ABSTRACT

Engineering of flow units

Richter Opoku - Boahen

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
SUBJECT: TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING (outline)

COURSE CODE:

Lecturer : Richter Opoku – Boahen

Contact : 0244988139
([email protected]))

Lecture 1: Volume studies (week 1)

1.1 Introduction to transportation engineering

1.2 Traffic engineering studies
1.3 Volume studies
1.4 Counting methods
1.5 Daily and hourly volumes
1.6 Types of counts
1.7 Presentation of volume data
1.8 Adjustment of periodic counts
1.9 Determination of number of count stations

Lecture 2: Travel time and delay studies (week 2)

2.1 Definition of travel time and delay studies

2.2 Purpose of studies
2.3 Definition of terminologies
2.4 Methods for conducting travel time and delay studies

Lecture 3: Spot speed studies (week 3)

3.1 Definition and description

3.2 Uses of speed characteristics
3.3 Where, when and duration of spot speed studies
3.4 Characteristics of spot speed studies (statistical)
3.5 Sample size of spot speed studies
3.6 Methods of conducting spot speed studies
3.7 Presentation and Analysis of spot speed studies
3.8 Comparison of two spot speed studies at 95% confidence level.

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lecture 4 : Parking studies (week 4)

4.1 Rational of parking studies

4.2 Parking facilities
4.3 Terminologies and Parking statistics
4.4 Methodology of parking studies
4.5 Analysis of parking data demand and supply
4.6 Ill effects of parking
4.7 Solved examples

Lecture 5: Fundamental principles of traffic flow theory (week 5)

5.1 Rational and purpose

5.2 Traffic flow elements
5.3 Flow density relationship
5.4 Macroscopic and microscopic flow models
5.5 Categories of traffic flow
5.6 Shockwaves in traffic stream
5.7 Gap and Gap acceptance

Lecture 6: Queuing theory (week 6)

6.1 Queuing models

6.2 Deterministic queuing model
6.3 Poisson queuing models
6.4 Performance measures of queus

References

Garber, N. J., and Hoel, L. A. (1999). Traffic and highway engineering (4th ed.). Brooks/Cole,
Boston.

Banks, J. H. (2004). Introduction to transportation engineering (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill, New

York

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Contents
1. TRNSPORTATION ENGINEERING ........................................................................................................... 6
2. Traffic engineering studies:................................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Volume studies ............................................................................................................................. 7
2.1.1 Methods of counting............................................................................................................. 7
2.1.2 Daily Volumes and Their Use .............................................................................................. 12
2.1.3 Hourly volumes and their use ............................................................................................. 13
2.1.4 Types of volume or traffic Counts ....................................................................................... 14
2.1.5 Presentation of traffic volume data .................................................................................... 17
2.1.6 Adjustment of periodic counts............................................................................................ 20
2.1.7 Volume, flow, demand and capacity................................................................................... 22
2.1.8 Sample size determination ................................................................................................. 22
2.2 Travel time and delay studies ..................................................................................................... 27
2.2.1 Purpose or applications of TT and D studies....................................................................... 27
2.2.2 Definition of essential terminology of TT and D studies ..................................................... 27
2.2.3 Methods for conducting travel time and delay studies ...................................................... 27
2.3 Spot speed studies ...................................................................................................................... 36
2.3.1 Where to conduct speed studies (location) ........................................................................ 36
2.3.2 Time of day of spot speed studies ...................................................................................... 36
2.3.3 Duration of spot speed studies ........................................................................................... 37
2.3.4 Speed characteristics of a set of speed data ...................................................................... 37
2.3.5 Sample size for spot speed studies ..................................................................................... 38
2.3.6 Methods for conducting spot speed studies ...................................................................... 41
2.3.7 Presentation and analysis of spot speed Data .................................................................... 41
2.3.8 Comparison of two spot speed studies............................................................................... 43
2.4 Parking studies ............................................................................................................................ 45
2.4.1 Types of parking facilities (on - street or off - street parking facilities) ............................. 45
2.4.2 Essential Terminology/Parking statistics ............................................................................ 48
2.4.3 Methodology of parking studies ......................................................................................... 49
2.4.4 Negative effects of parking ................................................................................................. 53
3. Fundamental principles of traffic flow theory .................................................................................... 58
3.1 Traffic flow elements .................................................................................................................. 58

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 3.2 Flow - density relationship .......................................................................................................... 60
3.3 Fundamental diagram of traffic flow .......................................................................................... 61
3.4 Mathematical relationship describing traffic flow...................................................................... 62
3.5 Calibration of Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models ........................................................................ 65
3.6 Categories of traffic flow............................................................................................................. 68
3.7 Shockwaves and queue length due to red phase at a signalised intersection ........................... 68
3.8 Shock Waves and Queue Lengths Due to Temporary Speed Reduction at a Section of Highway
74
3.9 Types of shockwave .................................................................................................................... 79
3.10 Gap and gap acceptance ............................................................................................................. 79
4 Queuing theory ................................................................................................................................... 84
4.1 Models of traffic flow.................................................................................................................. 84
4.1.1 Deterministic model............................................................................................................ 84
4.1.2 Poisson model ..................................................................................................................... 84
4.2 Queuing theory ........................................................................................................................... 85
4.2.1 Characteristics of queuing models ...................................................................................... 85
4.2.2 Dimensioning of queues ..................................................................................................... 86
4.3 Queuing models .......................................................................................................................... 86
4.3.1 M /M /1 Queuing ................................................................................................................ 86

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List of Tables
Table 2.1 Illustration of daily volume parameters ...................................................................................... 13
Table 2.2 Summary of volume data for a highway segment ..................................................................... 19
Table 2.3 Student t distribution table .......................................................................................................... 25
Table 2.4 Speed and delay information ...................................................................................................... 29
Table 2.5 existing travel time situation on diversionary route (3.5km) for eastern by-pass road ............... 30
Table 2.6 Anticipated situation on the proposed oforikrom-asokwa by pass-road (3.1 km) ...................... 30
Table 2.7 Question data .............................................................................................................................. 33
Table 2.8 Constant corresponding to level of confidence ........................................................................... 40
Table 2.9 Speed data................................................................................................................................... 42
Table 2.10 Frequency distribution table ..................................................................................................... 43
Table 3.1speed and density data from a facility.......................................................................................... 66
Table 3.2 Solution from excel ..................................................................................................................... 66
Table 3.3 Shockwave at signalized intersection ......................................................................................... 69

List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Profession of Transportation engineering.................................................................................... 6
Figure 2.1 Tally sheet for manual counting .................................................................................................. 9
Figure 2.2 Mechanical Count Board ........................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2.3 Electronic Count Board ............................................................................................................. 10
Figure 2.4 Example of surface detectors ..................................................................................................... 11
Figure 2.5 example of a station location of a cordon count ........................................................................ 14
Figure 2.6 screen line count ........................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 2.7 Traffic flow maps ...................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2.8 Intersection summary sheet ...................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.9 Time based distribution chart of traffic volume on an urban highway ...................................... 19
Figure 2.10 Test site for moving vehicle technique .................................................................................... 31
Figure 2.11 Shape of the normal distribution ............................................................................................. 39
Figure 2.12 Illustration of 300 parking ........................................................................................................ 46
Figure 2.13 Illustration of 450 parking......................................................................................................... 46
Figure 2.14 Illustration of 600 parking ........................................................................................................ 47
Figure 2.15 Illustration of 900 parking......................................................................................................... 47
Figure 2.16 Illustration of off-street parking .............................................................................................. 48
Figure 2.17 Parking bays and accumulation curve ..................................................................................... 54
Figure 3.1 Time space diagram ................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 3.2 Flow versus density.................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 3.3 Space mean speed versus flow .................................................................................................. 62
Figure 3.4 Space mean speed versus density .............................................................................................. 62
Figure 3.5 shockwave created due to slow traffic ....................................................................................... 74
Figure 3.6 time space diagram for vehicles in the vicinity of a stop sign ................................................... 81

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 1. TRNSPORTATION ENGINEERING
What is it?
Transportation engineering is the application of scientific principles in the planning, design,
construction operation and management of transportation systems.

Figure 1.1 Profession of Transportation engineering

The challenge of the transportation engineer is to assist society in selecting the appropriate
transportation system consistent with its economic development, resources, and goals and to
construct and manage the system in a safe and efficient manner

2. Traffic engineering studies:

Highway transport is good but has negative aspects or problems such as

 Accidents  Delay
 Congestion  Parking difficulties

To reduce the negative impacts we need to collect information (data) that describe the extent of
the problem and their location. Traffic surveys and studies are conducted to collect traffic data.
These studies can be broken down into 3 main categories

1. Inventories: (list or graphic display of existing information)

 length and width of streets, parking spaces, number of traffic lights, transit routes

2. Administrative studies:(get data from agencies)

3. Dynamic studies: (collection of data under operational conditions) main stay of the
engineer

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 Dynamic studies include

 Volume studies  Delay studies

 Speed studies  Parking studies
 Travel time studies  Accident studies/safety studies

Purpose of traffic engineering studies

To understand traffic behavior, plan for it, diagnose associated problems, identify their
location, it must be observed, quantified, modeled and analyzed. Traffic engineering studies
serve these purpose;

 To help in managing of the physical infrastructure

 Investigating time series trends
 Calibrating basic relations or parameter
 Understanding the needs and choice of public for mobility.

