them to share facts and
statements, in other words, to declare things. In fact, it is probably the type
of sentence we use most each day.
Here are a few examples:
• The dog went to the county fair.
• She saw the dog eat popcorn.
• Dogs don't usually eat popcorn,
• The popcorn was hot.
• I like popcorn.

How to Write a Declarative Sentence?

A declarative sentence is written like statement, basically, "A is B" or "A
does B."A declarative sentence has a neutral tone; so, it ends with a period.
It can express feelings, but not very strong feelings. For example "I like
popcorn," is a simple sentence that "declares" something you like. If you
write "I LOVE popcorn!", it expresses a strong feeling, which makes it an
exclamatory sentence

b. Interrogative sentence:

Quite simply, an interrogative sentence is a question. It is easy to

recognize because it always ends in a question mark (?). Questions ask
things like who, what, where, when, why, and how. Here are some
examples:

38 | P a g e
 • Why is the dog going to the county fair?
• Have you ever been to a county fair?
• What is your favourite snack?
• How do you make popcorn?

How to Write an Interrogative Sentence

Writing an interrogative sentence is simple and easy. Remember—it's just
a fancy name for a question! As mentioned, questions should ask things
like who, what, where, when, why, or how. So, using those words, let's try
to ask some questions about popcorn:
• Who cooks fresh popcorn around here?
• Where can I buy fresh popcorn?
• What is the best flavour of popcorn?
• When do you usually eat popcorn?
• Why do you let your dog eat popcorn?
• How is it?

Or, you can change the word order within a declarative sentence. For
example, the sentence below, can easily be made into a question:

Declarative Sentence: The popcorn is delicious.

New Interrogative Sentence (or question): Is the popcorn delicious?

c. Imperative sentence:

An imperative is a word expressing a command, thus, an imperative

sentence gives instructions, requests, or demands, or shares a wish or
invitation. Basically, they tell someone what to do or reflect something you
want to happen. Here are some examples:

• Have fun at the fair! (Expressing a wish)

• Come to the fair with me! (Sharing an invitation)
• Feed the dog once per day. (Giving instructions) Please don't
give the dog popcorn. (Sharing a request)
• Stop feeding the dog! (Giving a demand)

39 | P a g e
The verbs in imperative sentences are in what is called an "imperative
mood," meaning they give commands. Look at these two sentences:
Don't feed the dog. Imperative verb "don't" expressing a
Command
He didn't feed the dog. Indicative verb "didn't," reflecting a
Lack of action

How to Write an Imperative Sentence

Writing an imperative sentence is easy, but it's important to remember its
role. Its tone can be fairly neutral; or, it can express strong emotions.
Because of this, they can end in either a period or an exclamation mark.
For instance, a forceful command should end with an exclamation mark,
but a more neutral request only needs a period.

Even if it ends with an exclamation mark, an imperative sentence

CANNOT be an exclamatory sentence, because exclamatory sentences do
not share commands

d. Exclamatory Sentence:

Exclamatory sentences share strong feelings or excitement. They

are just like declarative sentences in that they share declarations, but the
difference is that the words are said with more emotion. They are powerful
sentences, so they always end with an exclamation mark. Here are a few:

• I can't believe how fast the dog ran to the county fair!
• Wow, he must really love popcorn!
• That popcorn isn't for dogs!

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 Simple, Complex and Compound Sentences

Simple, Complex and Compound Sentences are as explained below:

A. Simple Sentences:
1. What is a Simple Sentence?

A simple sentence is the most basic sentence that we have in English. It

has just one independent clause, which means only one subject and one
predicate. A simple sentence is also the shortest possible sentence; it can
have as little as two words! Overall, a simple sentence is exactly what it
sounds like—simple!

2. Examples:

A simple sentence can be very short, but some are long too, so long as they
only have one subject-verb combination. Here, the subjects are orange and
the verbs are green.
• I ate.
• I ate dinner.
• I ate dinner with my brother and sister.
• Last night, I ate dinner at a restaurant with my brother and sister.
As you can see, even though some of these sentences are long, each only
has one subject and one verb (one clause).

3. Parts of Simple Sentences:

All sentences have one main important part: an independent clause.

Sometimes, they also include other words, like objects and/or modifiers.

a. Independent Clause

An independent clause has a subject and a predicate and makes sense on

its own as a complete sentence. In fact; an independent clause itself is a
simple sentence! Here are a few:
• The cat ate.
• He ate ice cream.
• He went to the beach.
• The wolf ate steak at the zoo.

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So, you can sec that all of the clauses above work as sentences. All
sentences have an independent clause, but all simple sentences have ONE
independent clause.

b. Objects

An object is the word affected by the verb or preposition in a sentence.

Objects are usually nouns or pronouns that answer questions like "who,"
"what," "where," and "when?" Here, the objects are purple.
• The dog ate bacon. What did the dog eat?
• The dog ate bacon at the park. Where did he eat it?
• I took my dog to the park. Who did you take there?
• We went to the park yesterday. When did you go?

So, you can see that the highlighted objects answer the questions above.
They make the sentences more informational than they would be without
objects.

c. Modifiers
A modifier is an adjective or adverb that "modifies" other words in a
sentence to make it more descriptive. They help give a clearer idea about
the things in the sentence. Here, the modifiers are gray. Let's start with a
simple sentence:
The panda ate corn.
Now, let's add modifiers:

The fat panda quickly ate the buttery corn.

Modifiers make the sentence more detailed. We now know that the panda
was fat, that he ate quickly, and that the corn was buttery! Modifiers can
make sentences much more interesting.

4. Types of Simple Sentences

There aren't exactly different "types" of simple sentences, but they can be
written in different ways. As mentioned, sometimes they are very short, or
sometimes they include modifiers or objects that make them longer.

a. Simple Sentence with ONLY a Subject and a Verb

As mentioned, simple sentences are the shortest possible complete

sentences. You can have a simple sentence with only a simple subject and
a predicate, using only two or three words, like this:

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 • I see.
• He ran.
• We looked.
• They cooked.
• The dog ate.
• The baby cried.
Though only two or three words, these are all independent clauses, so they
work on their own as complete sentences!

b. Simple Sentence with other Objects or Modifiers

Not all simple sentences are short. So long as it only has one subject and
one predicate, a simple sentence can actually be pretty long. Take a look at
the extra words in these examples:

• I see you behind the cotton candy machine!

• He ran to the fair as fast as possible.
• We ate buttery corn at the famous farmer's market.
• They prepared cotton candy in an old-fashioned machine.
So, a simple sentence can use lots of modifiers and objects to add details,
while at the same time only describing one subject doing one thing.

5. How to Avoid Mistakes

The most important thing to remember about simple sentences is that they
never have more than one subject or more than one predicate. In other
words, there is only one subject doing one thing. A simple sentence CAN
have a compound subject (two people using the same verb), but that's still
just one subject.

• (WRONG) Maria went to the market and bought an apple. One

subject, two verbs
• (WRONG) Sandy drove to the market and the dog went with her.
Two subjects, two verbs
• (CORRECT) Jose went to the market. One subject, one verb
• (CORRECT) Maria and Jose went to the market. One compound
subject, one verb
When you start adding more independent or dependent clauses to a
sentence, you get a compound, complex, or compound-complex sentence.
BUT, a simple sentence is just simple—one subject, one predicate.

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B. Complex Sentences:
1. What is a Complex Sentence?
A complex sentence is a sentence with an independent clause and a
dependent clause. It is one of the four main types of sentence structures. In
a complex sentence, the independent clause shares the main information,
and the dependent clause(s) provide details. Complex sentences let us share
lots of information with just one sentence.

2. Examples of Complex Sentence

In the examples below, independent clauses are orange and dependent

clauses are green.
• When the dog went to the county fair, he ate popcorn.
• If the dog goes to the county fair, he will eat popcorn.
• The dog went to the county fair after he smelled popcorn.
• The dog smelled popcorn, so he went to the county fair.
As you can see, sometimes the independent clause comes first, and
sometimes the dependent clause comes first.

3. Parts of Complex Sentences:

All complex sentences have .one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. They often also include dependant "marker" words or
coordinating conjunctions.

a. Independent Clause
An independent clause is a clause that can exist as a sentence on its own.
It has a subject and a predicate and makes sense as a complete sentence.
As mentioned, the independent clause shares the main information of a
complex sentence.
• The dog ate popcorn.
• The dog ran quickly.
• He ate popcorn.
• He went to the county fair.

So, you can see that all of the clauses above are working sentences. All
complex sentences have ONLY one independent clause.

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b. Dependent (Subordinate) Clause
A dependent clause has a subject and a predicate; BUT, it can't be a
sentence. It provides extra details about the independent clause, and it
doesn't make sense on its own, like these:
• After he went to the fair
• Though he ate popcorn
• While he was at the county fair
• If the dog eats popcorn
Though all of the examples above contain subjects and predicates, none of
them make sense. Each leaves an unanswered question. By itself, a
dependent clause is just a fragment sentence (an incomplete sentence). So,
it needs to be combined with an independent clause to be a sentence.
Complex sentences have at least one dependent clause, but they can have
two or more.
c. Dependent "Marker" Words/Subordinating Conjunctions
A dependent marker word (also called a subordinating conjunction)
goes at the beginning of an independent clause. It turns an independent
clause into a dependant clause by adding details like time or context.
Common dependent marker words include after, although, as, because,
before, even if, even though, if, since, though, unless, until, whatever,
when, whenever, whether, and while. Let's start with an independent
clause:
He was at the county fair = Independent clause
Now, add a dependent marker word, like "when":
When he was at the county fair = Dependent clause
Here are some complex sentences with the marker words underlined:
• When he was at the county fair, the dog ate popcorn.
• Though he likes cotton candy, the dog loves popcorn.
• The dog gets a stomachache if he eats popcorn.
• The dog ate popcorn while he was at the county fair.

d. Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions are words that connect sentences, like and, but,
for, or, nor, so, and yet. If you are using a coordinating conjunction to
connect an independent and a dependent clause, it needs a comma before
it. Here are some examples with the conjunctions underlined:

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 • The dog ate popcorn, so he didn't want dinner.
• He likes popcorn, but it has to be hot.
• The dog doesn’t like ice cream, for it is too cold.
• Pop the popcorn, and then eat it.

4. Types of Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is a type of sentence on its own, but the number of
dependent clauses can vary.

a. Complex Sentences with One Dependent Clause

Many complex sentences have an independent clause and just one
dependent clause, like these:

• The dog didn't eat popcorn, nor did he eat cotton candy.
• The dog runs fast, so make sure you watch him.
• When he was at the county fair, the dog bought popcorn.
• Since the popcorn was cold, he didn't like it.

b. Complex Sentences with More than One Dependent Clause

Complex sentences only ever have one independent clause, but they can
have more than one dependent clause, like these:
The dog didn't eat popcorn, nor did he eat cotton candy or drink soda. '
The dog can run fast, so make sure you watch him or you will lose him.
When he was at the county fair, the dog bought popcorn but not cotton
candy.
Since the popcorn was cold, the dog didn't like it, so he got cotton candy.

5. How to Write a Complex Sentence

Complex sentences are very common and pretty easy to write, as long as
you remember their rules. When writing a complex sentence, you should
follow these important guidelines:
1. All complex sentences have an independent clause and a dependent
clause.
2. Complex sentences can have more than one dependent clause.
3. To connect independent and dependent clauses, you need dependent
marker words and/or coordinating conjunctions.
4. Dependent marker words come at the beginning of a complex sentence
5. Coordinating conjunctions come after commas

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C. Compound Sentences:

1. What is a Compound Sentence?

A compound sentence allows us to share a lot of information by

combining two or more related thoughts into one sentence. It combines two
independent clauses by using a conjunction like "and." This creates
sentences that are more useful than writing many sentences with separate
thoughts.
Compound sentences are important because they allow us to shorten the
things we say or write. They express our thoughts in a way that allows our
audience to receive information easily and quickly. Often, everything we
want to say can be summarized, and it is generally the best choice for
communicating. So remember: more words don't necessarily mean more
information.

2. Examples of Compound Sentence

We use compound sentences all of the time. Here are some examples, the
independent clause is green, the second is purple, and the conjunctions
are orange:

• I drove to the park, and then I walked to the beach.

• Mike drove to the park, and I walked to the beach.
Let's take a look at the following section to find out what is an independent
clause and a conjunction.

3. Parts of Compound Sentences

A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses and always
includes a conjunction.

a. Independent Clause
An independent clause has a subject and a predicate and makes sense on
its own as a complete sentence. Here are a few: The parrot ate popcorn.
• The wolf ran quickly.
• He ate candy apples.
• He went to the mall.
So, you can see that all of the clauses above are working sentences. All
sentences have an independent clause, but all compound sentences have at
least two independent clauses.

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b. Conjunction
A conjunction is a word in a sentence that connects other words, phrases
and clauses. The most common conjunction that you know is "and." Other
common conjunctions are for, but, or, yet, and so. A compound sentence
needs at least one conjunction to connect two or more complete sentences.