2.1 Volume studies

 Engineers often use counts of number of vehicles or pedestrians passing a point,
entering an intersection, or using a particular facility such as travel lane,
crosswalk or sidewalk.
• Counts are usually samples of actual volumes, although continuous counting is
also sometimes performed.
• Sampling periods may range from a few minutes to a month or more

2.1.1 Methods of counting

The two basic methods of counting traffic are:
 Manual observation
 Automatic recording (pros and cons)
(students to note that there is difference between method of counting and type of count)

Manual counting method

Manual counting involves one or more persons recording observed vehicles. both the turning
movements at the intersection and the types of vehicles can be recorded. a detailed breakdown of
commercial vehicles may be required which would necessitate the collection of data according to
number of axles and/or weight. However, the degree of truck classification usually depends on the
anticipated use of the data collected. data for each movement can be recorded in 1, 5, 15, 30, or 60
minute intervals, although the default value is 15 minutes The main disadvantages of the manual
count method are that (1) it is labor intensiveand therefore can be expensive, (2) it is subject to the
limitations of human factors, and (3) it cannot be used for long periods of counting.

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Many types of counts require classification that are obtained more easily and accurately with
trained observers. Examples include vehicle occupancy, pedestrians, turning movements, and
vehicle classifications.

Typical equipment needed for manual counts are:

 Tally Sheets, or
 Mechanical Count Boards, or
 Electronic Count Boards
Figure 2.1 to 2.3 show examples of these equipment’s

Manual traffic counting requires trained observers. They must be relieved periodically to avoid
fatigue and degraded performance. Breaks of 10 to 15 minutes should be scheduled at least
every 2 hours. If data collection period is more than 8 hours, breaks of 30 to 45 minutes should be
allowed every 4 hours.

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Figure 2.1 Tally sheet for manual counting

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Figure 2.2 Mechanical Count Board

Figure 2.3 Electronic Count Board

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Automatic counting method
Automatic counters can be classified into two general categories: those that require
the laying of detectors (surface or subsurface), and those that do not require the laying
of detectors.

Automatic counters that require the laying of surface detectors (such as pneumatic road
tubes) or subsurface detectors (non invasive, such as magnetic or electric contact
devices) on the road, detect the passing vehicle and transmit the information to a
recorder, which is connected to the detector at the side of the road. Figure 2.4 shows an
example setup of a surface detector using pneumatic road tubes.

Figure 2.4 Example of surface detectors

Automatic counters that do not require the laying of detectors use one of many technologies including
electronics: Doppler principles, laser scanning, and infrared.

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2.1.2 Daily Volumes and Their Use
A common time interval for traffic volume counts is a day. Daily volumes are frequently used
as the basis for highway planning and general observations of trends. Traffic volume projections
are often based on measured daily volumes

There are four commonly used daily volume parameters:

 Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT): is the average 24-hr traffic volume at a given
location over a full 365-day year.

This is the average of 24hour counts collected every day in the year. AADT is used for
 Estimation of highway user revenues
 Computation of accident rates (accident per million vehicles) used in ranking
 Estimation of traffic volume trends
 Evaluation of economic feasibility of road projects
 Planning of development or maintenance of road and traffic facilities

 Average Daily Traffic (ADT): is an average 24-hr volume at a given location for some
period of time less than a year, but more than one day.

Average 24 hour counts collected over a number of days greater than one but less than
a year. ADT is used for
 Planning of highway activities
 Measurement of current demand
 Evaluation of existing traffic flow

 Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT): is the average 24- hr traffic volume occurring
on weekdays over a full 365-day year.
 Average Weekday Traffic (AWT): is an average 24-hr traffic volume occurring on
weekdays for some period less than one year.

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 Table 2.1 Illustration of daily volume parameters

2.1.3 Hourly volumes and their use

While daily volumes are useful in highway planning, they cannot be used alone for design or
operational analysis purposes.

Traffic volume varies considerably during the course of a 24-hr day, usually with periods of
maximum volume occurring during the morning and evening commuter “rush” hours.

The single hour of the day that has the highest hourly volume is referred to as the “peak hour”.
Traffic volume within this hour is of greatest interest to traffic engineers in design or operational
analysis

 PHV: Peak hour volume.

This is the highest number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during a period of 60
consecutive minutes. PHV is used for

 Functional classification of roads

 Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway, for example, number of lanes,
intersection signalization, or channelization
 Capacity analysis
 Traffic management (parking, one way systems, etc)
 Level of service determination
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  Development of programs related to traffic operations, for example, one-way street systems
or traffic routing
 Development of parking regulations

2.1.4 Types of volume or traffic Counts

Different types of traffic counts are carried out, depending on the anticipated use of the data to
be collected. They are:

• Cordon Counts • Pedestrian Volume Counts, and

• Screen Line Counts • Periodic Volume Counts (Continuous,
• Intersection Counts Control, and Coverage Counts)

 Cordon counts :

Carried out when traffic accumulation in designated area (e.g CBD) is required, particularly
during a specific time. The area is cordoned off by an imaginary closed loop and the enclosed
area is the cordon area. The intersection of each street crossing the cordon line is taken as a
count station and volume counts of vehicles/persons entering and leaving the cordon area are
carried out. Information obtained from the cordon counts is useful for

 Planning parking facilities

 Updating and evaluating traffic operational techniques

 Long term planning of arterial roads

Figure 2.5 example of a station location of a cordon count

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 Screen Line Counts
The study area is divided into large sections by running imaginary lines across it.Traffic counts
are taken at each point where a road crosses the screen line. Data collected facilitates the
detection of variations in the traffic volume and traffic flow direction due to the changes in the
land-use pattern of the area

Figure 2.6 screen line count

 I Intersection counts

intersection counts are taken to determine vehicle classification, through movements and
turning movements at intersections. Data collected are mainly used in determining
phase lengths and cycle times for signalized intersections and also for channelization at the
intersections and in the general design of improvements to intersections.

 Pedestrian Volume Counts

Volume counts of pedestrians are made at locations such as subway stations, mid-blocks,
crosswalks, and transit stations. Counts are usually made to evaluate the existing or proposed
pedestrian facilities. These facilities may include pedestrian over- or underpasses. These
counts can be used for crash analysis, capacity analysis, and determining minimum signal timings at
signalized intersections.

 Periodic Volume Counts

In order to obtain certain traffic volume data, such as AADT, it is necessary to obtain data
continuously. However, it is not feasible to collect continuous data on all roads because of the
cost involved

To make reasonable estimates of annual traffic volume characteristics on an area-wide basis,

different types of periodic counts with count durations ranging from 15 minutes to continuous,

15
are conducted. the data from these different periodic counts are used to determine values (eg expansion
factors) that are then employed in the estimation of annual traffic characteristics.
.

Periodic counts are of three types

 Continuous counts
 Control counts and
 Coverage counts.

Continuous counts: These counts are taken continuously using mechanical or electronic counters.
Stations at which continuous counts are taken are known as permanent count stations. In selecting
permanent count stations, the highways within the study area must first be properly classified.
Each class should consist of highway links with similar traffic patterns and characteristics. A
highway link is defined for traffic count purposes as a homogeneous section that has the same
traffic characteristics, such as AADT and daily, weekly, and seasonal variations in traffic volumes
at each point. Broad classification systems for major roads may include freeways, expressways,
and major arterials. For minor roads, classifications may include residential, commercial, and
industrial street.

Control counts: These counts are taken at stations known as control-count stations, which are
strategically located so that representative samples of traffic volume can be taken on each type of
highway or street in an area-wide traffic counting program. The data obtained from control counts
are used to determine seasonal and monthly variations of traffic characteristics so that expansion
factors can be determined. These expansion factors are used to determine year-round average
values from short counts.

Control counts can be minor or major

Major control counts

These are 24 hour directional counts taken monthly on at least three days in a week (Tuesday,
Wednesday, Thursday) and on Saturday and Sunday for weekend volumes. At least one major
control station is required for every major road.

Minor control counts

Minor control counts are five-day weekday counts taken every other month on minor roads.

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Coverage counts

These are used to estimate ADT, using expansion factors from control counts. The study area is
divided into zones with at least one count station in each zone. A 24 hr nondirectional count is
done every four years at each coverage station. Data also indicate changes in area wide traffic
characteristics

2.1.5 Presentation of traffic volume data

The data collected from traffic volume counts may be presented in several ways depending on
the type of count conducted and the primary use of the data. They are:

 Traffic Flow Maps

 Intersection Summary Sheets
 Time-Based Distribution Charts
 Summary Tables

 Traffic flow maps: these are maps showing traffic volumes on individual routes,
represented by the width of a band drawn in proportion to the traffic volume it
represents. When directional split of flow is skewed it is advisable to provide bands for
different directions. (see sketch)

Figure 2.7 Traffic flow maps

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 Intersection summary sheet: these are graphic representation of volume and direction
of traffic movement through an intersection. Volume can be either ADT or PHV,
depending on the use of the data.

Figure 2.8 Intersection summary sheet

 Time based distribution charts: These are bar charts representing hourly, daily, monthly
or normal variations.

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 Figure 2.9 Time based distribution chart of traffic volume on an urban highway

 Summary tables

Table 2.2 Summary of volume data for a highway segment

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2.1.6 Adjustment of periodic counts
Control counts or continuous counts are used to determine expansion factors, which are used to adjust
periodic count data.

 Expansion factors from continuous counts

Hourly expansion factors (HEF) are used to expand counts of shorter duration than 24hrs to 24
hr duration. The hourly volume for each hour during the count period is multiplied by the HEF
for that hour and the mean of the products is found.

total volume for 24hr period

𝐻𝐸𝐹 =
volume for particular hour

Similarly

average total volume for week

𝐷𝐸𝐹 =
average volume for a particular day

DEF is used to determine weekly volumes from counts of 24hr duration by multiplying the 24hr
volume by the DEF.

AADT
𝑀𝐸𝐹 =
ADT for a particular month

The AADT for a given year is obtained by multiplying the ADT for a given month by the MEF

Expansion factors should be determined for each class of road in the classification system
established for an area.

Worked example of adjustment of periodic counts

It is required to determine the AADT for a road. Time and resource constraints could only allow
collection of data on Monday in the month of July at the following hourly intervals

7-8am 400; 8-9am 535; 9-10am 650; 10 – 11am 710; 11-12noon 650, given that the

HEF: 7-8am = 29; 8-9am= 22.05; 9-10am = 18.80; 10 – 11am = 17.10; 11-12noon = 18.52

DEF: Monday 7.727

MEF: July 1.394

What will the AADT be?

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 solution

HEF = total volume for 24hr volume/ volume for particular period

Hour Hourly volume HEF 24 hr volume

7-8 400 29 11600
8-9 535 22.05 11797
9-10 650 18.80 12220
10 – 11 710 17.10 12141
11-12 650 18.52 12038
Average 11959

DEF = average total volume for week/ average volume for particular day
average total volume for week = DEF * average volume for particular day
= 7.727 * 11959
= 92407.193
ADT = 92407.193 / 7
=13, 201
MEF = AADT/ADT for particular months
AADT = MEF * ADT
= 1.394*13,201
= 18402 vehicles

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2.1.7 Volume, flow, demand and capacity
counting of vehicles or persons and is carried out to produce estimates of volume and flow rate,
demand and capacity.

Volume:

 is the number of vehicles (persons) passing a point during a specified period from 15min
to 1 year, depending on the intended use. May be classified

 Volume on a road is the number of vehicles passing the measurement point during a
specified time interval.

Flow rate (q):

 is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass a point on a highway during a time
period less than one hour.

Demand:

 Number of vehicles or persons that desire to travel past a point during a specified
period. Demand is higher than actual volumes where congestion exists.

 Demand is a measure of the number of vehicles (or passengers, or persons) waiting

for service in the given time period.

Capacity:

 maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point during a specified period. Actual
volumes cannot be observed at levels higher than the capacity.

 Capacity is the maximum number that can reasonable be expected to be served in the
given time period

Saturation flow rate.

 The flow rate in veh/h that a lane group can carry if it has the green indication
continuously (applies to signal controlled intersections)

2.1.8 Sample size determination

 It is not practicable to collect data all over the network, continuously, every day of the
year. Sampling is therefore done on each class of highway to estimate annual traffic
volumes from periodic counts.

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  This involves determination of the Minimum sampling size (number of count station)
for a required level of accuracy and the determination of monthly and seasonal
expansion factors for each class of road

Determination of number of count stations

Assuming that the sample locations are randomly selected, the minimum sampling number (n) is given
by

n = minimum number of count stations required

t = value of t- distribution with (1- α/2) confidence level
and N-1 deg of freedom
α = significance level
s = spatial standard deviation
d = allowable range of error which depends on mean volumes

 When the sample size is small (<30) and the counting stations are selected
randomly, the students t distribution is used to determine the minimum sample
size for each class of road link.

 When sample sizes are greater than 30, the normal distribution is used instead of
the student’s t distribution.

 If Estimates of the mean and standard deviation of the link volumes are required. These
estimates can be obtained by taking volume counts at a few links or by using known
values for other, similar highways

 The student t distribution has a variance that depends on the scale parameter,
commonly referred to as the degrees of freedom (𝝂). The degree of freedom (𝝂)
is a function of the sample size (𝝂)= N-1, where N is sample size

The variance = 𝜈/(𝜈-2), thus as v approaches infinity, variance = 1

The probabilities for student t distribution which is based on confidence levels are found in tables.

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Question

To determine a representative value of the ADT on 100 highway links that have similar volume
characteristics, it was decided to collect 24 hr volume counts on a sample of these links. Estimates
of the mean and standard deviation of link volumes for the type of highway in which these links
are located are 32500 and 5500 respectively. Determine the minimum number of stations at which
volume counts should be taken if a 95 – 5 precision level is required with a 10 percent allowable
error

α = significance level = (100 – 95) = 5

s = spatial standard deviation = 5500
mean = 32500
d = allowable range of error = 0.1 * 32500 = 3250

v = degree of freedom = N -1 = 100 – 1= 99

t (α/2, 99) = 1.984

n = t2α/2,N-1(s2/d2)
1+(1/N)( t2α/2,N-1) (s2/d2)
=
(1.9842×55002) /32502
1 + (1/100) (1.9842×55002) /32502
=
11.27/1.11
= 10.1

counts should be taken at a minimum of 11 stations.

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 Table 2.3 Student t distribution table

Do a study on the z score and how it applies to the question on minimum sample size

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 Expansion factors for block project work

Hour HEF
6 -7 am 4.2
7 – 8 am 2.9 Day DEF
8 – 9 am 2.2 Sunday 9.1
9 – 10 am 1.8 Monday 7.1
10 – 11 am 1.7 Tuesday 7.2
11 – 12 noon 1.8 Wednesday 6.5
12 – 1 pm 1.8 Thursday 7.3
1 – 2 pm 1.6 Friday 5,7
2 – 3 pm 1.4 Saturday 6.4
3 – 4 pm 1.4
4 – 5 pm 1.2
5 – 6pm 1.3 Month MEF
6 – 7pm 1.6 January 1.7
7 – 8pm 1.7 February 1.9
8 – 9pm 2 March 1.6
9 – 10 pm 2,5 April 1.4
10 – 11 pm 3.1 May 1.3
11 – 12 am 3.4 June 0.9
12 -1 am 5.1 July 0.5
1 – 2 am 8.2 August 0.4
2 – 3 am 12.3 September 0.6
3 – 4 am 13.1 October 0.9
4 – 5 am 14.1 November 1.1
5 – 6 am 9 December 1.3

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2.2 Travel time and delay studies
Travel time is the amount of time it takes for a vehicle to travel from one point to another on a given
route. When measurement of travel time takes account of location, duration and cause of delay, the study
is known as Travel time and Delay study.

2.2.1 Purpose or applications of TT and D studies.

- Data obtained from TT and D studies give a good indication of the level of service (LOS) on the
study section.
- These data also aid the engineer in identifying problem locations, which may require special
attention in order to improve traffic flow on the route.
- Performance of before – and – after studies to evaluate the effectiveness of traffic operation
improvements
- Determination of relative efficiency of a route by developing sufficiency ratings or congestion
indices
- Determination of travel times on specific links for use in trip assignment models
- Compilation of travel time data that may be used in trend studies to evaluate the changes in
efficiency and level of service with time.
- Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of traffic operation alternatives that reduce
travel time
- Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry traffic
- Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes for those delays

2.2.2 Definition of essential terminology of TT and D studies

- Travel time is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given section of a highway
- Running time is the time a vehicle is actually in motion while traversing a given section
- Delay is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control of the driver
- Operational delay is that part of the delay caused by the impedance of other traffic. This
impedance can occur either as side friction, where the stream flow is interfered with by other
traffic (e.g. parking or unparking vehicles), or as internal friction, where the interference is within
the traffic stream ( e.g. reduction in capacity of the highway).
- Stopped – time delay is that part of the delay during which the vehicle is at rest
- Fixed delay is that part of the delay caused by control devices such as traffic signals.
This delay occurs regardless of the traffic volume or the impedance that may exist
- Travel – time delay is the difference between the actual travel time and the travel time that will
be obtained by assuming that a vehicle traverses the study section at an average speed equal to
that for an uncongested traffic flow flow on the section being studied.

2.2.3 Methods for conducting travel time and delay studies

These can be grouped into two general categories
a) Those using a test vehicle (floating car, average - speed and moving – vehicle technique)
b) those not requiring a test vehicle (License plate and interview method)

27
the particular technique used for any specific study depends on the reason for conducting the
study and the available personnel and equipment.

Floating car technique

In this method, the test car is driven by an observer along the test section so that the test car
“float” with the traffic. The driver of the test vehicle attempts to pass as many vehicles as those
that pass his test vehicle. The time taken to traverse the study section is recorded. This is repeated
and the average time is recorded as the travel time. The minimum number of test runs can be
determined using the equation

𝑡𝛼 × 𝜎 2
𝑁= [ ]
𝑑

Where
N = sample size (minimum number of test rums
𝜎 = standard deviation (mph)
d = limit of acceptable error in the speed estimate (mph)
𝑡𝛼 = value of the student t distribution with (1 - 𝛼 ⁄2) confidence level and (N – 1)
degrees of freedom
𝛼 = significance level

The limit of acceptable error used depends on the purpose of the study. The ff limits are
commonly used:

Before and after studies ± 1.0 to ± 3.0 mph

Traffic operations, economic evaluation and trend analysis ± 2.0 to ± 4.0 mph
Highway needs and transportation planning studies ± 3.0 to ± 5.0 mph

Average speed – technique

This technique involves driving the test car along the length of the test section at a speed
that, in the opinion of the driver, is the average speed of the traffic stream. The time
required to traverse the test section is noted. The test run is repeated for the minimum
number of times determined in the above equation, and the average time recorded as the
travel time.