Conjunctions are important because they let us combine information, but

still keep ideas separate so that they are easy to understand. A compound
sentence without a conjunction would be a run-on sentence, and would
sound very confusing! Here are two sentences, with and without
conjunctions:

The boy ran to the park then he ate a hotdog.

The boy ran to the park, and then he ate a hotdog.
So, you can see that we need a conjunction to for the sentence to be clear!

It is important to know that the word "then" is NOT a conjunction—it's an

adverb. So, when you are writing a compound sentence and want to use
"then", you still need a conjunction, for example, "so then," "but then," or
"and then."

4. Types of Compound Sentences

As mentioned, a compound sentence combines two independent clauses.
But, sometimes a compound sentence is about:
• one subject (like when you discuss two different things you did)
• or two different subjects doing the same thing.
• or two different subjects doing two different things

a. When one subject does more than one thing:

Example 1:
The boy ran to the park.

The boy ate a hotdog there.

These sentences have the same subject, "boy," but two verbs, "ran" and
"ate." Since both sentences are about what the boy does at the park, we
can combine them:

The boy ran to the park, and he ate a hotdog there.

This compound sentence is the best way to share the information from the
two original sentences. Even though the boy does two different things, we

48 | P a g e
can explain them in one sentence because they are related to each other.
Let's try another example, again starting with two sentences.

Example 2:

Every morning, Shelly eats breakfast.

After breakfast, Shelly works in her garden.
Both of these sentences describe what the subject, Shelly, does every
morning. Why not say this in one sentence?

Every morning, Shelly eats breakfast and then she works in her
garden.
Again, the compound sentence is much stronger than two separate
sentences.

b. When multiple subjects do the same thing:

Example 1:
Yesterday the lion went to the candy store.
The zebra also went to the candy store yesterday.
Both subjects, "the lion" and "the zebra," went to the candy store

Yesterday So, let's combine these things:

Yesterday, the lion went to the candy store, and the zebra went too.
Also, you should know that in contrast, combining the subjects makes a
compound subject, but NOT a compound sentence:

The lion went to the candy store, and the zebra went too.
Compound sentence The lion and the zebra went to the candy store.
Compound subject

b. When multiple subjects do multiple things:

Example 1:
The girl ate cake at the party. Subject "girl," verb "ate"
The cat drank soda at the party. Subject "cat," verb "drank"
Even though these two sentences are about two different subjects doing
two different things, they both share the phrase "at the party." Since they
have this information in common, we can combine them:

At the party, the girl ate cake but the cat drank soda.

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5. How to Write a Compound Sentence and Avoid Mistakes
Compound sentences are a great tool in writing, and come naturally in
speaking. As mentioned, they exist to help you unite multiple related
ideas into one strong sentence.
For example, here are three simple sentences:
The cheetah ran fast.
She ran all the way to the movies.
There, she ate a hot pretzel.

We really don't need three separate sentences to share this information,

because it's all about the same subject. So, let's combine all three of the
sentences above to make one compound sentence:

The cheetah ran fast; she ran all the way to the movies, and there she ate a
hot pretzel.
The compound sentence still has the subject "cheetah," but it now shares
both of the
things she did at the county fair, "ran" and "ate."

As you can see in the sentence above, you need a conjunction, like "and",
to combine two or more sentences. All compound sentences need at least
one conjunction. Sometimes you only need one conjunction, but other
times you may need two. Let's look at three more sentences:
The cheetah ran to the movies.
They were out of pretzels.
She ate popcorn instead.

The cheetah ran to the movies, but they were out of pretzels, so she ate
popcorn instead.

This compound sentence needs two conjunctions "but" and "so" to tell
share the information. Without them, the sentence would be hard to
understand.

Finally, it's important to remember that compound

sentences combine related information. Even if you follow the proper
grammar pattern, it doesn't mean you can combine any old thing with
another. You don't want to make the mistake of putting things together that
have nothing to do with each other, like this: Mary went to the market
yesterday and she gardens every morning.
In this sentence, the first point is that Mary went to the market yesterday,
and the second is that she gardens every morning. But, these things are not
related to each other, even though they are both about Mary. It seems like

50 | P a g e
they came from two different stories. So, while there is nothing wrong with
the grammar, this is not a proper compound sentence because the ideas are
unrelated.

Usage of Reported Speech

The usage of reported speech is as explained below.

Introduction:
If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the
speaker's exact words (direct speech), but reported (indirect] speech.
Therefore, you need to learn how to transform direct speech into reported
speech. The structure is a little different depending on whether you want to
transform a statement, question or request.

a. Statements

When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:

• pronouns
• present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
• place and time expressions
• tenses (backshift)

Type Example
direct speech "I speak English."
reported speech He says that he speaks English.
(no backshift)
reported speech He said that he spoke English.
(backshift)

b. Questions

When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:

• pronouns
• present tense verbs (3rd person singular)
• place and time expressions
• tenses (backshift)

Also note that you have to:

• transform the question into an indirect question
• use the interrogative or if f whether

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 Type Example
with direct speech "Why don't you speak English?"
interrogative reported speech He asked me why I didn't speak
English.
without direct speech "Do you speak English?"
interrogative reported speech He asked me whether / if I spoke
English.

c. Requests

When transforming questions, check whether you have to change:

• pronouns
• place and time expressions

Type Example
direct speech "Carol, speak English."

reported speech He told Carol to speak English

d. Additional Information and Exceptions

Apart from the above mentioned basic rules, there are further aspects that
you should keep in mind, for example:

• main clauses connected with and / but

• tense of the introductory clause
• reported speech for difficult tenses
• exceptions for backshift
• requests with must, should, ought to and let's

Examples of Reported Speech:

a. Reported Speech without backshift - Change of Pronouns
Helen is in front of the class holding a presentation on London. As Helen
is rather shy, she speaks with a very low voice. Your classmate Gareth does
not understand her, so you have to repeat every sentence to him.

52 | P a g e
Complete the sentences in reported speech (no backshift). Note the
change of pronouns and verbs.

• Helen: I want to tell you something about my holiday in London.

• Gareth: What does she say?
• You: She says that she wants to tell us something about her holiday
in London.

• Helen: I went to London in July.

• Gareth: What does she say?
• You: She says that she went to London in July.

• Helen: My parents went with me.

• Gareth: What does she say?
• You: She says that her parents went with her.

• Helen: We spent three days in London.

• Gareth: What does she say?
• You: She says that they spent three days in London.

• Helen: London is a multicultural place.

• Gareth: What does she say?
• You: She says that London is a multicultural place.

• Helen: I saw people of all colours.

• Gareth: What does she say?
• You: She says that she saw people of all colours.

• Helen: Me and my parents visited the Tower.

• Gareth: What does she say?
• You: She says that she and her parents visited the Tower.

• Helen: One evening we went to see a musical.

• Gareth: What does she say?
• You: She says that one evening they went to see a musical.

• Helen: I love London.

• Gareth: What does she say?
• You: She says that she loves London

• Helen: The people are so nice there.

• Gareth: What does she say?
• You: She says that the people are so nice there.

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Syntactic Ambiguity

Syntactic Ambuity is as explained below:

Syntactic ambiguity, also called amphiboly or amphibology, is a

situation where a sentence may be interpreted in more than one way due to
ambiguous sentence structure.

Syntactic ambiguity arises not from the range of meanings of single words,
but from the relationship between the words and clauses of a sentence, and
the sentence structure underlying the word order therein. In other words, a
sentence is syntactically ambiguous when a reader or listener can
reasonably interpret one sentence as having more than one possible
structure.

In legal disputes, courts may be asked to interpret the meaning of syntactic

ambiguities in statutes or contracts. In some instances, arguments asserting
highly unlikely interpretations have been deemed frivolous. A set of
possible parse trees for an ambiguous sentence is called a parse forest. The
process of resolving syntactic ambiguity is called syntactic
disambiguation.

Different forms of Syntactic Ambuity

a. Globally ambiguous
A globally ambiguous sentence is one that has at least two distinct
interpretations. In this type of ambiguity, after one has read or heard the
entire sentence, the ambiguity is still present. Rereading the sentence
cannot resolve the ambiguity because no feature of the representation (i.e.
word order) distinguishes the distinct interpretations.

Global ambiguities are often unnoticed because the reader tends to choose
the meaning he or she understands to be more probable. One example of a
global ambiguity is "The woman held the baby in the green blanket." In
this example, the baby could be wrapped in the green blanket or the woman
could be using the green blanket as an instrument to hold the baby.

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b. Locally ambiguous
A locally ambiguous sentence is a sentence that contains an ambiguous
phrase but has only one interpretation. The ambiguity in a locally
ambiguous sentence briefly persists and is resolved, i.e., disambiguated, by
the end of the utterance. Sometimes, local ambiguities can result in "garden
path" sentences, in which a structurally sound sentence is difficult to
interpret because one interpretation of the ambiguous region is not the
ultimate coherent interpretation.

Examples of Syntactic Ambuity:

1. The sentence, "they were milking cows," could be understood to

mean that those fine animals over there are a particular type of cow.
They were milking cows. Or the sentence could mean that them thar
farmers were in the act of extracting milk from their domesticated
bovine... "They were milking cows."

2. The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose. — Henry VI (1.4.30), by
William Shakespeare

Amphiboly occurs frequently in poetry, sometimes owing to the

alteration of the natural order of words for metrical reasons. The
sentence could be taken to mean that Henry will depose the duke, or
that the duke will depose Henry. Eduardum occidere nolite timere
bonum est. — Edward II by Christopher Marlowe

According to legend, Isabella of France and Roger Mortimer, 1st

Earl of March famously plotted to murder Edward II of England in
such a way as not to draw blame on themselves, sending a famous
order in Latin which, depending on where the comma was inserted,
could mean either "Do not be afraid to kill Edward; it is good" or
"Do not kill Edward; it is good to fear":

3. I'm glad I'm a man, and so is Lola. — Lola by Ray Davies

Can mean "Lola and I are both glad I'm a man", or "I'm glad Lola
and I are both men", or "I'm glad I'm a man, and Lola is also glad to
be a man". Ray Davies deliberately wrote this ambiguity into the
song, referring to a cross-dresser.

55 | P a g e
4. John saw the man on the mountain with a telescope.
Who is on the mountain? John, the man, or both? Who has the
telescope? John, the man, or the mountain?

5. The word of the Lord came to Zechariah, son of Berekiah, son

oflddo, the prophet Is the prophet Zechariah, Berekiah, or Iddo?
6. Aristotle writes about an influence of ambiguities on arguments and
also about an influence of ambiguities depending on either
combination or division of words:

... if one combines the words 'to write-while-not-writing1: for then

it means, that he has the power to write and not to write at once;
whereas if one does not combine them, it means that when he is not
writing he has the power to write.

— Aristotle, Sophistical refutations, Book I, Part 4

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 3. VOCABULARY SKILLS
Important Topics in this chapter are:

1. Idioms and Phrases

2. One Word Substitution

Idioms and Phrases and their usage

Idioms and Phrases are as explained below:

a. Idioms:

Definition of an Idiom:

An idiom is an expression that takes on a figurative meaning when certain

words are combined, which is different from the literal definition of the
individual words. For example, let's say I said: 'Don't worry, driving out to
your house is a piece of cake.' We would understand that the expression
'piece of cake' means that it's easy. Normally, we obviously wouldn't
associate the word 'cake' when it is on its own as anything other than
dessert. But in this context, it's a well-known idiom.

Examples of Idioms
There are tens of thousands of idioms used in the English language. As we
can probably understand, idioms are difficult for people whose first
language is not English. Actually, even native English speakers in the
Motherland of England have a hard time with American idioms. Americans
know them because they're common expressions. We're used to hearing
them in our homes, at school, and in our favourite television programs.

Sometimes American idioms make their way around the world, and
sometimes an expression doesn't even make it out of a particular state. Here
a few of the most commonly used idioms in the United States and their
likely origins. (Note that these origins may be in dispute.)

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'As happy as a clam'
Mary was happy as a clam on the day of her wedding.
Meaning: Pleased, very content .
Origin: So why in the world would a clam ever be happy? They're shellfish,
they don't have feelings. The expression most likely began because when
a clam's shell is opened up, it does look like the clam is smiling.

'Pass the buck'

It is Tim's responsibility to mow the lawn. He shouldn’t’t pass the buck to

his younger brother.

Meaning: To dodge one's responsibilities by giving them to someone else

Origin: The game of poker became extremely popular in the 1800s in the
United States. Of course, many of the cowboys and bar patrons who played
the game were degenerate gambler types who could not be trusted. So, a
system was instilled that on each new game a different person would deal
out the cards and they would be given some kind of marker to indicate that
it was their deal. Often times a knife was used as a marker. The handles of
these knives were typically made out of a buck's horn. In time, the marker
just became known

b. Phrases:

What Is a Phrase?
How does writing start? When you sit down to write, what is the first idea
you put on paper? We begin writing with something very simple: a word.
Our writing grows as words become phrases, phrases become clauses,
clauses become sentences, and sentences become complex and compound.
By knowing how a sentence begins, you are able to create more
complicated sentences, combine ideas more smoothly, and know how to
punctuate your writing to convey a clear meaning.