In each of these methods, it is first necessary to clearly identify the test section. The way
the travel time is usually obtained is that the observer starts a stopwatch at the beginning
point of the test section and stops at the end point. Additional data may be obtained by
recording the times at which the test vehicle arrives at specific locations which have been
identified before the start of the test runs. A second stopwatch also may be used to determine
the time that passes each time the vehicle is stopped. The sum of these times for any test run

28
 will give the stopped – time delay for that run. Table 2.4 gives an example of travel time,
speed and delay information in a travel time and delay study.

Table 2.4 Speed and delay information

Street name: 29 North Date: July 7, 2011

Weather : clear Non - peak Time: 2:00 – 3:00 p.m.

street Distanc Travel Segment Stopped Reason Speed Ideal Delay Net
e Time Speed Time For Limit travel (sec) Speed
(ft) (sec) (mph) (sec) stopping Mph Time Mph
B A/B H C (sec) B -D
A D=
C/A A/(B+H)
Ivy 0 0.0 - 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -
road
su road 1584 42.6 25.4 20.1 signal 40 27.0 15.6 17.2
P - road 1320 27.7 32.5 0.0 40 22.5 5.2 32.5
S - road 792 19.7 27.4 8.9 signal 40 13.5 6.2 18.9

Total
1 mile = 5280 ft

Note that segment delay is the difference between the observed travel time (B) and the calculated
ideal travel time (D). Note that the ideal travel time is based on a desired speed real or assumed

Table 2.5 and 2.6 also gives information on a travel time and delay study for the proposed
Oforikrom-Asokwa By-Pass road in Kumasi. The road was not yet built but we wanted to know
its economic benefits in terms of travel time savings

A travel time and delay study was thus conducted on the existing alternative to the proposed road
which was about 3.5 km in length. The average speed technique was employed for the studies;

The speed designations for the various levels of services for an urban arterial road of class II as
given in the highway capacity manual (HCM 2000) exhibit 15-2, was used in the determination of
the level of service on the diversionary route for the proposed eastern by-pass road, as well as
evaluating the anticipated situation on the Eastern By-pass road itself.

While the length of the diversionary route was 3.5 km, the length of the proposed road would be
3.1km. the length of the new road and the anticipated or desired travel speed on it was used to
compute the time savings. If the improvement was on the diversionary route itself instead of a new
road then the length of the diversionary route would used with anticipated speed. Note that
economic benefits of travel time savings are based on reasonable assumptions. Reasonable being
that it must be defendable engineering wise.

29
 Table 2.5 existing travel time situation on diversionary route (3.5km) for eastern by-pass road

Period Direction Average travel Travel time Delay Level of

speed (fixed) service
ATS (Km/hr) (sec) (sec)
Morning Toward Timber gardens 23.1 546 228 E
Morning Toward Timber gardens 20.3 620 200 F
Morning Toward Timber gardens 20.5 615 208 F
Morning Towards Anloga Junction 29.9 422 52 D
Morning Towards Anloga Junction 30.36 415 50 D
Morning Towards Anloga Junction 31.3 403 33 D

Afternoon Toward Timber gardens 21.8 579 130 E

Afternoon Toward Timber gardens 23.2 543 120 E
Afternoon Toward Timber gardens 24.5 514 107 E
Afternoon Towards Anloga Junction 30.1 418 65 D
Afternoon Towards Anloga Junction 29.7 423 D
Afternoon Towards Anloga Junction 33 382 70 D

Evening Toward Timber gardens 21.7 580 208 E

Evening Toward Timber gardens 23.8 529 185 E
Evening Toward Timber gardens 25.6 492 82 E
Evening Towards Anloga Junction 24.6 512 92 E
Evening Towards Anloga Junction 24.5 515 90 E
Evening Towards Anloga Junction 24 525 47 E
Worst situation 20.3 620 200 F

Table 2.6 Anticipated situation on the proposed oforikrom-asokwa by pass-road (3.1 km)

Level of service Average travel Travel time Gain in travel % Gain in Travrl
speed time time
ATS (Km/hr) (sec) (sec)
A >59 189.1525 430.8475 69.49153
B >46-59 242.6087 377.3913 60.86957
C >33-46 338.1818 281.8182 45.45455
D >26-33 429.2308 190.7692 30.76923
E >21-26 531.4286 88.57143 14.28571
F ≤21 531.4286 88.57143 14.28571

30
The results indicate that there will be a significant reduction in travel time on the proposed
facility, the least acceptable level of service of “C” is expected to yield about 45 percent
improvement in travel time with a travel time savings of about 4.7 minutes
Travel time savings = 0.078333 hours/ (person-trip)
Minimum wage rate = $0.24/hour
Mean number of passengers in an average vehicle = 7 persons (occupancy survey)

Total time savings in $ per trip = 7 *0.078333 *0.24

= $0.132 per trip

Assumption made was that every passenger earns at least a minimum wage, the money saved per
trip would then be multiplied by the AADT, 365 days, for each year that the proposed road would
be in service (design life). The AADT for the subsequent years would be obtained using growth
rates eg, economic growth rate or Dvla registration growth rate. Savings would thus be huge

Moving vehicle technique

The observer makes a round trip on a test section, see Figure 2.10, where it is assumed that the
road runs east to west. The observer starts collecting the relevant data at section X - X, drives the
car eastward to section Y – Y, then turns the vehicle around and drives westward to section x – x
again. The following data are collected as the test vehicle makes the round trip

Figure 2.10 Test site for moving vehicle technique

 the time it takes to travel east from X – X to Y – Y (Te), in minutes

 the time it takes to travel west from Y – Y to X – X (Tw), in minutes
 the number of vehicles traveling west in the opposite lane while the test car is eastbound
(Ne)

31
  the number of vehicles traveling east in the opposite lane while the test car is westbound
(Nw)
 the number of vehicles that overtake the test car while it is traveling west from Y – Y
to X – X (Ow)
 the number of vehicles that the test car passes while it is traveling west from Y – Y to
X – X, (Pw)
 the number of vehicles that overtake the test car while it is traveling east from X-X to
Y– Y (Oe)
 the number of vehicles that the test car passes while it is traveling east from X – X to
Y – Y, (Pe)

the volume (Vw) in the westbound direction can then be obtained from the expression

( 𝑁𝑒 + 𝑂𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 )60
𝑉𝑤 =
𝑇𝑒 + 𝑇𝑤

Where ( 𝑁𝑒 + 𝑂𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 ) is the number of vehicles traveling westward that cross the line
X – X during the time (𝑇𝑒 + 𝑇𝑤 ). Note

 when the test vehicle starts at X – X, traveling eastward, all vehicles traveling westward
should get to X – X before the test vehicle, except those that are passed by the test vehicle
when it iis traveling westward.
 Similarly all vehicles that overtake the test vehicle when it is traveling westward will get
to X – X before the test vehicle.
 The test vehicle will also get to x – x before all vehicles it passes while traveling westward.
These vehicles have, however, been counted as part of Ne or Ow and therefore, should be
subtracted from the sum of Ne and Ow to determine the number of westbound vehicles that
cross X – X during the time the test vehicle travels from X – X to Y – Y and back to X –
X. these considerations lead to the expression for Vw.

Similarly, the average travel time 𝑇̅𝑤 in the westbound direction is obtained from

𝑇̅𝑤 𝑇𝑤 𝑂𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤
= −
60 60 𝑉𝑤

60(𝑂𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 )
𝑇̅𝑤 = 𝑇𝑤 −
𝑉𝑤

If the test car is traveling at the average speed of all vehicles, it will most likely pass the same
number of vehicles as the number of vehicles that overtake it. and 𝑇̅𝑤 = 𝑇𝑤 Since it is probable
that the test car will not be travelling at the average speed, the second term of the above equation

32
corrects for the difference between the number of vehicles that overtake the test car and the number
of vehicles that are overtaken by the test car.

Note that the number of vehicles in the east direction and the travel time in the east is given by

( 𝑁𝑤 + 𝑂𝑒 − 𝑃𝑒 )60
𝑉𝑒 =
𝑇𝑒 + 𝑇𝑤

60(𝑂𝑒 − 𝑃𝑒 )
𝑇̅𝑒 = 𝑇𝑒 −
𝑉𝑒

Example

The data in Table 2.7 were obtained in a travel time study on a section of highway using the moving
– vehicle technique. Determine the travel time and volume in each direction at this section of the
highway.

Table 2.7 Question data

Run Travel No. of vehicles No. of vehicles No. of vehicles

Direction/ Time traveling in that overtake test Overtaken by
Number (min) opposite vehicle test
direction vehicle
Eastward
1 2.75 80 1 1
2 2.55 75 2 1
3 2.85 83 0 3
4 3.00 78 0 1
5 3.05 81 1 1
6 2.7 79 3 2
7 2.82 82 1 1
8 3.08 78 0 2
Te Ne Oe Pe
Westward
1 2.95 78 2 0
2 3.15 83 1 1
3 3.20 89 1 1
4 2.83 86 1 0
5 3.30 80 2 1
6 3.00 79 1 2
7 3.22 82 2 1
8 2.91 81 0 1
Tw Nw Ow Pw

33
solution

Mean time it takes to travel eastward (Te) = 2.85 min

Mean time it takes to travel westbound (Tw) = 3.07 min

Average number of vehicles traveling westward when test vehicle traveling eastward (Ne) = 79.50

Average number of vehicles traveling eastward when test vehicle traveling westward (Nw) = 82.25

Average number of vehicles that overtake test vehicle while it is traveling westward (Ow) = 1.25

Average number of vehicles that overtake test vehicle while it is traveling eastward (Oe) = 1.00

Average mumber of vehicles the test vehicle passes while traveling westward (Pw) = 0.875

Average number of vehicles the test vehicle passes while traveling eastward (Pe) = 1.5

Volume in the westward direction

( 𝑁𝑒 + 𝑂𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 )60
𝑉𝑤 =
𝑇𝑒 + 𝑇𝑤

( 79.50 + 1.25 − 0.875)60

𝑉𝑤 =
2.85 + 3.07

𝑉𝑤 = 809.5 = 810 voh

Volume in the eastward direction

( 𝑁𝑤 + 𝑂𝑒 − 𝑃𝑒 )60
𝑉𝑒 = 𝑇𝑒 + 𝑇𝑤

(82.25 + 1.00 − 1.5 )60

𝑉𝑒 =
2.85 + 3.07

𝑉𝑒 = 828.5 = 829 vph

Travel time in the west bound direction

60(𝑂𝑤 − 𝑃𝑤 )
𝑇̅𝑤 = 𝑇𝑤 −
𝑉𝑤

34
 60(1.25 − 0.875)
𝑇̅𝑤 = 3.07 −
810
𝑇̅𝑤 = 3.0 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Travel time in the east bound direction

60(𝑂𝑒 − 𝑃𝑒 )
𝑇̅𝑒 = 𝑇𝑒 −
𝑉𝑒

60(1 − 1.5)
𝑇̅𝑒 = 2.85 −
829

𝑇̅𝑒 = 2.9 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Methods not requiring test vehicles

- License plate observation

Observers are positioned at the beginning and end of the test section. Each observer records the last
three or four digits of the license plate of each car that passes, together with the time at which the
car passes. The reduction of the data is accomplished by matching the times of arrival at the beginning
and end of the test section for each license plate recorded. The difference between these times is the
travel time of each vehicle. The average of these is the average travel time on the test section. A
sample size of 50 matched license plates is expected to give reasonably accurate results.

- Interviews

This involves obtaining information from motorists driving through the study section regarding their
travel times, their experience of delays and so forth. A large amount of data could be collected
through this approach but all depends on the cooperation of individuals, since the results depends
entirely on the information given by them.

35
2.3 Spot speed studies
Speed is the rate of movement of a vehicle (mph, kph)

 Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a
stream of traffic at a particular location on a highway (instantaneous speed).
 It is carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles at a specified location.
Speed characteristics identified is only valid (true) for the traffic and environmental
conditions that exist at the time of the study.

Speed characteristics determined may be used to

 Establish speed zones

 Determine whether complaints about speeding are valid
 Design geometric alignment
 Analyze accident data and evaluate the effects of physical improvements
 Determine the effects of speed enforcement programs and speed control measures
 Determine speed trends as part of periodic evaluation

2.3.1 Where to conduct speed studies (location)

Depend on the anticipated use of data

- Midblocks of urban highways and straight, level section of rural highways are sites for
speed trend analyses
- Locations that represent different traffic conditions are used for basic data collection
- Specified location, if diagnosing and solving specific traffic engineering problems.

General considerations on location of study.

It is important that data collected should be unbiased

 Equipment and observer should be inconspicuous so as not to influence driver behavior

 Since data is subjected to statistical analysis an adequate and representative number of
measurement should be done

2.3.2 Time of day of spot speed studies

Depend on the anticipated use of data

 When the purpose of the study is to establish (set) speed limits, observe speed trends or
to collect basic data; it should be conducted when traffic is free – flowing, usually
during off – peak hours. However, for specific problems or complaints, the time for the
study should reflect the nature of the problem or complaints.

36
2.3.3 Duration of spot speed studies
The duration of the study should ensure that the minimum number of vehicle speeds required for
statistical analysis is recorded. Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the sample size is at
least 30 vehicles

2.3.4 Speed characteristics of a set of speed data

Average or mean speed is the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicles speeds

∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝑢̅ =
∑ 𝑓𝑖

The formula can also be written as

∑ 𝑢𝑖
𝑢̅ =
𝑁
Where

𝑢̅𝑖 = arithmetic mean

𝑓𝑖 = number of observations in each speed group
𝑢𝑖 = midvalue for the ith speed group
n =number of observed values

Median speed is the speed at the middle value in a series of spot speeds that are arranged in
ascending order

Modal speed is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a sample of spot speeds

The ith – percentile spot speed is the spot speed value below which i percent of the vehicles
travel; eg, 85th - percentile spot speed is the speed below which 85 percent of the vehicles travel
and above which 15% of the vehicles travel

Pace is the range of speed – usually taken at 10 – mph intervals that has the greatest number of
observations. For example, if a set of speed data includes speeds between 30 and 60 mi/h, the
speed intervals will be 30 to 40 mi/h, 40 to 50 mi/h, and 50 to 60 mi/h, assuming a range of 10
mi/h. The pace is 40 to 50 mi/h if this range of speed has the highest number of observations.

Standard deviation of speeds is a measure of the spread of the individual speeds or classes of
speeds (speed data are frequently presented in classes)

̅𝑖 )2
∑(𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢
S=√ 𝑁−1

or

37
 ∑(𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖2 ) − (∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 )2⁄∑ 𝑓𝑖
𝑠=√
∑ 𝑓𝑖 − 1

2.3.5 Sample size for spot speed studies

The calculated mean is used to represent the true mean value of all vehicle speeds at the location.
The larger the sample size, the greater the probability that the estimated mean is not significantly
different from the true mean. Statistical procedures (probability theory) are used to determine
minimum sample size that will give an estimated mean to within acceptable limits of error
(precision level)

The precision level is defined as the degree of confidence that the sampling error of a produced
estimate will fall within a desired fixed range. Thus the minimum sample size depends on the
precision level desired. Eg, for a precision level of 90 – 10, there is a 90% probability (confidence
level) that the error of an estimate will not be greater than 10% of its true value. The confidence
level is commonly given in terms of the level of significance(𝛼), where 𝛼 = (100 – confidence
level). The commonly used confidence level for speed counts is 95%

The basic assumption made in determining the minimum sample size for speed studies is that the
normal distribution describes the speed distribution over a given section of a highway

The properties of the normal distribution curve are used to determine the minimum sample size,
for an acceptable error d of the estimated speed.

38
 Figure 2.11 Shape of the normal distribution

Where
𝜇 = true mean of the population
𝜎 = true standard deviation
𝜎 2 = true variance

The properties of the normal distribution are

1. The normal distribution is symmetrical about the mean

2. The total area under the normal distribution curve is equal to 1 or 100 percent
3. The area under the curve between 𝜇 + 𝜎 and 𝜇 − 𝜎 is 0.6827
4. The area under the curve between 𝜇 + 1.96𝜎 and 𝜇 − 1.96𝜎 is 0.9500
5. The area under the curve between 𝜇 + 2𝜎 and 𝜇 − 2𝜎 is 0.9545
6. The area under the curve between 𝜇 + 3𝜎 and 𝜇 − 3𝜎 is 0.9971
7. The area under the curve between 𝜇 + ∞ and 𝜇 − ∞ is 1

The last five properties are used to draw specific conclusions about speed data. Eg if the true mean
of the speeds in a section of a highway is 50 mph and the true standard deviation is 4.5 mph, it can
be concluded that 95% of all vehicle speeds will be between (50 – 1.96 x 4.5) = 41.2 and (50 +
1.96 x 4.5) = 58.82 mph. in other words if a vehicle is selected at random there is a 95 % chance
that its speed is between 41.2 and 58.8 mph

39
The properties of the normal distribution have been used to develop an equation relating the
minimum sample size N, to the number of standard variations corresponding to a particular
confidence level z, the limits of tolerable error d, and the standard deviation 𝜎.

𝑍𝜎 2
𝑁= [ ]
𝑑
The standard deviation can be estimated from previous data, or a small sample size can first be
used. Values of Z corresponding to confidence levels is shown in table 2.8

Table 2.8 Constant corresponding to level of confidence

Confidence level (%) Constant Z

68.3 1.00
86.6 1.50
90.0 1.64
95.0 1.96
95.5 2.00
98.8 2.50
99.0 2.58
99.7 3.00

Question

Determine the minimum sample size required for a spot speed study on a rural two – lane highway
if the confidence level for the study is 95.0 percent and the tolerance is±1mph. assume a standard
deviation of ±5.30 mph

𝑍𝜎 2
𝑁= [ ]
𝑑

1.96 ∗ 5.3 2
𝑁= [ ]
1

𝑁 = 108

40
2.3.6 Methods for conducting spot speed studies
- Manual methods
- Automatic
 Road detectors
- Pneumatic road tubes (3 to 15 ft apart) usually 6 ft
- Induction loops (uses disturbance in electric fied)
- The advantage of the detector meters is that human errors are considerably
reduced. The disadvantages are that (1) these devices tend to be rather
expensive and (2) when pneumatic tubes are used, they are rather
conspicuous and may, therefore, affect driver behavior, resulting in a
distortion of the speed distribution.
 Those that use Doppler principle (radar type)
- When a signal is transmitted unto a moving vehicle, the change in
frequency b/n the transmitted signal and the reflected signal is
proportional to the speed of the moving vehicle
 Those that use the principle of electronics
Eg video image processing (electronic cameras and wireless technology)

2.3.7 Presentation and analysis of spot speed Data

Statistical methods are used in analyzing spot speed data, some of the characteristics can be
calculated directly from the data others are determined from a graphical representation of the
data. The presentation formats most commonly used are

 Frequency distribution tables

 Frequency histograms
 Frequency distribution curve
 Cumulative frequency distribution curves

 The frequency histogram is a chart showing the midvalue for each class as the abscissa
(x) axis and the observed frequency for the corresponding class as the ordinate. (c 3 & 2 )
…..mode
 The frequency distribution curve shows a plot of the percentage of observations against
speed (c 5 &2) ..Pace, mode
 The cumulative frequency distribution curve shows a plot of the cumulative percentage
against the upper limit of each corresponding speed class (c 6 and 1). This curve gives the
percentage of vehicles that are traveling at or below a given speed.