It is obvious that we all know what a word is. However, we may not be as
familiar with a phrase. A phrase is two or more words that are related to
each other. Unlike clauses and sentences, phrases are never complete
thoughts because a phrase does not contain a subject and a verb.

Let's look at an example to explain the way we may write a sentence. First,
we would start with the word 'dog.' This word becomes the phrase 'a small,

58 | P a g e
black dog' when we add modifiers to it. Notice that this is an incomplete
thought because it is only a subject and does not contain a verb. Next, the
phrase becomes a clause, a group of words related to each other that
contain a subject and verb. We can write, 'When the small, black dog
started to jump.' The clause is still incomplete because it does not contain
a complete thought. To fix this, we would want to finish the thought and
create a sentence: 'When the small, black dog started to jump, we quickly
ran away.'

Now that we have defined a phrase and looked at its role in creating a
sentence, let's look at the different kinds of phrases we can use in our
writing.

Noun Phrase
A noun phrase is a phrase that includes a person, place, or thing and the
modifiers that describe it. It is important to recognize the noun phrase
because it will distinguish the noun. In writing, this will help you add more
details and create a stronger, more vivid picture for your audience. For
instance, instead of writing, 'I saw them,' you could write, 'I saw the young,
joyful children.'

You can recognize the noun phrase by finding the subject and identifying
the words that describe it. These words may be placed before or "after the
noun. For example, in our earlier example our noun phrase was 'a small,
black dog.' 'Dog1 is our initial noun, but the entire description is the noun
phrase. It is important to remember that there are many different ways to
describe a noun, so there are many different kinds of noun phrases.

Let's first look at the noun phrases that contain modifiers before the nouns.
First, you may just have the articles 'a,' 'an,' and 'the' before word. For
example, 'the rabbit' or 'an ant.' This would be recognized as a noun phrase.
Second, a possessive noun or pronoun before a noun, such as 'June's rabbit'
or 'her rabbit,' will complete the noun phrase. Finally, participles, a verb
being used as an adjective would create a noun phrase. For example, 'the
jumping rabbit 'or' the marching ant.'

There are also modifiers that can be placed after the noun. First, you can
use an adjective clause, which is a clause that contains a subject and verb
that functions as an adjective. For example, 'the girl that was late for class'
contains the noun 'girl' and the modifier 'that was late for class.' This clause
distinguishes what girl in the sentence. Next, a noun phrase can contain a
noun and preposition phrase, such as 'the child in the car.' Finally, a noun

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phrase could end with a participle phrase, a verb ending in -ing or-ed that
serves as an adjective. For example, in the noun phrase 'the boy asking for
a cookie,' 'the boy' is the noun and 'asking for a cookie' is the participle
phrase.

As a last step, there are a few different types of noun phrases. An

appositive noun phrase renames the noun or subject of the sentence. Since
it renames the noun, we do not consider it to be modifying the noun, which
makes it a noun phrase. For example, 'Katie, my best friend, was late to
school.' Or 'Bob, the loyal dog, passed away last night.'

A gerund phrase is a noun phrase that begins with a gerund. A gerund is

a verb that functions as a noun. For example, 'Traveling can be exhausting.'
'Travel,' which is normally a verb, is being used as noun in the sentence.
Or for another example: 'I love baking cookies.' In this sentence, 'baking
cookies' is our noun phrase, which starts with the gerund 'baking.'

An infinitive phrase is a noun phrase that begins with an infinitive. An

infinitive is usually the word to before a verb. For example, 'to sleep' or 'to
read.' An infinitive noun phrase could be 'I love to sleep all day,' or 'I prefer
to read alone.'

15 Most common English idioms and phrases:

1. 'The best of both worlds' - means you can enjoy two different
opportunities at the same time.
"By working part-time and looking after her kids two days a week she
managed to get the best of both worlds."

2. 'Speak of the devil' - this means that the person you're just talking
about actually turns up at that moment.
"Hi Tom, speak of the devil, I was just telling Sara about your new car."

3. 'See eye to eye' - this means agreeing with someone.

"They finally saw eye to eye on the business deal."

4. 'Once in a blue moon' - an event that happens infrequently.

"I only go to the cinema once in a blue moon."

5. 'When pigs fly' - something that will never happen. "When pigs fly
she'll tidy up her room."

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6. 'To cost an arm and a leg'- something is very expensive. "Fuel these
days costs and arm and a leg."

7. 'A piece of cake'- something is very easy. "The English test was a piece
of cake."

8. 'Let the cat out of the bag' - to accidentally reveal a secret. "I let the
cat out of the bag about their wedding plans."

9. 'To feel under the weather' - to not feel well.

"I'm really feeling under the weather today; I have a terrible cold."

10.'To kill two birds with one stone' - to solve two problems at once.
"By taking my dad on holiday, 1 killed two birds with one stone. 1 got
to go away but also spend time with him."

11.To cut corners' - to do something badly or cheaply.

"They really cut corners when they built this bathroom; the shower is
leaking."

12.'To add insult to injury' - to make a situation worse.

"To add insult to injury the car drove off without stopping after
knocking me off my bike."

13.'You can't judge a book by its cover' - to not judge someone or

something based solely on appearance.
"I thought this no-brand bread would be horrible; turns out you can't
judge a book by its cover."

14.'Break a leg' - means 'good luck' (often said to actors before they go on
stage). "Break a leg Sam, I'm sure your performance will be great."

15.'To hit the nail on the head' -to describe exactly what is causing a
situation or problem.
"He hit the nail on the head when he said this company needs more HR
support."

Exercise: To test your new-found knowledge here are some sentences to

practice with. Fill in the blank!

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A. I can't afford this purse! It ___. I won't be able to pay my rent!
B. His birthday was supposed to be a surprise! I can't believe you __. Now
he knows!
C.
D. Ha! John has been promising to paint the house for five years.... Maybe
when ___.
E. Yeah, it'll ___. I need to sign some papers at jenny's school anyway so
i'll pick her up for you too.
F. I don't really like going out to bars anymore. I only go ___.
G. I'm sorry I can't come into work today. I'm ____. I have a sore throat and
runny nose.
H. They tried ____ when installing the pipes for the house and now we have
leaks only one month after purchasing it!
I. We missed our flight to Paris because the connecting flight was late and
to ___ they made us pay for a new ticket as if it was our fault!
J. I can't wait to see you perform on stage tonight! ___!
K. Jane is just never on time to work, it's really annoying. 0 wow, ___ here
she comes...
L. So we're going to London, then Munich, then we will fly out of Athens,
right? Great. I'm so glad to be traveling with someone I ___ with.
M. Wow, she found her dream man and has now landed an amazing job.
She really does have ___.
N. OK, she might not be the most attractive but ____. I'm sure she is a
sweetheart.
O. I have been trying to figure this out for ages. Thanks so much, you're
right. You ___.
P. I can't believe that was our test. I think it was easier than some of our
homework! It was a ___.
So how did you do? Don't forget to try and use these idioms and phrases
when practicing your English. And do let us know if you need further
clarification on commonly used idioms by leaving a comment below.

Answers: 6, 8, 5, 10, 4, 9, 11, 12, 14, 2, 3, 1, 13, 15, 7

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Some more Idioms and Phrases:

S.No. Idioms & Phrases Meaning

1. Rank and File Ordinary People
2. By fits and starts In short periods, not regularly
3. A wee bit A little
4. Out of the wood Free from difficulties and
dangers
5. Under his thumb Under his control
6. At one's wits end Between In a state where one does not
the devil and the deep know what to do
7. sea Between two dangers
8. Burn the midnight oil Work or study hard
9. Call a spade a spade Speak frankly and directly
10. Come off with flying colors Be highly successful
11. Hoping against hope Without hope
12. Hit the nail on the head Do or say the exact thing
13. An axe to grind A personal interest in the matter
14. To get rid of Dispose of
15. At daggers drawn Bitterly hostile
16. To play ducks and drakes To act foolishly or inconsistently
17. To take the bull by the To tackle a problem in a bold
horns and direct fashion
18. Rain cats and dogs Rain heavily
19. To move heaven and earth To make a supreme effort
20. No avail Without any result
21. Bark up the wrong tree Accuse or denounce the wrong
person
22. Keep one at bay Keep one at a distance
23. Make a clean breast of it Confess - especially when a
person has done a wrong thing
24. Have a card up one's sleeve Have a secret plan in reserve
25. Like a cat on hot bricks Very nervous
26. Cat and dog life Life full of quarrels
27. Cock and bull story Made up story that one should
not believe
28. Cry for the moon Ask for the impossible
29. The pros and cons The various aspects of a matter
in detail
30. Be in a tight corner In a very difficult situation
31. Cross one's t's and dot Be precise, careful and one's i's
exact

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32. At arm's length To keep at a distance
33. Out of the question Impossible
34. Out of the way Strange
35. Show a clean pair of heals Run away
36. Keep one's fingers crossed The anxiety in which you hope
that nothing
37. In the nick of time Just at the last moment
38. Sitting on the fence Hesitate between two decisions
39. Spread like wild fire Spread quickly
40. The gift of the gab Talent for speaking
41. By hook or by crook By fair or foul means
42. Feather one's own nest Make money unfairly
43. Throw out of gear Disturb the work
44. Take to one's heels Run away
45. Tooth and nail With all one's power
46. Die in harness Die while in service
47. Take a leaf out of one's Imitate one
book
48. Leave no stone unturned Use all available means
49. A man of straw A man of no substance
50. Read between the lines Understand the hidden meaning
51. In cold blood Deliberately and without
emotion
52. A thorn in the flesh A constant source of annoyance
53. Smell a rat Suspect something foul
54. Harp on the same string Dwell on the same subject
55. Bury the hatchet End the quarrel and make peace
56. Leave one in the lurch Desert one in difficulties; leave
one in a helpless condition
57. Like a fish out of water In a strange situation
58. At one's beck and call Under his control
59. To make both ends meet To live within one's income
60. In hot water In trouble
61. Nip in the bud Destroy in the early stage
62. Stick to one's guns Remain faithful to the cause
63. To eat humble pie To apologize humbly and to
yield under humiliating
circumstances
64. In high spirits Very happy
65. Put the cart before the horse Put or do things in the wrong
order
66. To all names To abuse
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67. On tenterhooks In a state of suspense and
anxiety
68. Wash one's dirty linen Discuss unpleasant in public-
private matters before strangers
69. To bell the cat To face the risk
70. A hard nut to crack A difficult problem
71. Let the cat out of the bag Reveal a secret
72. A big gun An important person
73. Kill two birds with one To achieve two results with one
stone effort
74. Take one to task Rebuke
75. Gain ground Become Popular
76. To blow one's own To praise one's own trumpet
achievement
77. A bosom friend A very close friend
78. A brown study Dreaming
79. Turn a deaf ear Disregard / ignore what one says
80. A close shave Narrow escape
81. Turn over a new leaf Change for the better
82. Make up one's mind Decide
83. In the long run Eventually; ultimately
84. Bring to light Disclose
85. Pay off old scores Take revenge
86. Hard and fast rules Strict rules
87. At the eleventh hour At the last moment
88. A close shave Narrow escape
89. To cut a sorry figure To make a poor show
90. With a high hand Oppressively
91. Burn one's fingers Get into trouble by interfering in
other's affairs
92. Laugh one's head off Laugh heartily
93. Chew the cud Ponder over something
94. Play second fiddle Take an unimportant part
95. Above board Honest and open
96. Through thick and thin Under all conditions
97. Put a spoke in one's wheel To upset one's plans
98. At sixes and sevens In a disordered/disorganized
manner, chaotic
99. At home Comfortable
100. Alpha and omega The beginning and the end
101. At sea Confused and lost
102. A bosom friend A very close friend
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103. At one's beck and call At one's service
104. By leaps and bounds Rapidly
105. To burn one's boats Go back on a decision
106. To beat about the bush Talk irrelevantly
107. To burn candle at both ends To waste lavishly
108. Take one to task Rebuke
109. A bone of contention A source of quarrel
110. Add fuel to the fire To aggravate the situation
111. An acid test A critical test
112. At a snail's pace Very slowly
113. A bolt from the blue Something unexpected
114. To build castles in the air Make imaginary schemes
115. Once in a blue moon Something that happens very
rarely
116. Beating around the bush Avoiding the main topic
117. Cry over spilled milk Complaining about a loss or
failure from the past
118. Chip on your shoulder When someone is upset about
something that happened a while
ago
119. Piece of cake Something that is easy to
understand or do
120. Golden handshake A big sum of money given to a
person when he/she leaves a
company or retires
121. Spill the beans To disclose a secret
122. Blessing in disguise Something good and useful that
did not initially seem that way
123. Mean business Being Serious or Dedicated
124. Come hell or high water Possible obstacles in your path
125. Apple of one's Being cherished
126. eye Bite off more than you Not able to complete a task due
can chew to lack of ability
127. The best of both worlds The benefits of widely differing
situations, enjoyed at the same
time
128. Feeling a bit under the Feeling slightly ill
weather
129. Icing on the cake Something that turns good into
great
130. Cost an arm and a leg Be very expensive

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131. Jump the bandwagon To join a popular activity or
trend
132. Ball is in your court When it is up to you to make the
next decision or step
133. To be in the doldrums To be in low spirits
134. To sit on the fence To remain neutral
135. Break the ice To initiate a social conversation
or interaction
136. Hear it on grapevine To hear rumors about something
or someone
137. Can't judge a book by its Cannot judge something
cover primarily on appearance
138. It takes two to tango Actions or communications need
more than one person
139. Let the cat out of the bag To reveal the secret carelessly or
by mistake
140. Black and blue Full of Bruises
141. Be on cloud nine Be very happy
142. Last straw The final problem in a series of
problems
143. A bird's eye view A view from a very high place
that allows you to see a very
large area
144. A litmus Test A method that helps to know if
something is correct
145. At the drop of a hat Willingness to do something
instantly
146. Afraid of one's own shadow To become easily frightened
147. A house of cards A poor plan
148. Fool's paradise False sense of happiness
149. Get a raw deal To not be treated as well as
other people
150. Give cold shoulder To ignore
151. Hand to mouth Live on only basic necessities
152. Make a face To show dislike or
disappointment through facial
expressions
153. It's Greek to me Something that is not
understandable
154. To pour oil on troubled waters To make peace

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155. Don't put all your eggs in Do not put all your resources in
one basket one basket (in one place or
thing)
156. To put in a nutshell To say in a few words or to
make something concise
157. Back out To withdraw from a promise or
contract
158. Blow up To explode
159. Back Up To support and sustain
160. Back Upon To be relevant
161. Break Down Failure in something
162. Break off To end or discontinue
163. Break Up To disperse / dissolve
164. Bring up To rear
165. Call forth To provoke
166. Call out To shout
167. Call upon To order
168. Carry on To continue
169. Cast away To throw aside
170. Catch up with To overtake
171. Come off To take place
172. Cry Down To make little of
173. Catch up with To overtake
174. Cry out against To complain loudly against
175. Cut out Designed for
176. Drop in To Visit Casually
177. Drop out To fall
178. Fall back To Recede; To Retreat
179. Fall down From a higher position to a
lower one
180. Fall off To Withdraw; To Drop Off
181. Fall under To come under
182. Get along To Prosper; To Progress; To
Proceed
183. Get on with To Live Pleasantly Together; To
Progress
184. Get into To be involved in
185. Give in To Surrender; To Yield
186. Give over Not to do any longer
187. Go after To Follow; To Pursue
188. Go Down To be accepted
189. Go without To remain without
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190. Go by To follow
191. Hang about To Loiter near a place
192. Hang upon To depend upon
193. Hold out To Endure; To Refuse to yield;
To continue; To offer
194. Hold to Abide By
195. Keep off To ward off
196. Keep up with To keep pace with
197. Knockout To win by hitting another one
198. It takes two to tango Both people involved in a bad
situation are responsible for it
199. Last straw The final problem in a series of
problems
200. Keep something at bay Keep something away
201. Kill two birds with one To solve two problems at a time
stone with just one action
202. Let sleeping dogs lie Leave something alone if it
might cause trouble
203. Open the floodgates Release something that was
previously under control
204. Out of the blue Happen unexpectedly
205. Out on a limb Do something risky
206. Over the Top Totally excessive and not
suitable for the occasion
207. Pen is mightier than the Words and communication have
sword a greater effect than war
208. Push one's luck Trying to obtain more than what
one has
209. Reap the harvest Benefit or suffer as a direct
result of past actions
210. Roll up sleeves To get yourself prepared
211. See eye to eye To be in agreement with
212. Shot in the dark A complete guess
213. Sink your teeth into Do something with a lot of
energy and enthusiasm
214. Take with a grain/pinch of To doubt the accuracy of
salt information
215. Skating on thin ice Do or say something risky
216. Tight spot A difficult situation
217. Strike while the iron is hot To act at the right time

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218. Take the plunge Venture into something of one's
interest despite the risks
involved
219. Take a nosedive Rapid drop or decrease in value
220. Think the world of Admire someone very much
221. Stand in a good stead To be useful or be of good
service to someone
222. Take a back seat Choose to be less important in a
role
223. Wave a dead chicken Do something useless
224. Whale of a time Enjoy a lot
225. Wrap one's brain around Concentrate on something to
understand
226. Zero in on something Focus all attention on one thing
227. Above all Chiefly, Mainly
228. On Account of Due to
229. On no account Not for Any Reason
230. A Fidus Achates A faithful friend or a devoted
follower
231. The Heel of Achilles A Weak Point
232. An Adonis A very handsome man
233. To assume airs To affect superiority
234. To stand aloof To keep to oneself and not mix
with others
235. To lead to the altar To marry
236. An Ananias A Liar
237. An Apollo A Man with Perfect Physique
238. To Upset the Apple Cart To disturb the peace
239. Apple Pie Order In perfect order
240. Arcadian Life A blissful, happy, rural and
simple life
241. To take up arms To fight or go to the war
242. To Grind To have some selfish objective
in view
243. To break the back of To perform the most difficult
anything part
244. To backbite a person To speak disguise about
someone
245. He has no backbone He has no will of his own
246. To cause bad blood To Cause Enmity
247. Bag and Baggage With all one's belongings
248. To keep the ball rolling To keep things going

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249. Barmecide feast Imaginary Benefits
250. Bee-line The shortest distance between
two places
251. Behind one's back Without one's Knowledge
252. Behind the scenes In Private
253. To hit below the belt To act unfairly in a contest
254. To bite the dust To be Defeated in Battle
255. A Wet Blanket A person who discourages
enjoyment or enthusiasm
256. In Cold Blood Deliberately
257. A blue Stocking A learned/educated or
intellectual woman
258. At First Blush ' At first sight
259. A Bolt from the Blue Something completely
unexpected that surprises you
260. One's bread and butter One's means of livelihood
261. To breadth one's last To Die
262. To make bricks without To attempt to do something
straw without proper materials
263. To kick the bucket To die
264. Good wine needs no bush There is no need to advertise
something good
265. To burn the candle at both To expend energy in two
ends directions at the same time
266. If the cap fits, wear it If you think the remarks refer to
you, then accept the criticism
267. Care killed the cat Don't fret and worry yourself to
death
268. To Catch one's eye To attract attention
269. To take the chair To preside a meeting
270. She is no chicken She is older than she says
271. To pick and choose To make a careful selection
272. To square the circle To attempt something
impossible
273. Every cloud has a silver Adverse conditions do not last
lining forever
274. Close fisted Mean
275. Cut your cloth according to Live within your income
your Cloth
276. A cock and bull story A foolishly incredible story
277. To be cock sure To be perfectly sure or certain

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278. To throw cold water upon To discourage efforts
anything
279. Off colour Not in the usual form
280. To commit to memory To learn by heart
281. Too many cooks spoil the Where there are more workers
broth than necessary
282. Crocodile tears Hypocritical Tears
283. By hook or by crook By fair or foul means
284. Cut and dried Readymade
285. Up to date Recent
286. Evil days A period of misfortune
287. Halcyon Days A time when there are peace and
happiness in the land
288. To step into dead man's To come into an inheritance
shoes
289. Go to the devil Be off
290. Devil's bones Dice
291. Devil's Playthings Playing Cards
292. Give a dog a bad name and Once a person loses his
hang him reputation
293. Every dog has his day Sooner or later, everyone has his
share of good fortune
294. To throw dust in one's eyes To try to deceive someone or
mislead someone
295. A white elephant A useless possession which is
extremely expensive to keep
296. To set the Thames on fire To do something sensational or
remarkable One who has had a
previous unpleasant experience
is always scared of situations
where such experiences are
likely to be
297. A burnt child dreads the fire repeated
298. A fish out of water Anyone in an awkward
299. Foul play Cheating
300. To jump from a frying pan To come out of one trouble and
into fire get into a worse
301. All that glitters are not gold Things are not always as
attractive as they appear
302. To die in harness To continue at one's occupation
until death
303. Make hay while the sun shines Take advantage of all opportunities

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304. Lock, stock and barrel The whole of everything
305. A miss is as good as a mile Comes nowhere near it. If someone
narrowly misses the target it still is
treated as a missed one or failure.
306. To move heaven and earth To exert all efforts
307. One swallow does not make a It is unreliable to base erne's conclusions
summer on only a single test or incident
308. If wishes were horses, beggars If wishing could make things happen,
might ride then even the most destitute people
would have everything they wanted
309. A nine days' wonder An event which relates a sensation for a
time but is soon forgotten
310. Yellow press Newspapers which publish sensational
and unscrupulous stories and
exaggerates the news to attract readers.
311. A ball park figure A general financial figure
312. To balance the books To make certain that the amount of
money spent is not more than the
amount of money received.
313. A cash cow A product or service that makes a lot of
money for a company
314. Devil's Advocate To present a counter argument
315. Don't give up the day job You are not very good at something. You
could not do it professionally.
316. To cook the books To modify financial statements
317. To get the sack To be dismissed from your job
318. To be snowed under To be very busy
319. To work your fingers to the bone To work really hard
Or To sweat blood
320. Hear it on the grapevine To hear rumours
321. In the heat of the moment Overwhelmed by what is happening in
the moment
322. Not a spark of decency No Manners
323. Speak of the devil! This expression is used when the person
you have just been talking about arrives
324. Whole nine yards Everything. All of it
325. Your guess is as good as mine To have no idea about anything

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One Word Substitution

One Word Substitution is as explained below:

The one-word substitutions list is divided into different sections as given

below.

People Group Profession

Venue Government Phobia
Death Sound Generic Terms

List of One Word Substitution for "Individual Character/Person/

People"

PHRASE ONE WORD

One who is not sure about God's existence Agnostic
A person who deliberately sets fire to a building Arsonist
One who does a thing for pleasure and not as a Amateur
profession
One who can use either hand with ease Ambidextrous
One who makes an official examination of accounts Auditor
A person who believes in or tries to bring about a Anarchist
state of lawlessness
A person who has changed his faith Apostate
One who does not believe in the existence of God Atheist
A person appointed by two parties to solve a dispute Arbitrator
One who leads an austere life Ascetic
One who does a thing for pleasure and not as a Amateur
profession
One who can either hand with ease Ambidextrous
An unconventional style of living Bohemian
One who is bad in spellings Cacographer
One who feeds on human flesh Cannibal
A person who is blindly devoted to an idea/ A person Chauvinist
displaying aggressive or exaggerated patriotism
A critical judge of any art and craft Connoisseur
Persons living at the same time Contemporaries
One who is recovering health after illness Convalescent
A girl/woman who flirts with man Coquette
A person who regards the whole world as his country Cosmopolitan
One who is a centre of attraction Cynosure

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One who sneers at the beliefs of others Cynic
A leader or orator who espoused the cause of the Demagogue
common people
A person having a sophisticated charm Debonair
A leader who sways his followers by his oratory Demagogue
A dabbler (not serious) in art, science and literature Dilettante
One who is for pleasure of eating and drinking Epicure
One who often talks of his achievements Egotist
Someone who leaves one country to settle in another Emigrant
A man who is womanish in his habits Effeminate
One hard to please (very selective in his habits) Fastidious
One who runs away from justice Fugitive
One who is filled with excessive enthusiasm in Fanatic
religious matters
One who believes in fate Fatalist
A lover of good food Gourmand
Conferred as an honour Honorary
A person who acts against religion Heretic
A person of intellectual or erudite tastes Highbrow
A patient with imaginary symptoms and ailments Hypochondriac
A person who is controlled by wife Henpeck
One who shows sustained enthusiastic action with Indefatigable
unflagging vitality
Someone who attacks cherished ideas or traditional Iconoclast
institutions
One who does not express himself freely Introvert
Who behaves without moral principles Immoral
A person who is incapable of being tampered with Impregnable
One who is unable to pay his debts Insolvent
A person who is mentally ill Lunatic
A person who dislikes humankind and avoids human Misanthrope
society
A person who primarily concerned with making Mercenary
money at the expense of ethics
Someone in love with himself Narcissist
One who collect coins as hobby Numismatist
A person who likes or admires women Philogynist
A lover of mankind Philanthropist
A person who speaks more than one language Polyglot
One-who lives in solitude Recluse
Someone who walks in sleep Somnambulist

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A person who is indifferent to the pains and Stoic
pleasures of life
A scolding nagging bad-tempered woman Termagant
A person who shows a great or excessive fondness Uxorious
for one's wife
One who possesses outstanding technical ability in a Virtuoso
particular art or field

One Word Substitution List for "Collection/ Grout)"

PHRASE ONE WORD

A group of guns or missile launchers operated Battery
together at one place
A large bundle bound for storage or transport Bale
A large gathering of people of a particular type Bevy
An arrangement of flowers that is usually given as a present Bouquet
A family of young animals Brood
A group of things that have been hidden in a secret place Cache
A group of people, typically with vehicles or animals travelling Caravan
together
A closed political meeting Caucus
An exclusive circle of people with a common purpose Clique
A group of followers hired to applaud at a performance Claque
A series of stars Constellation
A funeral procession Cortege
A group of worshippers Congregation
A herd or flock of animals being driven in a body Drove
A small fleet of ships or boats Flotilla
A small growth of trees without underbrush Grove
A community of people smaller than a village Hamlet
A group of cattle or sheep or other domestic mammals Herd
A large group of people Horde
A temporary police force Posse
A large number of fish swimming together Shoal
A strong and fast-moving stream of water or other liquid Torrent