…median, 85 th percentile speed.

41
Question

The table 2.9 below shows the data collected on a rural highway in Takoradi during a speed study.
Develop the frequency histogram, frequency distribution and cumulative frequency distribution of
the data and determine the mean speed, standard deviation, the median speed, the pace modal speed
and the 85th percentile speed.

Table 2.9 Speed data

Speed Speed Speed Speed

Car No. (mph) Car No. (mph) Car No. (mph) Car No. (mph)
1 35.1 23 46.1 45 47.8 67 56
2 44 24 54.2 46 47.1 68 49.1
3 45.8 25 52.3 47 34.8 69 49.2
4 44.3 26 57.3 48 52.4 70 56.4
5 36.3 27 46.8 49 49.1 71 48.5
6 54 28 57.8 50 37.1 72 45.4
7 42.1 29 36.8 51 65 73 48.6
8 50.1 30 55.8 52 49.5 74 52
9 51.8 31 43.3 53 52.2 75 49.8
10 50.8 32 55.3 54 48.4 76 63.4
11 38.3 33 39 55 42.8 77 60.1
12 44.6 34 53.7 56 49.5 78 48.8
13 45.2 35 40.8 57 48.6 79 52.1
14 41.1 36 54.5 58 41.2 80 48.7
15 55.1 37 51.6 59 48 81 61.8
16 50.2 38 51.7 60 58 82 56.6
17 54.3 39 50.3 61 49 83 48.2
18 45.4 40 59.8 62 41.8 84 62.1
19 55.2 41 40.3 63 48.3 85 53.3
20 45.7 42 55.1 64 45.9 86 53.4
21 54.1 43 45 65 44.7
22 54 44 48.3 66 49.5

Solution: The speeds range from 34.8 to 65.0 mi/h, giving a speed range of 30.2. For
eight classes, the range per class is 3.75 mi/h; for 20 classes, the range per class is
1.51 mi/h. It is convenient to choose a range of 2 mi/h per class which will give16
classes

42
 Table 2.10 Frequency distribution table

speed Class Class % of Cumulative

class Midvalue frequency observations % of all
(mph) In each Observations
1 2 3 4 class 6 7
5
𝑢𝑖 𝑓𝑖 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝑓(𝑢𝑖 − 𝑢̅)2
34 - 35.9 35 2 2.3
36 – 37.9 37 3 3.5
39 2 2.3
41 5 5.8
43 3 3.5
45 11 12.8
47 4 4.7
49 18 21
51 7 8.1
53 8 9.3
55 11 12.8
57 5 5.8
59 2 2.3
61 2 2.3
63 2 2.3
64 – 65.9 65 1 1.2
Total 86 4260 3632.00

2.3.8 Comparison of two spot speed studies

Sometimes it is necessary to determine whether there is a significant difference between the
mean speeds of two spot speed studies. if

|𝑢̅1 − 𝑢̅2 | > 𝑍𝑆𝑑

Then it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in sample means at that specific
confidence level.

𝑠12 𝑠22
𝑠𝑑 = √ +
𝑛1 𝑛2

43
Where

𝑢̅1 = mean speed of study 1

𝑢̅2 = mean speed of study 2
𝑛1 = sample size for study 1
𝑛2 = sample size for study 2
𝑠𝑑 = square root of the variance of the difference in means
𝑠12 = variance about the mean for study 1
𝑠22 = variance about the mean for study 2

Question

Speed data were collected at a section of highway during and after utility maintenance work. The
characteristics are as shown below. Determine whether there was any difference between the
average speeds at the 95 % confidence level.

𝑢̅1 = 35.5 mph

𝑠1 = 7.5 mph
𝑛1 = 250
𝑢̅2 = 38.7 mph
𝑠2 = 7.4 mph
𝑛2 = 280
Solution

𝑠12 𝑠22
𝑠𝑑 = √ +
𝑛1 𝑛2

7.52 7.42
𝑠𝑑 = √ +
250 280

𝑠𝑑 = 0.65

|𝑢̅1 − 𝑢̅2 | > 𝑍𝑆𝑑

|38.7 − 35.5 | > 1.96(0.65)

|3.2 | > 1.3

The difference between the mean speeds is significant at the 95% confidence level.

44
2.4 Parking studies
Rational

- Parking is an essential element of the highway mode of transport because vehicles will at
one time or another be parked for either a short time or a relatively longer time depending
on the reason for parking
- Parking is one of the major problems that is created by the increasing road traffic. It is an
impact of transport development. The availability of less space in urban areas has increased
the demand for parking space especially in areas like CBD. Parking problems affects the
mode choice and has a great economical impact
- Providing adequate parking spaces to meet demand in CBD areas is most challenging.
Provision of parking bays along curbs reduce the capacity of the streets and may affect the
LOS
- Parking studies are used to determine the demand for and the supply of parking
facilities in an area, the projection of the demand, and the views of various interest
groups on how best to solve the problem.
- Before taking any measures for the betterment of conditions, data regarding availability of
parking space, extent of its usage and parking demand is essential. It is also required to
estimate the parking fares also. Parking surveys are intended to provide all these
information. Since the duration of parking varies with different vehicles, several statistics
are used to access the parking need.

2.4.1 Types of parking facilities (on - street or off - street parking facilities)
- On – Street Parking Facilities (Curb side parking): parking bays are provided alongside
the curbs on one or both sides of the street. they are usually controlled by government
agencies. These bays may be unrestricted parking facilities if the duration of parking is
unlimited and parking is free, or they can be restricted parking facilities if parking is
limited to specific times of the day for a maximum duration. Parking at restricted facilities
may or may not be free. Restricted facilities may also be provided for specific purposes
such as handicapped parking or as bus stops or loading bays.

classification of on – street parking facilities

On street parking facilities are classified based on the angle in which the vehicles are
parked with respect to the road alignment. Common types of on – street parking are
listed below
 Parallel parking
 300 parking
 450 parking
 600 parking and
 right angle parking

45
the standard dimensions of a car is around 5× 2.5m and that for a truck is 3.75 × 7.5 m.

Parallel parking: The vehicles are parked along the length of the road. Here there is no backward
movement involved while parking or unparking the vehicle. Hence, it is the most safest parking
from the accident perspective. However, it consumes the maximum curb length and therefore only
a minimum number of vehicles can be parked for a given curb length. This method of parking
produces least obstruction to the on-going traffic on the road since least road width is used.
𝑁
The length available to park N number of vehicles, is given by 𝐿 = 5.9

300 parking: the vehicles are parked at 30◦ with respect to the road alignment. In this case, more
vehicles can be parked compared to parallel parking. Also there is better manoeuvrability. Delay
caused to the traffic is also minimum in this type of parking.

Figure 2.12 Illustration of 300 parking

𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛 300 = 1.25

𝐵𝐶 = 𝑂𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠 300 = 4.33
𝐵𝐷 = 𝐷𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠 600 = 5
𝐶𝐷 = 𝐵𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = 5 − 4.33 = 0.67
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 1.25 + 4.33
For N vehicles, L = AC + (N-1)CE = 5.58+(N-1)5 = 0.58+5N

450 parking: As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can be parked. Hence
compared to parallel parking and thirty degree parking, more number of vehicles can be
accommodated in this type of parking. Length of parking space for parking N number of vehicles
is L = 3.54 N+1.77

Figure 2.13 Illustration of 450 parking

46
600 parking: More number of vehicles can be accommodated in this parking type. Length
for parking N vehicles is L =2.89N+2.16.

Figure 2.14 Illustration of 600 parking

Right angle parking: In right angle parking or 90◦ parking, the vehicles are parked perpendicular
to the direction of the road. Although it consumes maximum width, kerb length required is very
little. In this type of parking, the vehicles need complex manoeuvring and this may cause severe
accidents. This arrangement causes obstruction to the road traffic particularly if the road width is
less. However, it can accommodate maximum number of vehicles for a given kerb length. Length
for parking N number of vehicles is L = 2.5N.

Figure 2.15 Illustration of 900 parking

- Off - street parking facilities: These are areas exclusively allotted for parking which are
some distance away from the main stream of traffic. They may be privately or publicly
owned, they include surface lots and garages. Self - parking garages require that drivers
park their own vehicles, attendant - parking garages maintain personnel to park the
automobiles.