One Word Substitutes List for “Research / Profession”

PHRASE ONE WORD

The medieval forerunner of chemistry Alchemy
A person who presents a radio/television programme Anchor
One who studies the evolution of mankind Anthropologist
A person who is trained to travel in a spacecraft Astronaut
The scientific study of the physiology, structure, genetics, ecology, Botany
distribution, classification, and economic importance of plants
A person who draws or produces maps Cartographer
A person who writes beautiful writing Calligrapher

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A person who composes the sequence of steps and moves for a Choreographer
performance of dance
A person employed to drive a private or hired car Chauffeur
A person who introduces the performers or contestants in a Compere
variety show
A keeper or custodian of a museum or other collection Curator
The branch of biology concerned with cyclical physiological Chronobiology
phenomena
A secret or disguised way of writing Cypher
The study of statistics Demography
The use of the fingers and hands to communicate and convey Dactylology
ideas
A person who sells and arranges cut flowers Florist
A line of descent traced continuously from an ancestor Genealogy
The therapeutic use of sunlight Heliotherapy
The art or practice of garden cultivation and management Horticulture
One who supervises in the examination hall Invigilator
The theory or philosophy of law Jurisprudence
A person who compiles dictionaries Lexicographer
The scientific study of the structure and diseases of teeth Odontology
One who presents a radio programme Radio Jockey
The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing Rhetoric
The branch of science concerned with the origin, structure, and Petrology
composition of rocks
One who study the elections and trends in voting Psephology’s
An artist who makes sculptures. Sculptor
The scientific study of the behaviour, structure, physiology, Zoology
classification, and distribution of animals

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 4. COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Important Topics in this chapter are:

1. Communication - Verbal, Non-verbal and Written

2. Significance of Communication Skills for Lawyers- Listening,
Speaking, Reading and Writing (Introductory)
3. Electronic Communication and its Types (Telephone, Facsimile,
E- mail, Voice mail, Teleconferencing, Video-conferencing,
Word processor, Internet, Social Media)
4. Formal Correspondence
5. Resume Writing

Types of Communication - Verbal, Non-verbal and Written

The Types of Communication are as explained below:

Introduction:
Communication is the exchange of information between people by means
of speaking, writing or using a common system of signs or behaviour. It is
a way of making others react with ideas, thoughts, feelings and values
transmitting the information or conveying the message.

Communication Process involves the followings:

• Source/Sender: A person to transmit meaning, an opinion, fact or

idea.
• Encoding: It involves using the forms of words, facial expressions,
gestures, actions, numbers, pictures, graphs, eye contact and posture
etc.
• Transmission: It is an appropriate channel or a medium of a
message.
• Decoding: It involves perception and interpretation.
• Receiver: A person who receives the message - individual or a
group.
• Noise: Noise refers to any type of disruption which reduces the
clearness of the message.

The primary methods that are involved in the process of communication

are: Verbal, Nonverbal and Written,
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a. Verbal Communication:

It is the important form of organizational communication that involves

direct talk between the speakers and the listeners when they are physically
present. It is the process in that the receiver observes simultaneously the
content of the message, gestures, the changes in tone and the pitch
connected with the spoken word.

The formal record of such communication does not exist, so the spirit of
authority cannot be transmitted as it should be. At times, more or less or
different meaning may be communicated by manner of speaking, tone and
facial expression. Nonetheless, personal warmth and friendliness can be
conveyed through verbal communication. It enables the receiver to respond
by opinions and reactions in case he or she is indecisive of the message.

b. Non-Verbal Communication:

Facial or non-verbal expressions reveal a lot about a person's usual mood

or temperament - his behavioural tendency can also be envisaged. This way
of communication has considerable meaning to managers to interpret the
behaviour of the employees. It enables to comprehend pretense or real
situation - it may be said that however much one acts as if something were
true or acts in a way intended to make others believe something is untrue
or misleading, but the reality is visible at his face.

The true or false countenance can be easily differentiated. Thus, body

language plays a vital role being diluted with non-verbal expressions. A
handshake or a pleasant smile is an example of most common form of body
language. Moreover, some of the environmental elements such as building,
office space can convey a message about the authority of the person. Facial
expressions can be categorized as, excitement, fear, joy, anger,
unhappiness and distress etc. It is easy to know the person's arrogance,
boldness, shyness and other characteristics by means of his or her facial
expressions

c. Written Communication:

This method of communication is of much value and relevance in the

organizations. It includes formal letters, memos, reports, company policy
manuals and so on. These areas, for the efficient functioning of the
organization, are covered in particular through written communication. It
reduces the probabilities and perceptual distortions while providing

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permanent records for future references. The message can be stored for an
indefinite period of time for use in the future.

As a negative factor, it leads to the excessive formalities. It is likely that

the confidential written material may leak out or may be disclosed
unofficially before the proper time causing disruption. Nevertheless, it is
authoritative for the action and most effective as and when needed, more
specifically, when the communication is that of general informational
nature.

Significance of Communication Skills for Lawyers- Listening,

Speaking, Reading and Writing (Introductory)

Significance of Communication Skills for Lawyers is as

Explained below:

a. Listening:
1. The first rule of listening is to be present. That means you are actually
there with the other person. You're not mentally going over your to-do
list while they're talking. When you are really listening, you imagine
what it might be like to live in their world. You allow the other person
to share. You pay attention. You get the big picture. You don't allow
distractions. You listen to the other person rather than that 'little voice'
in your head that is chattering away at you. You show some
compassion.

2. Know yourself. Be aware of your own listening style. Each of us has

our own preconceived notions and judgments. We listen through filters
and we often resort to a certain style of listening. The more we take
responsibility to become aware of our own filters and styles, the better
able we are to put these filters and patterns aside and truly listen to
others.

3. Listen to what they say and what they don't say. Sometimes what is not
said is much more important than what is said. Is the other person
upset? Angry? Hurt? What is the emotion behind the words? Is she
ashamed to tell you something? What details is she leaving out? Is he
embarrassed to tell part of the story? Does the other person feel
betrayed? What is the commitment behind the betrayal? Has some
standard been violated?
4. Learn to listen to your own intuition. Everyone has intuition. The
question is not whether you have intuition, but whether you choose to

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 develop your intuition and integrate it into your professional and
personal life. Integrating this intuition into the way that you listen to
clients also trains you for more satisfying relationships with spouses,
partners, family, etc. When you truly listen to someone, you can "hear"
much more than the words that are spoken. [Caution! It is easy to
confuse your own judgments or notions with intuition. Ask yourself if
you are really clear to listen to the other person and to your intuition or
if you are merely listening to the judgments of your own 'little voice'.]

5. Create the environment for listening. In the office, it is often a good

idea to meet clients in a conference room or other neutral place where
the distractions on your desk do not claim your attention. Close the
door, turn off phones, sit quietly and put all your attention on the client
Make sure others know that you are not to be interrupted except in case
of a real emergency. Of course, not all listening is done in the office.
There are many ways to create safe and calm environments for creating
the focus for listening. When talking on the phone, it may be useful to
try closing your eyes and concentrating on listening (rather than
playing a computer game). In a public place, it may be useful to step
aside, look directly into the person's eyes, if appropriate you may even
touch him or her on the arm to make connection.

b. Speaking:
1. Ask questions. Using your good listening skills, help the other person
tell you what you need to know to get the full picture. Ask about what
the other person isn't saying as well as what he is saying. If you think
your client is avoiding a topic, it is usually better to find a way to draw
out the information rather than having it surprise you later.

2. Acknowledge the content of what you have heard. Therapists have a

technique called active listening that is very helpful. In active listening,
you repeat back what the other person said. This can feel awkward at
first but it is an amazing tool. As you repeat it back, the other person
knows you have heard the communication and is empowered to move
on to the next concept.

3. Acknowledge the emotions behind what you have heard. Often, clients
come to us when they are very angry. They may also feel embarrassed,
betrayed, helpless, upset, sad, etc. Reflecting back the emotion you hear
expressed by the other person has multiple purposes. First: it helps you
to clarify what emotions are attached to the other person's story.
Second, knowing the emotions are there can help identify what the

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 other person really wants in crafting a solution. Third, because the other
person is acknowledged, she/he is better able to feel your compassion
and to know you understand.

4. Acknowledge the unfulfilled expectations you have heard. The other

person may be complaining about something, but behind every
complaint is an unfulfilled expectation. Often, the complaint is a result
of a standard or expectation that has been violated, unfulfilled or not
lived up to. Discerning what the unfulfilled expectation is can help the
client better see what is possible or not possible in crafting any solution
to a dispute.

5. Let the client know you care. Often, we lawyers jump right to the legal
issues. Our clients may be upset because they can't differentiate
between legal, financial or emotional issues. For some people, the
issues are all meshed together. First we can acknowledge the
frustration, and then help the client sort out the issues into these
categories. And then let the client know that you care.

For example, recently a lawyer in California told me that a woman had

called her about a broken relationship. The couple had been living together
for eight years and she always expected they would eventually be married.
Now, the man had left her. She wanted legal recourse. The lawyer told her
that she did not live in a common law marriage state, and that the
expectation of being married someday was not actionable.

The woman hung up on the lawyer, then called back a few minutes later to
say that she didn't appreciate the lawyer's attitude. "I called a human
being," she said, "and I expected to get a human response." In informing
the client about her legal rights, the lawyer had overlooked the pain of the
break-up. This scenario might have gone differently if the lawyer had said;
"This must be terrible for you, to live with someone for eight years,
expecting to get married, loving him, counting on a future together, only to
have it end abruptly. I wish 1 could help. It may not be fair and- you may
be justifiably upset but the law doesn't provide any remedy for this sort of
situation."

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c. Reading:
Lawyers must be able to take in a great deal of information, often on topics
about which they are unfamiliar. The ability to digest information from
lengthy, dense texts is essential. Equally important is the ability to listen to
clients and understand their unique issues and concerns

d. Writing:
Whether in the courtroom or the law office, lawyers must be effective
communicators. If lawyers could not translate thoughts and opinions into
clear and precise English, it would be difficult for the law to serve society.
After all, the law is embodied in words, and many of the disputes that give
birth to laws begin with language—its meaning, use, and interpretation.
Litigation leads to written judicial opinions; congressional enactments are
recorded as printed statutes; and even economic transactions must be
expressed as formal, written contracts.

Electronic Communication and its Types (Telephone, Facsimile, E-

mail, Voice mail, Teleconferencing, Video-conferencing, Word
processor, Internet, Social Media)

Electronic Communication and its Types are as explained below:

Introduction:
Electronic communication dates back to the telegraph that used Morse code
to send messages long distances over wires. After that, the electronics
industry added the wired telephone, the wireless radio and television. Since
then, the industry has exploded; consumers now share information with
each other anywhere, anytime and in ways that are as varied as we are.

Electronic communication has become a very popular means to

communicate worldwide. Electronic communication is used for the
transfer of different types of data and images through wire,
electromagnetic, photo electronic or photo-optical system and radio.
Electronic communication is so popular that many businesses and people
consider it to be essential tool in our daily lives.

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There are many ways to communicate electronically, each with benefits
and risks related to business or personal use. It is likely that in the future,
advances in technology and computer programming will enable us to
communicate in ways we can only dream about today.

With the revolutionary development of information technology, the world

is becoming smaller and people staying at any corner are well-capable of
communicating with others, whatever the distance is people and
organizations use different modern devices of communication technology.
Some widely used electronic communication technologies or media of
electronic communication are discussed below

a. Telephone:

The most commonly and most widely used electronic device of

communication is telephone. With its invention in 1876 by Graham Bell, a
German scientist, the human civilization moved to a new era. By telephone,
people can transmit information orally within a minute. Recently-
developed satellite telephoning system has added new dimension in
telecommunication system. In most of the cases, it is the easiest and less
expensive way of communicating distance people. Now-a-days, the
development and diffuse of cellular or mobile phone have been an expected
euphoria to all of us. Definitely it is becoming extremely popular.

b. Facsimile (Fax):

The use of fax a gradually increasing for transmitting visual materials such
as picture, diagrams, illustrations etc. here, the fax machine is connected
with a telephonic. The document to be transmitted is fed through the
machine, then it is electronically scanned and signals are transmitted to the
receiving end where an identical copy of the document is reproduced on a
bland sheet of paper by the receiving machine. The fax machine has made
it possible to send copies of important documents including certificates,
testimonials, degrees, agreements; contracts etc. form one place to another
at the speed of a telephone call. For this reason, it is universally used
method of communication.

c. Electronic Mail (E-mail):

Email via the widely used internet is popular because people are able to
write short messages, receive quick responses and include photographs or
reports with formatted data quickly and efficiently. Sending information
through the conventional or 'snail' mail can be costly and time consuming.

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Using email for personal or professional purposes is an efficient means of
communication.