47
 Figure 2.16 Illustration of off-street parking

2.4.2 Essential Terminology/Parking statistics

- A space – hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of a a single parking space for a
period of 1 hr
- Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park in a study area during a specified
length of time, usually a day. Does not account for repetition of vehicles. The actual volume
of vehicles entered in the area is recorded.
- Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at any specified
time. These data can be plotted as a curve of parking accumulation against time, which
shows the variation of the parking accumulation during the day.
- Parking load is the area under the accumulation curve between two specific times. It can
also be obtained by simply multiplying the number of vehicles occupying the parking area
at each time interval with the time interval. It is expressed as vehicle- hours or space –hours
used during the specified period of time.
- Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking bay. When the
parking duration is given as an average. It gives an indication of how frequently a parking
space becomes available.
- Average parking duration: It is the ratio of total vehicle hours (parking laod) to the
number of vehicles parked (parking volume)
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

- Parking turnover It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the number
of parking bays available. is the rate of use of a parking space. This can be expressed as
number of vehicles per bay per time duration
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

- Parking index: also called occupancy or efficiency. It is defined as the ratio of number
of bays occupied in a time duration to the total space available. It gives an aggregate

48
 measure of how effectively the parking space is utilized. Parking index can be found out
as follows
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = × 100
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

2.4.3 Methodology of parking studies

A complete parking study involves

- Inventory of existing parking facilities

- Collection of data on parking accumulation, parking turnover and parking duration
- Identification of parking generators and
- Collection of information on parking demand
- Information on related factors such as financial, legal and administrative matters, may
also be collected

Inventory of existing parking facilities

This is a detailed listing of the location and all other relevant characteristic of each legal parking
facility, private or public, in the study area. This includes both off – and on – street facilities. The
relevant characteristics or information usually collected include

- Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility

- Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if any
- Type of ownership (private or public)
- Parking fees, if any, and method of collection
- Restriction on use (open or closed to the public)
- Other restriction, if any ( such as loading and unloading zones, bus stops or taxi ranks)
- Probable degree of permanency (whether the facility can be regarded as permanent or
temporal).

The information obtained from an inventory of parking facilities is useful for public agencies
such as planning departments for municipal planning and for traffic management.

Collection of parking data

Parking data are collected through parking surveys

Parking surveys

Parking surveys are conducted to collect the above said parking statistics. The most common
parking surveys conducted are in-out survey, fixed period sampling and license plate
method of survey

49
 1. In-out survey: In this survey, the occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken at
the beginning. Then the number of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time
interval is counted. The number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken. The
final occupancy in the parking lot is also taken. Here the labor required is very less. Only
one person may be enough. But we won’t get any data regarding the time duration for
which a particular vehicle used that parking lot. Parking duration and parking index is not
obtained. Hence we cannot estimate the parking fare from this survey.
2. Fixed period sampling: This is almost similar to in-out survey. All vehicles are counted
at the beginning of the survey. Then after a fixed time interval that may vary between 15
minutes to i hour, the count is again taken. Here there are chances of missing the number
of vehicles that were parked for a short duration.
3. License plate method of survey: This results in the most accurate and realistic data. In
this case of survey, every parking stall is monitored at a continuous interval of 15 minutes
or so and the license plate number is noted down. This will give the data regarding the
duration for which a particular vehicle was using the parking bay. This will help in
calculating the fare because fare is estimated based on the duration for which the vehicle
was parked. If the time interval is shorter, then there are less chances of missing short-term
parkers. But this method is very labor intensive.

Accumulation (fixed period sampling)

Accumulation data is obtained by checking the amount of parking during regular intervals on
different days of the week. The checks are usually carried out on an hourly or 2hr basis between
6:00 am and 8:00 pm. The selection of the observation times depends on the operation times
of land – use activities that act as parking generators. Eg if it is the CBD, the operating times
of shops and businesses should be used. The information obtained is used to determine hourly
variations of parking and peak periods of parking demand. (See sketch)

Turnover and Duration (licence plate method)

This information is obtained by collecting data on a sample of parking spaces in a given block.
This is done by recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on each parking space in the
sample at the ends of fixed intervals during the study period. The length of the fixed intervals
depends on the maximum permissible duration. Eg, if the maximum permissible duration of
parking is 1 hr, then a suitable interval is every 20 min. if the permissible duration is 2 hrs,
checking every 30 minutes would be appropriate. Turnover is then obtained from the equation.

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑑

𝑇=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

Identification of parking generators

This involves identifying parking generators like shopping centers or transit terminals and
locating these on a map of the study area

50
 Parking demand

This information is obtained by interviewing drivers at the various parking facilities listed
during the inventory. An effort should be made to interview all drivers using the parking
facilities on a typical weekday between 8:00 am and 10:00 pm. Information sought should
include (1) trip origin, (2) purpose of trip, and (3) drivers destination after parking. The
interviewer must also note the location of the parking facility, the times of arrival and departure
and the vehicle type.

Parking interviews can also be carried out using the postcard technique in which stamped
postcards bearing the appropriate questions and a return address are handed to drivers or
placed under windshield wipers. When the technique is used only about 30 to 50 % of the cards
distributed are returned. It is therefore necessary to record the time and the number of the cards
distributed at each location, because this information is required to develop expansion factors,
which are later used to expand the sample.

Analysis of parking data (Demand and supply)

Includes summarizing, coding and interpreting the data so that the relevant information
required for decision making can be obtained. The relevant information includes

 Number and duration for vehicles legally parked

 Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked
 Space – hours of demand for parking
 Supply of parking facilities

The space – hours of demand for parking are obtained from the expression
𝑁

𝐷 = ∑(𝑛𝑖 𝑡𝑖 )
𝑖= 1

Where
D = Space vehicle – hours demand for a specific period of time
N = number of classes of parking duration ranges
𝑡𝑖 = midparking duration of the i – th class
𝑛𝑖 = number of vehicles parked for the i-th duration range

The space – hours of supply are obtained from the expression

𝑁

𝑆 = 𝑓 ∑(𝑡𝑖 )
𝑖= 1

S = Practical number of Space – hours of supply for a specific period of time

51
N = number of parking spaces available
𝑡𝑖 = total length of time in hours when the i - th space can be legally parked on during the specific
period
𝑓 = efficiency factor, used to correct for time lost in each turnover.

The efficiency factor is determined on the basis of the best performance a parking facility is
expected to produce. Efficiency factors are determined for different types of facilities for example,
surface lots, curb parking and garages. Efficiency factors for curb parking, during highest demand,
vary from 78 to 96 percent; for surface lots and garages, it is 75 to 92 percent. Average values of
𝑓 are 90 percent for curb parking, 80 percent for garages and 85 percent for surface lots.

Question
The owner of a parking garage located at a CBD has observed that 20% of those wishing to park
are turned back every day during the open hours of 8 am to 6 pm because of lack of parking spaces.
An analysis of data collected at the garage indicate that 60% of those who park are commuters,
with an average parking duration of 9 hrs, and the remaining are shoppers, whose average parking
duration is 2 hrs. if 20 % of those who cannot park are commuters and the rest are shoppers, and a
total of 200 vehicles currently park daily in the garage, determine the number of additional spaces
required to meet the excess demand. Assume parking efficiency is 0.9

Solution
calculate the space-hours of demand
𝑁

𝐷 = ∑(𝑛𝑖 𝑡𝑖 )
𝑖= 1

Commuters now being served = 0.6 × 200 × 9 = 1080 space – hour

shoppers now being served = 0.4 × 200 × 2 = 160 space – hr
if the total demand for the lot is 100%, those served is 80%, and those turned away is 20%
if 200 is 80% then 20% is 50.

Thus vehicles turned away =50

commuters not being served =0.2 × 50 × 9 = 90 space - hr
shoppers not being served = 0.8 ×50 × 2 = 80 space – hr

total space – hours of demand = 1080+ 160+ 90 +80 = 1410

Total space – hours served =1080+160 = 1240
Number of space – hours required = 90+80 =170 space – hr

52
determine the number of space required
𝑁

𝑆 = 𝑓 ∑(𝑡𝑖 )
𝑖= 1

0.9 ×10 × N = 170

N = 18.89

at least 19 additionals spaces is required.

try question. give an estimate of the already existing parking space

2.4.4 Negative effects of parking

Parking has some ill-effects like congestion, accidents, pollution, obstruction to fire-fighting
operations etc.
 Congestion: Parking takes considerable street space leading to the lowering of the
road capacity. Hence, speed will be reduced, journey time and delay will also
subsequently increase. The operational cost of the vehicle increases leading to great
economical loss to the community.
 Accidents: Careless maneuvering of parking and unparking leads to accidents which
are referred to as parking accidents. Common type of parking accidents occur while
driving out a car from the parking area, careless opening of the doors of parked cars,
and while bringing in the vehicle to the parking lot for parking.
 Environmental pollution: They also cause pollution to the environment because
stopping and starting of vehicles while parking and unparking results in noise and
fumes. They also affect the aesthetic beauty of the buildings because cars parked at
every available space creates a feeling that building rises from a plinth of cars.
 Obstruction to fire fighting operations: Parked vehicles may obstruct the movement
of firefighting vehicles. Sometimes they block access to hydrants and access to
buildings.

Parking requirements
There are some minimum parking requirements for different types of building. For residential plot
area less than 300 sq.m require only community parking space. For residential plot area from 500
to 1000 sq.m, minimum one-fourth of the open area should be reserved for parking. Offices may
require atleast one space for every 70 sq.m as parking area. One parking space is enough for 10
seats in a restaurant where as theatres and cinema halls need to keep only 1 parking space for 20
seats. Thus, the parking requirements are different for different land use zones. (local standards
required, some one could research on this by searching through our agencies)

53
Example

Figure 2.17 shows the duration for which each of the bays are occupied (shaded portion). The
accumulation graph can be plotted by simply noting the number of bays occupied at time interval
of 15, 30,45 etc as shown in the figure. 2.17

Figure 2.17 Parking bays and accumulation curve

The various parking statistics or measures are calculated as shown below:

Parking volume= 5 vehicles.