Email is a method originally intended to imitate physical mail. Messages

are delivered from one specific address to one or more specific addresses.
Users are alerted to the presence of new messages in their inboxes by email
clients that display the content and offer an opportunity to reply.

Messages are primarily text but may include file attachments of various
types including images and short movies. Unlike instant messages, emails
are generally not expected to be read immediately upon receipt. Most email
readers keep track of conversations that include multiple people through
the use of threads. Thus email is ideally suited for long, involved
conversations between two people or among small groups of people.

d. Voice mail:
Voice mail is a form of e-mail. It is used to send the voice of the sender
instead of sending written massage to the receiver. The mechanism of
sending message here is almost same as in case of e-mail. It is useful to
communicate with the original voice tone of the sender.

e. Teleconferencing:
Under teleconferencing system people staying at different places can hold
talks or meetings over telephone. Here everyone involved in the meeting
is able to hear each other and can share information with one another as if
they were all placed in one room. It can save both money and time of the
executives.

f. Video-conferencing:

Videoconferencing is the latest version of teleconferencing system. Under

this method people can meet and work together without being gathered in
one room. They can hear and see each other over the television or video
screen and can share information with one another. Now-a-days
multinational companies use videoconferencing method as a widely used
means of communication in order to keep touch with the executives
staying miles away from the head office. It also saves money and time of
high officials.

g. Word processor:
A word processor in an electronic device where a computer is combined
with a typewriter. It can greatly simplify the job of written

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 communication. Typing skill, basic computer literacy and word
processing software are essential for using a word processor. The operator
of a word processor can easily edit the text, give it the desired format and
insert or delete words phrase or sentences wherever he likes. It is a very
useful medium of modern communication technology as it provides some
important advantages.

h. Internet:

Internet is the latest and most amazing development that has changed the
way of live regarding communication. It is the world's largest computer
network linked together by telephone lines, radio links or satellite links.
Internet can be used for multipurpose functions. It can be used for sending
e-mail, for advertisement, for teleconferencing, for telephoning and so on.

World Wide Web users post content on websites for others to view. The
content may be simple text, but it might also contain multimedia files
including images, sounds, videos or streaming content. Unlike many other
forms of electronic communication, most Web content is pulled from the
Web by users who are seeking information, rather than pushed to
subscribers. While not as permanent as traditional media like paper, Web
pages can archive information for extended periods.

i. Social Media:

Social networking sites facilitate communication among people with

common interests or affiliations. Sites such as Facebook and Linkedln
provide places for people to interact, sometimes in real time.
Microblogging services like Twitter, allow short textual messages of no
more than 140 characters to be broadcast to a large audience. Unlike text
messages, which are delivered to only small groups, microblog posts are
intended to be seen by all of a user's followers. Microblog users can repost
messages that they want to share with their own followers, so a microblog
post can spread quickly. A widely reposted message is called a viral post.

Many newsgroups and chat rooms now use Facebook, My Space and
Twitter, a type of social media for communication purposes which lets the
user give an instant message and receive an instant response with
supporting live video images. Users are able to post messages to a
particular' group of people or to members of a specific club and comment
instantaneously.

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 Formal Correspondence with suitable example

Concept of Formal Correspondence is as explained below:

Introduction:
The definition of 'Formal" is: "In conformance with generally accepted
standards; the opposite of casual. Generally accepted formal standards
usually denote professionalism, whereas the absence or lack of standards
would be seen as casual. For example, a business jacket, tie, button-up
shirt, slacks, dark-colored socks, business shoes, and a neat and clean
appearance is considered formal attire for men. Similarly, a formal letter
would have many different characteristics than a casual email, such as a
standard header, salutation, closing, and formatting.

The definition of "Correspondence" is: "Any written or digital

communication exchanged by two or more parties. Correspondences may
come in the form of letters, emails, text messages, voicemails, notes, or
postcards. Correspondences are important for most businesses because
they serve as a paper trail of events from point A to point B. "The law
firm required all employees to archive their correspondences so that they
could be retrieved as a reference point for pending cases"

A formal correspondence is written in the professional language, with a

prescribed format for a formal purpose, i.e. it can be a recommendation
letter, enquiry letter, complaint letter, cover letter and so on.

All business letters are formal, but vice versa is not possible. Such letters
are used for a variety of reasons like a formal invitation, proposal, and
reference, making a complaint or inquiry, applying for a job. While
writing a formal correspondence one should keep in mind the following
things:

• It should be in specified format.

• It should avoid the use of unnecessary words.
• It should be straight to the point.
• It should be relevant and objective.
• It should be complex and thorough.
• It should be polite, even if it is a complaint letter.
• It should be free from any mistakes, i.e. grammatical or spelling.
There are three types of formal correspondences, i.e. business letters,
letters for outlining civic problems and job applications.

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Comparison between Formal and Informal Correspondence:

Basis For Formal Correspondence Informal

Comparison Correspondence
Meaning A formal correspondence A correspondence
is written in formal written in an friendly
language, in the stipulated manner, to someone
format, for official you are familiar with,
purpose. is called informal
correspondence.
Objective Professional Personal
Communication Communication
Format Written in prescribed No prescribed format.
format only.
Written in First person - Business First, second or third
letters, third person - person.
others.
Written to Business, college/institute, Friends, family,
employer, organizations, acquaintances etc.
etc.
Voice Passive Active
Sentences Long and complex Short and simple
Size Concise Large or concise
Contractions and Avoided Used
Abbreviations

Conclusion:
Before we start correspondence, first we should identify, who is your
recipient? If you are having a professional relationship with the recipient,
then you should go for a formal letter, whereas if the recipient is someone
very close to you or you know the recipient well, then the informal letter is
the right choice for you.

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Basics of Resume Writing

Introduction:
Resume (sometimes called your "CV") is your most important tool when
applying for a job. It doesn't matter how qualified you are, or how much
experience you have - if your resume is poorly presented or badly written,
you're going to have trouble getting the job you want - or even an interview.
Taking the time to work on your resume is really important. The
information on this page offers some tips and advice on how to make your
resume the best it can be.

The purpose of a resume

Your resume is a marketing tool. It needs to demonstrate:
• That you are employable
• How you meet the job and the organisation's requirements
• That you have the right qualifications and education
• That you have the right experience and skills
• That you have the right level of professionalism for the job
•
How long should my resume be?
There is no set length for a resume. A resume varies in length depending
on your experience and education. If you haven't worked much before, one
or two pages is best, but three pages is okay if you've got a lot of study and
work behind you.
Make sure you don't pad out your resume. If your resume is only one page,
as long as it's well-presented it might get better results than a two-page
resume full of unnecessary information.

How should I order my resume?

Generally it's always good to present the information on your resume in
this order:
1. Contact details
2. Opening statement
3. List of key skills
4. List of technical/software skills
5. Personal attributes/career overview
6. Educational qualifications
7. Employment history/volunteering/work placements
8. References/referees

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Not everything in this list must appear on your resume every time, and the
order can change from application to application. For more information
about each of these sections, check out "What Your Resume Should
include", below.

The most important thing is to get the most useful information across first.
For example, if your education history is not specifically related to the job,
put it toward the end of your resume, behind the information that is related
to the job.

Should we change the resume for each application?

You need to tailor your resume to every job application so that it responds
to the specific requirements of the job you're applying for.

You might not need to change much, but you do need to make sure your
opening statement, your key skills and your personal attributes all respond
to the needs of the role, based on the job ad (if there was one) and the
research you've done into the job.

You should also tailor your resume to show how your work experience
specifically meets the needs of the job you're applying for.

How to tailor your resume

Ways that you can tailor your resume include:
• Using your opening statement to link your experience and education
to the organization and the requirements of the job
• Listing your most relevant key skills first
• Including examples of achievements that meet the advertised
requirements of the job
• Including specifically relevant key words and phrases throughout
your resume (see "Keywords" in "What Your Resume Should
Include", below)

What your resume should include

Contact details
Make sure you include your name, email address and a contact phone
number on your resume. You don't have to include your home address,
although there might be some situations when doing so would be a good
idea.

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Don't include your contact details in the header of your resume.
Recruitment software sometimes has difficulty reading information in
headers or footers, so it's a good idea to avoid headers altogether.

You can put your contact details in the footer of your resume, but if you
do, you must make sure they're also in the main body of the document.

Opening statement
An opening statement is a summary of who you are, where you've studied
and/or worked, and what you bring to the job. It should be about six lines
long and written in first person without the personal reference (i.e., don't
say "I did this" - say "Did this" instead). Your opening statement should
start with one sentence about who you are and what you bring to the job,
then describe the skills and attributes you have that suit you to the job.

Key skills & strengths

Your resume should include a list of between 10 and 15 skills that link
your experience to the job you're applying for.
If the job you're applying for was advertised, either the ad or the position
description may provide a list of skills and experiences that are essential
for doing the job. It may also provide a list of "desirable" skills and
experience. Your list of key skills & strengths needs to respond to all of
the items on the "essential" list and as many items as possible on the
"Desirable" list.
When putting together this list, think of things you've done or learned to
do as part of:
• Jobs you've had
• Your studies
• Any work placements you've done
• Any volunteering you've done

Technical/software skills
This is a short list of the names of software or technology you know how
to use. Examples might include:
• Word processing or spreadsheet software
• Programming languages
• Tools (e.g., cash registers, EFTPOS)

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Examples of Resumes:
1. Resume of the post of a lawyer in law-firm:

College logo
goes here

Vinod Mehta (Name-16 pt. font size)

College: Big National Law University (BNLU), Mumbai (10 pt.)
Email:[email protected] (Mention the most frequently used email.
Ideally mention the college email ID is mentioned. You should be able to quick
contacted)
Contact Number: +91 2787665589; +91 9416896966
EDUCATIONAL QUALIFCATION (ALL HEADINGS ARE 12 POINTS,
HIGHLIGHTED IN GREY AND IN CAPS)
COLLEGE/SCHOOL QUALIFICATION (12 CGPA/
POINTS, CAPS) PERCENTAGE
BNLU, Mumbai Pursuing 4 year of the BA. 5.2/7.0
B.Sc./LLB (Hones.) Course
ST. MARY'S HIGH Higher Senior Secondary (Class 83%
SCHOOL, Chennai XII); Affiliated to CBSE Board
DPS, RKPURAM, New Senior Secondary (Class X); 87.6%
Delhi Affiliated to CBSE Board
ADDITIONAL QUALIFICATIONS AND COURSES
COURSE INSTITUTION TIME PERIOD /
PROGRESS
Company Secretary ICSI (Popular abbreviations need Foundation course
Course not be written in full form) cleared
Patents (DL-201) WIPO's Worldwide Academy, June 1-July
Geneva 15,2011
Cyber Laws Course Asian School of Cyber Laws October 3-
November 23,
2010
INTERNSHIPS
Luthra and Luthra Law Offices, New Delhi [April-May, 2011: 4 weeks] (12 points)
(Full name of the organisation is written followed by the name of city. Duration is
mentioned in square brackets as given above)
• Drafted a plaint and a cease and desist notice against the Client's trademark
violators.
• Framed a legal opinion for a web based cricket stock exchange.
• Did extensive case law and statutory research on the Indian Arbitration and
Conciliation Act; case law research on international arbitration and online
mediation processes.
(Work done during the internship is mentioned in 3-4 bullet points with
precise detail. A uniform bullet style is used throughout).

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ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENTS
• Was the batch topper with a GPA of 6.8/7 in the 5th semester.
• Obtained 'E' grade (the highest attainable grade) in Constitutional
Law I, Public International Law.
MOOT COURT EXPERIENCE

• Winner, Manfred Lachs International Space Law Moot Court

Competition (Asia Pacific Round) (April 2011). (Dates,
wherever applicable, are mentioned in brackets).
PUBLICATIONS

• "Hindu Law and the Constitution", Indian Bar Review, Vol. XX

(20th April 2011).
SEMINARS AND OTHER WORKSHOPS

• Presented a Paper titled 'Unman Rights and Globalization' at a

Seminar on Human Rights held at Princeton University (June
2010) (Italicise the text in case you need to highlight it. For
example, the topic of the paper is highlighted here. Avoid
underlining text).
OTHER ACCOMLISMENTS

• Student Editor of Indian Juridical Review. Responsibilities

include selecting abstracts; contacting jurors, lawyers and
academicians for peer review and proofreading (2009-2010).
(The nature of the job or the accomplishment is explained in precise detail).
ORGANISATIONAL EXPERIENCE
• Convenor, Moot Court Society (2010-11). Responsibilities
include conducting and managing logistics of moot courts in
association with law firms; selecting/training moot court teams.
(Point out things which a potential recruiter would like to see. The above,
for example, shows leadership skills, experience in event management and
communication skills).

PRE-UNIVERSITY ACHIEVEMENTS
• Won 1st prize in Oxford University Annual Debate- India Chapter
(2009-10).

HOBBIES AND INTERSTS

I am a dog lover and like to read up on various breeds of dogs. Apart from
internships, adventure sports and mountain climbing occupy my time during
vacations. I like to write poems and blog regularly for youthup.com. (Hobbies
and interests are mentioned in a write-up format and not as bullet points).

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 5. STUDY SKILLS FOR LAW STUDENTS

1. SQ3R (Survey Question Read Recite and Review)

2. Reading - Types- intensive and extensive; techniques- scanning,
skimming and critical
3. Note making
4. Writing (Correct grammar, spelling, punctuation and clarity)
5. Paragraph Writing

SQ3R (Survey Question Read Recite and Review)

SQ3R (Survey Question Read Recite and Review is explained as

below:

Introduction:
SQ3R is a comprehension strategy that helps students think about the text
they are reading while they're reading. Often categorized as a study
strategy, SQ3R helps students "get it" the first time they read a text by
teaching students how to read and think like an effective reader.

The Definition of Technique:

The word technique in oxford learner's dictionary is method of doing
something that need skill. Basically, there are many definitions of
education experts as follows: J.R David defines "technique is a plan,
method, or series of activities designed to achieves a particular education
goal (J.R David : 1976).

Moreover Sinful Bahri Djamarah states "technique can be defined as

common role of teaching-learning activity to achieve determined goal."

This strategy includes the following five steps (Robinson, 1946):

The Concept OfSQ3R Technique:

As Richardson states "One such technique that has proven effective as a
study and reading technique is SQ4R (Survey, Question, Read, Recite and
Review) where SQ3R provides a systematic way of comprehending and
studying text (Richardson and Morgan, 1997).
Richard-Amato & Snow states SQ3R is a technique students can use to
comprehend content reading.
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 • First. Student survey the chapter by skimming it, looking at headings
and visuals.
• Second, students question, writing down any questions they have about
the pictures, charts, or subheadings, etc.
• The third step is to read the passage.
• The fourth step is reciting, where student answer their own questions
from what they learned in the reading.
• The fifth step is recording/when students write down their answers.
Finally, the students review what they wrote.
As we know that "smart" or intelligence people are different from other
people in that they ask lots of question, actively seek answers, and have a
large vocabulary than others.

Start with an attitude when reading a text: if you are not reading and
studying the text and notes as if you are preparing to take a test, you are
wasting your time. A sample of the SQ3R method is show here. Which the
SQ3R technique stands for: Survey, question, read, recite and review

The SQ3R procedure:

Moreover there is information from internet that explained that SQ3R is
Survey, question. read, recite and review, it explained the system of SQ3R
as follows:
a) Survey the chapter
b) Make a question for each heading and subheading.
c) Read the information one paragraph at a time.
d) Recite the important information prom paragraph.
e) Review the information learned in the chapter.

Several examples of how this technique is used through out the reading
process are students preview text to develop predictions about topic. The
students then read actively, searching for answers to the questions they
have generated. By summarizing information, students are able to monitor
their own comprehension through review. The researcher clarifies of SQ4R
Technique as follows:

1) Survey:
Survey is measure an area of land and to record the details of it.
Basically the surveying's goal is to help you in getting the important
questions answered in the chapter. When surveying written materials,
our goals is to obtain a general or comprehensive view which allows
seeing where were going.

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 In this step, students should skim and scan the chapter. The purpose of
surveying the chapter is to get the general idea of the content, structure,
organization and plan of the chapter. Surveying the chapter give "the
big picture" a framework of the main ideas, which will help to hold the
detail information together later"

The steps of the survey as follows:

1) The whole book
a) Read preface, table contents.
b) Leaf through book to get acquainted with the organization and style.
c) Check for the appendices, types that can be useful.
d) Read all the titles and subtitles.
e) Read captions under pictures, charts, graphs or map
f) Read the questions at the end of the chapter
g) If there is a summary read it.
h) Get an overview of what the chapter is about.

2) Individual book
a) Take a few minutes to consider the title.
b) Look at all illustrations, diagrams, graphs.
c) Quickly read the introduction, summary and review questions.
d) Glance at all key words bolted text, questions for consideration,
problem sets.

2) Question:
Question is any matter that needs to be deal with or considered. Having
students develop questions gives them a purpose for reading. Reading for
specific purposes positively influences comprehension. Setting a purpose
also aids the students in recalling information. Developing prior for reading
result in spontaneous attempts to answer the concentration and attention
while reading to find an answer the question and increased comprehension
due to the main in its attempt to find an answer to the question. This will
make reading a more active process which help with concentration and
retention. You will also find that it is easier to identify the important issues
and you will, therefore end up with fewer notes to review.

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The steps of the question as follows:
a. Use the knowledge you gain in surveying the chapter as basis for
asking your self questions that you expect to find answers in the
chapter.
b. Turn headings and subheading into questions.
c. If there are not headings, ask questions that their teacher would ask.
d. Ask your self "what did my teacher say about this chapter or topic
when it was assigned?
e. Ask your self "what have I already known about topic?
f. Read actively by asking why, who, when, what, where, how, and
which,
g. Question all statement of fact and the evidence they are based on.
h. Concentrate on relationships based on concepts introduced earlier.

3) Read
Read is to look at otherwise scan (as letters or other symbols representing
word or sentences) with mental formulation of the words or sentences
represented." Reading promotes an active search for answer to the specific
questions that students developed. If forces the students to concentrate for
better comprehension and aids in lengthening attention span.

Students should read each section of the text to answer questions that were
developed in the step above. If the section reread, and it is still unclear,
underline the word or jot down and look it up when they finish reading.

The steps of the read as follows:

a. Read the text book, but only section by section actively in looking
for the "answer" to the "question" you have posed,
b. Ask yourself, what is the writer's purpose? What are they trying to
get me to think or do? Is he giving facts or his opinions?
c. Look for answers to the question you have developed.
d. Reread captions under pictures, charts, graphs, or maps.
e. While you read, make notes in point form and in your own words at
the end of each section or subsection.
f. Note all the underlined, italicized, or bold printed words or phrases.
g. Study graphic aids
h. Reduce your speed for difficult passages.
i. Stop and reread parts that are not clear.

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4) Recite
Recite is to find out from reading or writing. This step encourages students
to the use their own words and not simply copy from the book. This
improves memory and assures greater understanding.

After the students have read the section, they should close their books and
write the answers to the questions they developed. The answers should be
written in their own words and not copy out of the texts. If the students can
not answer a question they should reread. Students should also jot
down key examples and make brief note.

5) Review
Review is looking at target language information, if it is done once is not
enough. It must be reviewed in order to be remembered. Students should
study their outline and notes and be able to retail what were their own
words. Students should try to see relation within the content. If they are
unable to the teacher may need to modal for students to look for
relationship. Students should be checking their memory by trying to recall
main point and sub points. Information from the entire chapter or article is
linked together in the reflection phase. The steps in reviewing as follows:

a. Recite and review as continuous process.

b. Make sure you understand the general idea behind what you have
read.
c. Use a critical attitude toward material you have read.
d. Relate the new material studied to what you already know.

Reading - Types- intensive and extensive; techniques- scanning,

skimming and critical

A. Reading Types:
Intensive Reading:
You need to have your aims clear in mind when undertaking intensive
reading. Remember this is going to be far more time consuming than
scanning or skimming. If you need to list the chronology of events in a long
passage, you will need to read it intensively. This type of reading has
indeed beneficial to language learners as it helps them understand
vocabulary by deducing the meaning of words in context. It moreover,
helps with retention of information for long periods of time and knowledge
resulting from intensive reading persists in your long term memory.

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This is one reason why reading huge amounts of information just before an
exam does not work very well. When students do this, they undertake
neither type of reading process effectively, especially neglecting intensive
reading. They may remember the answers in an exam but will likely forget
everything soon afterwards.

Extensive reading
Extensive reading involves reading for pleasure. Because there is an
element of enjoyment in extensive reading it is unlikely that students will
undertake extensive reading of a text they do not like. It also requires a
fluid decoding and assimilation of the text and content in front of you. If
the text is difficult and you stop every few minutes to figure out what is
being said or to look up new words in the dictionary, you are breaking
your concentration and diverting your thoughts.

B. Reading Techniques:
One of the first things you learn about teaching is that there are different
reading techniques and the students should be aware of which technique
is most suited, depending on the reading task required by the text or by
their teacher.

Training students to know their reading techniques and deduce when best
to apply them is indeed important, especially under exam conditions when
time constraints come into play and decisions need to be made depending
on time availability and the importance of the task at hand.

Main types of reading techniques are the following:

1. Skimming
2. Scanning
3. Critical

They are explained as below

1. Skimming:
Skimming is sometimes referred to as gist reading. Skimming may help in
order to know what the text is about at its most basic level. You might
typically do this with a magazine or newspaper and would help you
mentally and quickly shortlist those articles which you might consider for
a deeper read. You might typically skim to search for a name in a telephone
directory.

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You can reach a speed count of even 700 words per minute if you train
yourself well in this particular method. Comprehension is of course very
low and understanding of overall content very superficial.

2. Scanning:
Picture yourself visiting a historical city, guide book in hand. You would
most probably just scan the guide book to see which site you might want
to visit. Scanning involves getting your eyes to quickly scuttle across
sentence and is used to get just a simple piece of information. Interestingly,
research has concluded that reading off a computer screen actually inhibits
the pathways to effective scanning and thus, reading of paper is far more
conducive to speedy comprehension of texts.
Something students sometimes do not give enough importance to is
illustrations. These should be included in your scanning. Special attention
to the introduction and the conclusion should also be paid.

3. Critical Reading Technique:

Reading critically does not, necessarily, mean being critical of what you
read. Both reading and thinking critically don't mean being 'critical' about
some idea, argument, or piece of writing - claiming that it is somehow
faulty or flawed.
Critical reading means engaging in what you read by asking yourself
questions such as, 'what is the author trying to say? or 'what is the main
argument being presented?

Critical reading involves presenting a reasoned argument that evaluates

and analyses what you have read. Being critical, therefore - in an academic
sense - means advancing your understanding, not dismissing and therefore
closing off learning.

To read critically is to exercise your judgement about what you are reading
- that is, not taking anything you read at face value.

When reading academic material you will be faced with the author's
interpretation and opinion. Different authors will, naturally, have different
slants. You should always examine what you are reading critically and look
for limitations, omissions, inconsistencies, oversights and arguments
against what you are reading.
In academic circles, whilst you are a student, you will be expected to
understand different viewpoints and make your own judgements based on
what you have read.

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Critical reading goes further than just being satisfied with what a text says,
it also involves reflecting on what the text describes, and analysing what
the text actually means, in the context of your studies.

As a critical reader you should reflect on:

• What the text says: after critically reading a piece you should be able
to take notes, paraphrasing - in your own words - the key points.
• What the text describes: you should be confident that you have
understood the text sufficiently to be able to use your own examples
and compare and contrast with other writing on the subject in hand.
• Interpretation of the text: this means that you should be able to fully
analyse the text and state a meaning for the text as a whole.

Critical reading means being able to reflect on what a text says, what it
describes and what it means by scrutinising the style and structure of the
writing, the language used as well as the content.

Critical Thinking is an Extension of Critical Reading

Thinking critically, in the academic sense, involves being open-minded -
using judgement and discipline to process what you are learning about
without letting your personal bias or opinion detract from the arguments.

Critical thinking involves being rational and aware of your own feelings
on the subject -being able to reorganize your thoughts, prior knowledge
and understanding to accommodate new ideas or viewpoints.

Critical reading and critical thinking are therefore the very foundations of
true learning and personal development.

Techniques of 'Note Making'

Note making is not just about writing down everything you hear or read. It
is a process of reviewing, connecting and synthesising ideas from your
lectures or reading.

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Making notes helps you to:
• stay active and engaged during your lectures, reading and revision
• understand what you are learning and clarify your thinking
• be selective and identify key ideas
• remember the material
• organise your ideas and make connections
• plan and structure written assignments
• Review and revise before exams.

You can also complete our note making tutorial, which contains guidance
and activities that will help you to reflect on your current approach to
taking and making notes, and suggestions for how to make your notes more
meaningful and useful.

What your notes should contain?

All good notes should contain:
• source information (title, author, date etc)
• headings to help you identify the key topics
• key points, examples, names, new ideas
• triggers to make your notes more memorable - such as mnemonics,
colour or drawings
• Further reading and ideas to follow up later.

Consider developing a system of symbols and abbreviations to help you

speed up your note taking. Common abbreviations in notes include "poss."
for possibly, "esp." for "especially", and "govt." for government, but you
can create a list that works for you.

Sometimes poor note taking can lead to unintentional plagiarism. To help

avoid this you should make quotes, paraphrases and summaries look
different from your own ideas in your notes. You could use quotation
marks or square brackets, or highlight other people's ideas in a different
colour.

Set up a system to record complete bibliographic details, including:

• name of the author, editor, lecturer ‘or organisation
• date of lecture, publication, or access (for websites)
• title of lecture or source
• page numbers where applicable
• Other bibliographic details you might need for a reference.

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Three stages of note making
Note making doesn't only happen when you are reading or attending
lectures. There are three stages to making effective notes: before, during,
and after.

• Before: Prepare by finding out what you need to know and what the
purpose of the reading or lecture is.
• During: Note down main ideas and keywords. Find techniques that
work for you.
• After: Reflect and review and then organise your notes.

Many of us struggle to make notes that are meaningful when we need to

refer back to them. You need to adapt strategies that work for you to help
you take and make effective notes.

Prepare yourself
To take effective notes, you should prepare for the lecture or reading. You
should think about what you want to know, what the lecture or material is
about, and how it is relevant to your own work.

If you are preparing for a lecture, you can start by reading your module
handbook to find out what the lecture will be about and what the learning
outcomes are. Make sure that you familiarise yourself with new ideas,
terms or language by consulting recommended texts. Your tutor may have
recommended some preparatory reading, and Wikipedia can also be
helpful for an overview of unfamiliar topics. Consider how the lecture
material relates to your assignments and identify the key points that you
need to note down.

It might also help to review your notes from previous lectures so you can
make connections between each lecture.

If you are preparing to read texts, ask yourself what you need to get from
your reading. Do you need an overview, case studies and examples,
definitions, or ideas and evidence to support your own argument?

The purpose of your reading will influence your reading technique as well
as the way you take notes.

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Tips for making notes from lectures
Be ready to listen actively during a lecture. Pay particular attention at the
beginning and end of lectures, as this is where the lecturer will set out and
then summarise the main points.

Don't try to write everything that is said. Listen for key words and phrases,
like "there are three main causes of..." or "on the other hand..." to help you
identify key ideas. Listen out for references to other sources that you may
wish to follow up.

Most lectures are recorded using lecture capture technology. Watching the
lecture again can help you fill in any gaps in your notes.

Tips for making notes from reading

There are three main strategies you can use when reading for university:
• Scan for key information such as statistics, dates, facts and keywords
• Skim the introduction, conclusion, and the beginning and end of
paragraphs to get the main idea and a general overview of the text
• Read carefully, slowly and possibly repetitively to interrogate the
text and raise questions.

If you are scanning the text, highlight the text and note down the key
information and full details of the source.

Only highlight what you need. Highlighting too much is a waste of your
time as when you go back you will have no idea why you highlighted those
sections.

If you are skimming the text then you should highlight key parts and also
annotate the text. A good annotation will include keywords, ask questions,
and include related ideas and comparisons with other texts. Use the
annotations to help you make more detailed notes that summarise the main
ideas.

Critical in-depth reading requires detailed notes. You need to concentrate,

ask questions of the text and make critical comments to assess and evaluate
the ideas and evidence. When making detailed notes you still need to be
selective and ask particular questions to help you think critically.

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Techniques of note-making:
There are several different ways to take notes. Some students prefer to
write down their notes in a linear format, some like to write notes in
columns, and some prefer to use patterns and mind-maps.

Which technique you choose will depend on what you find most effective.

The linear format

The linear format is the most conventional method. It can encourage a
more passive approach, so to make your notes as effective as possible:
• Use headings, underlining and capitals to organise notes on the page
• Use symbols or abbreviations to keep it brief
• Use bullet points or numbering
• Leave good margins so you can add additional notes later
• Use quotation marks to show direct quotes from your lecturers or the
source you are using
• Identify your own ideas e.g. within square brackets or using a
different colour.

The pattern format

The pattern format is a visual approach. You organise the key words and
concepts across the page, like a mind-map, and can use colours and pictures
to help you understand the ideas.

By using this approach you can make connections and use visual cues,
while still clearly recording sources and quotes.

The three-column format

The three column format organises your page into three areas;
• key information
• your own notes (taken any way you like)
• a summary.

The right section is for your notes, the left section is for key terms,
questions and references, and the lower section is where you will
summarise the lecture or reading in your own words.

This is a good approach for note taking as it allows you to take notes how
you like (visual, linear, mind-maps etc.), encourages you to question,
review and think critically, and gives you a usable summary.

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Review and organise 'Notes'
After you have made your notes, you need to ensure you can do something
with them. This will include creating a filing system, using clear labels,
and cross-referencing. You can also use technology to help you to organise
your notes.

Read your notes and try to create a summary. You can then attach this
summary to your notes and hand-outs.

Your summary may include:

• key facts
• concepts, theories, ideas or arguments
• some illustrative detail
• information about other sources of information or ideas
• Questions, thoughts or criticisms.

You should also fill in details from any further reading or research, link
new information to what you already know, and discuss with others to fill
in any gaps.

If you have written notes from multiple sources for an assignment, review
and organise them to help structure your answer.

To organise your notes you should label and file your notes, whether
physically or online, and cross-reference with any hand-outs.

Technology to help you make notes

Many people still like to take notes by hand, but there are now many
applications that you can use to help take and organise your notes. Make
sure you read the reviews so you can decide what will work best for you
before you purchase any apps or software. Some apps to consider are:

• Ever note: Allows you to create, edit and organise notes, save
webpages, photograph handwritten notes and synchronise
everything across your devices. Available on all devices.
• UPAD: Available on iPad. Allows you to create visual, eye catching
notes as well as highlighting and annotating PDFs.
• Notability: Available on iPad, iPhone, and iPod Touch. You can
import a wide range of documents and annotate those using drawing
and text tools.

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Elements of Writing (Correct grammar, spelling, Punctuation and
clarity)

a. Correct Grammar:
Grammar explains the forms and structure of words (called morphology)
and how they are arranged in sentences (called syntax). In other words,
grammar provides the rules for common use of both spoken and written
language so we can more easily understand each other.

Grammar is important because it provides information that helps the

reader's comprehension. It is the structure that conveys precise meaning
from the writer to the audience. Eliminate grammatical errors from your
writing, and reward your readers with clear communication. Let us know
if we can help.

The building blocks of grammar are the eight parts of speech:

• Verbs express actions, events, or states of being.
• Nouns name a person, animal, place, thing, or abstract idea.
• Pronouns take the place of nouns or another pronoun.
• Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns by describing, identifying, or
quantifying them. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the
pronoun which it modifies.
• Adverbs modify a verb, adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a
clause and indicate manner, time, place, cause, or degree. Adverbs
can be recognized because they answer the question how, when,
where, or how much. Adverbs often end in ly.
• Prepositions link nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other words in a
sentence and usually indicate a relationship of time, space, or logic.
• Conjunctions link words, phrases, and clauses.

b. Spelling:
The availability of spell checkers in word processing programs greatly
reduces the likelihood of spelling errors - except for homonyms. A
homonym is a word that is pronounced the same as another, but is spelled
differently and has a different meaning. Here are some examples of
homonyms:

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 o Affect (to have an influence on), effect (a result). Affect is generally
used as a verb
(To affect) while effect is generally used as a noun (the effect).
o capital (seat of government) and capitol (a building)
o lie (recline) and lye (used in making soap)
o principal (head of school) and principle (a truth, law, rule, or
standard)
o scene (setting) and seen (past participle of see)
o whine (complain) and wine (an alcoholic drink)

c. Punctuation:
Punctuation helps convey the precise meaning of a sentence - and in fact
can even change the meaning, as in this well-known example:

A woman, without her man, is nothing.

A woman: without her, man is nothing.

Here is a brief description of how punctuation is used:

• A comma tells the reader to pause and assimilate information. They

are also used to separate the items in a series.
• A semi-colon links independent clauses that are closely related in
meaning when they are not linked by a conjunction.
• A colon introduces a list or a summation. It can also be used to link
an idea that has been introduced in an independent clause.
• End punctuation - period, question mark, and exclamation mark -
denotes the end of a sentence.
• Parentheses enclose words that are not directly related to the main
thought of the sentence but provide important information, or to
provide examples.
• A dash signals a sudden change of thought or break in a sentence.
Dashes can also be used in place of parentheses to emphasize
information.
• Quotation marks indicate direct speech. All punctuation marks are
enclosed within the quotation marks except for semi-colons, colons,
and question marks when they are not part of the quotation.

An apostrophe indicates that letters are missing from a contraction, or

shows possession (i.e., that one thing belongs to another). The word (its)
spelled without an apostrophe is a possessive; spelled with an apostrophe
(it's) is a contraction of it is. Similarly, whose is a possessive pronoun, and

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whose is a contraction of who is. Do not use an apostrophe to form the
plural of numbers or letters (the 1990s, a box of PCs).
e. Clarity:
Using clear, descriptive language improves clarity in a paragraph. It helps
the reader see accurately the person or thing the writer is describing.
Avoid vague and unclear words, such as good and nice. Instead choose
clear and precise words.
Adding adjectives or prepositional phrases can make your sentences more
specific and descriptive to improve the clarity of your writing.
Replace each vague or simple phrase with a more descriptive or accurate
phrase. Just as it is important to maintain clarity at the word level, it is also
important at the sentence level.

Techniques of Paragraph Writing:

A Paragraph is a group of sentences that introduces, presents and

develops ONE main idea about the topic. And it can be divided into
THREE major parts.

A. THE TOPIC SENTENCE

o It is normally the first sentence of the paragraph.
o It conveys the overall point of the paragraph.
o It helps the writer focus on the idea written about.
o It helps the reader know about what the paragraph is all about.

B. THE SUPPORTING DETAILS

o They are sentences used to support the main idea stated in the
topic sentence.
o They give more information about the main idea through
examples.
o They say in details what the topic sentence says in general.
o They should be clear evidence that what the topic sentence
says is trustworthy.
o They should be strong convincing points on which the topic
sentence can rely upon.

C. THE CONCLUDING SENTENCE

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 o It is a reflection of the main idea pronounced in the topic
sentence.
o It sums up what the topic sentence and the supporting details
talk about.
o It is the closing sentence that reminds the readers of what they
have to
o Value.
o It is compulsory for the completion of the paragraph unity.
o It eventually indicates the end of a paragraph.
o It prepares the reader for a smooth transition to the next
paragraph if there is one.

b. How to write a paragraph?

Paragraph writing consists of many necessary elements to be taken into
Consideration before, while and after writing.

I. BEFORE WRITING:
o In this stage it is important to specify the topic you are
intending to tackle. Take a sheet of paper and just start
jotting down notes that have tight
o Connection with your topic.
o In this stage, mistakes and word-order are to be overlooked
momentarily.
o After you gathered the data necessary for your topic the next
step is to be
o Taken.

II. WHILE WRITING:

o TOPIC SENTENCE Choose a topic sentence for your paragraph
that states the main idea of your top.

The topic sentence is a statement that generally introduces the topic and
thus it is often referred to as: the opening statement. Keep in mind that the
readers will greatly rely on what it says so as they can decide if the
paragraph is worth reading or not. It gives them a broad view of what you
are writing about because the topic sentence is meant to state the main idea
of the paragraph. It helps readers save time as it tells them what the reset
of the paragraph is all about. If they are interested in the topic, they will
continue reading; if not; the topic sentence has given them guiding clues
that help them be selective in their reading. I mean that the topic sentence
in each paragraph is the short cut that helps the readers economize the

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amount of time and effort when they are skimming for gist or scanning for
specific information.

That's why your topic sentence should be a sort of clincher, that is - a

tempting statement that catches the readers' attentions and entice them to
carry on with the reading of the paragraph. The students are the most meant
by this because their corrector should intelligently be dragged into liking
and enjoying reading the paragraph because this topic sentence controls the
entire paragraph. It helps the student focus on the main idea and not drift
away from it. If it is well put, it easily helps the students narrow their
supporting details, which will follow, into more specific and subject related
examples because the supporting details are there to reinforce the topic
sentence and to do that effectively they should each include at least one
example.

o SUPPORTING DETAILS

These are sentences that support the topic sentence. They give information
that reinforces the main idea stated in the topic sentence. So there should
at least be three supporting details because one or two make the paragraph
less convincing and not worth the effort done to build it. Thus the students
are strongly advised to provide at least three strong details which can
support the main idea. The students can use all the writing techniques
necessary to make the paragraph sustainable and eligible: descriptions,
definitions, examples, elaboration and exploration. If any of the supporting
details doesn't correlate with the main idea or does not support it, it will
break the unity of the paragraph.

o CONCLUDING SENTENCE

This is the last sentence of your paragraph and it should reflect what you
have talked about in your paragraph and it should echo the topic sentence
in a way or another.

III. AFTER WRITING: Reviewing

This final step can be called the editing step. This is a very crucial stage of
your work process as you should review what you have done and make
sure the paragraph is eligible, technically speaking. Among the things that
this stage is about are:

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 o Coherence and cohesion of the content
o The stability of the form
o The linking words
o Grammar, spelling and punctuation.
o Clear handwriting.

Apart from these essentials, other factors are to be mulled over:

6. Your main idea should be expressed in the topic sentence in a full,

clear declarative sentence.
7. Your topic sentence should in no way be a purpose statement such
as:
• The purpose of this paragraph is ...
• I will prove in this paragraph ...
• In this paragraph, I will tell ...
• Show but don't tell
8. Don't repeat yourself now then thinking that you are reinforcing your
point.
9. Don't use complex or farfetched terms that may puzzle the corrector.
10.Don't use long winding sentences. Keep simple.
11.Instead of giving definitions, it's better to explain and give examples.
12.Your supporting details shouldn't be too excessive.
13.Try not to be redundant or out of point. Stick to your topic.
14.Never introduce or present new ideas.
15.Irrelevant supporting details should immediately be discarded.

Finally, you can transform your concluding sentence into a thought

provoking statement that the reader may find appealing.

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