15
Parking load =(1 + 2 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 1)
60
= 2.75 veh hour.
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

2.75 𝑣𝑒ℎ ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
5 𝑣𝑒ℎ
= 0.55 hr (33 min)
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

5 𝑣𝑒ℎ/2 ℎ𝑟𝑠
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 = = 0.83 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ𝑟/𝑏𝑎𝑦
3 𝑏𝑎𝑦𝑠

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = × 100
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

2.75 𝑣𝑒ℎ ℎ𝑟𝑠

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = × 100
3 × 2 𝑣𝑒ℎ ℎ𝑟𝑠
= 45.83%

54
Example 2
From an in-out survey conducted for a parking area consisting of 40 bays, the initial count was
found to be 25. Table gives the result of the survey. The number of vehicles coming in and
out of the parking lot for a time interval of 5 minutes is as shown in the table 41:1. Find the
accumulation, total parking load, average occupancy and efficiency of the parking lot.

Solution
 Accumulation can be found out as initial count plus number of vehicles that entered the
parking lot till that time minus the number of vehicles that just exited for that particular
time interval. For the first time interval of 5 minutes, accumulation can be found out as
25+3-2 = 26. It is being tabulated in column 4.
 Occupancy or parking index is given by equation For the first time interval of five minutes,
26
Parking index =40 × 100 = 65 %. The occupancy for the remaining time slot is similarly
calculated and is tabulated in column 5. Average occupancy is the average of the occupancy
values for each time interval. Thus it is the average of all values given in column 5 and the
value is 80.63%.
 Parking load is tabulated in column 6. It is obtained by multiplying accumulation with the
time interval. For the first time interval, parking load = 26 × 5 = 130 vehicle minutes.
 Total parking load is the summation of all the values in column 5 which is equal to 1735
vehicle minutes or 32.25 vehicle hours

55
Example 3
The parking survey data collected from a parking lot by license plate method is s shown in
the table 41:3 below. Find the average occupancy, average turn over, parking load, parking
capacity and efficiency of the parking lot.

Solution
See the following table for solution 41:4. Columns 1 to 5 is the input data. The
parking status in every bay is coded first. If a vehicle occupies that bay for that time interval,
then it has a code 1. This is shown in columns 6, 7, 8 and 9 of the table corresponding to the
time intervals 15, 30, 45 and 60 seconds.

 Turn over is computed as the number of vehicles present in that bay for that particular
hour. For the first bay, it is counted as 3. Similarly, for the second bay, one vehicle is
present throughout that hour and hence turnout is 1 itself. This is being tabulated in
column 10 of the table
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 = = 2.25
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

 Accumulation for a time interval is the total of number of vehicles in the bays 1 to 12 for
that time interval. Accumulation for first time interval of 15 minutes =
1+1+1+1+1+0+0+1+1+1+1+1
= 10
 Parking volume = Sum of the turn over in all the bays = 27 vehicles
 Average duration is the average time for which the parking lot was used by the vehicles.
It can be calculated as sum of the accumulation for each time interval × time interval
(10+11+9+11)×15
divided by the parking volume = = 22.78 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
27

56
  Occupancy for that time interval is accumulation in that particular interval divided by total
(10)×100
number of bays. For first time interval of 15 minutes, occupancy = 12 = 83%
Average occupancy is found out as the average of total number of vehicles occupying the
bay for each time interval. It is expressed in percentage. Average occupancy =
0.83+0.92+0.75+0.92
× 100 = 85.42 %
4
4
 Parking capacity = number of bays × number of hours = 12× 1 = 12 vehicle hours

 Parking load = total number of vehicles accumulated at the end of each time interval ×
(10+11+9+11)×15
time = = 10.25 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
60

𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
 Efficiency = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 100
10.25 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
= 12 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 × 100
= 85.42%

57
 3. Fundamental principles of traffic flow theory
Traffic data collection (engineering studies) generates data on elements of the traffic stream. The
interest of traffic flow theory is to develop mathematical relationship among the primary
elements of a traffic stream namely; f low density and speed. These relationships help the
engineer in;

 Planning, designing and evaluating the effectiveness of implementing traffic engineering

measures on a highway system
 Traffic flow theory is used in design to determine adequate lane lengths for storing left-
turn vehicles on separate left-turn lanes
 To determine the average delay at intersections and freeway ramp merging areas
 Determine of signal timing of control Traffic devices and performance (LOS) of road
facilities.
 Determine changes in the level of freeway performance due to the installation of
improved vehicular control devices on ramps
 . Simulation: estimate the effects of changes in traffic flow on factors such as accidents,
travel time, air pollution and gasoline consumption before implementation
.
3.1 Traffic flow elements
The primary elements of a traffic stream are flow, density and speed. Another element
associated with density, is the gap or headway between two vehicles. A stream is a group of
vehicles sharing the same roadway space and moving in the same direction.

Time space diagram

This is a graph that describes the relationship between the location of vehicles in a traffic stream
and the time as the vehicles progress along the highway. The time space diagram is a useful
device for defining the elements of a traffic stream.

Figure 3.1 Time space diagram

58
At time zero, vehicles 1, 2, 3, and 4 are at respective distances d1, d2, d3, and d4 from a
reference point whereas vehicles 5 and 6 cross the reference point later at times t5 and t6,
respectively

Flow (q) is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass a point on a highway during a time
period less than 1 hr.
𝒏 ×𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒒= 𝒗𝒑𝒉
𝑻

Where

n = the number of vehicles passing a point in the roadway in T secs

Density (Concentration) k, is the number of vehicles traveling over a unit length of a highway
at an instant in time (vpm)

Speed (u) it is the distance traveled by a vehicle during a unit of time (mph, k/h, ft/sec). the
speed of a vehicle at any time t is the slope of the time - space diagram for the vehicle at time t.

there are two types of mean speeds:

Time mean speed (𝒖 ̅ 𝒕 ) is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time.
𝒏
𝟏
̅𝒕 =
𝒖 ∑ 𝒖𝒊
𝒏
𝒊=𝟏

Space mean speed (𝒖 ̅ 𝒔 ) is the harmonic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point on a
highway during an interval of time. It is obtained by dividing the total distance traveled by two
or more vehicles on a section of a highway by the total time required by these vehicles to ravel
that distance. This is the speed that is involved in flow – density relationships.

𝟏
̅𝒔 =
𝒖
∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏(𝟏⁄𝒖𝒊 )

𝑛𝐿
=
∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒕𝒊

(average speed used by a number of vehicles traveling at different constant speeds at a point in
time to cover a given length)

59
Where

̅ 𝒔 = space mean speed

𝒖
n = number of vehicle
𝒕𝒊 = the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel across a section of highway (sec)
𝒖𝒊 = speed of the ith vehicle (ft/sec)
L = length of section of highway (ft)

Time headway (h) is the difference between the time the front of a vehicle arrives at a point on
the highway and the time the front of the next vehicle arrives at the same point. Is usually expressed
in seconds.

Space headway (d) is the distance between the front of a vehicle and the front of the following
vehicle. Usually expressed in feet.

Clearance/ gap

Clearance is the interval or distance between successive vehicles measured from the rear bumper
of the leading vehicle to the front bumper of the following vehicles. The time measure of this
interval is called a gap.

3.2 Flow - density relationship

The general equation relating flow, density and space mean speed is

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑢̅𝑠

Each of the variables depends on several other factors such as characteristics of the roadway,
vehicle, driver and environmental factors such as the weather. Other relationships include
̅ 𝒔 = 𝑞𝑑̅
𝒖

̅̅̅
𝑑 = (1⁄𝑘)

𝑘 = 𝑞𝑡̅

𝑑̅ = u̅s h̅

ℎ̅ = 𝑡̅𝑑̅

Where
𝑑̅ = average space headway, ℎ̅ = average time headway, 𝑡̅= average travel time for unit distance

60
3.3 Fundamental diagram of traffic flow
The relationship between the density (vpm) and the corresponding flow of traffic on a highway is
referred to us the fundamental diagram of traffic flow. The following theory (properties)
regarding the shape of the curve has been postulated

1. When the density on the highway is zero, the flow is also zero (no vehicles)
2. As the density increases, the flow also increases
3. When the density reaches its maximum (Jam density kj), flow is must be zero, because
vehicle will tend to queue end to end
4. Thus as Density increases from zero, the flow will also initially increase from zero to a
maximum value, further increase in density will result in continuous reduction of the
flow, which eventually gets to zero when the jam density is reached.

Figure 3.2 Flow versus density

Relationship between the space mean speed and the flow (postulates)

 When flow is very low, there is little interaction between individual vehicles, thus drivers are
free to travel at the maximum possible speed. The absolute maximum speed is obtained when
flow tends to zero and is known as the mean free speed (uf).; magnitude of the mean free speed
depends on geometric and environmental characteristics of the highway.
 Continuous increase in flow result in a continuous decrease in speed, a point is reached when
further addition of vehicles result in a reduction of the actual number of vehicles that pass a
point on the highway (flow). This results in congestion and eventually both the speed and flow
becomes zero

61
 Figure 3.3 Space mean speed versus flow

There is a direct relationship between speed and density.

Figure 3.4 Space mean speed versus density

3.4 Mathematical relationship describing traffic flow

These can be classified into two general categories depending on the approach used in
developing the relationship

1. Macroscopic approach : considers flow- density relationship of traffic streams

The two most commonly used macroscopic models are
 The Greenshields model and
 Greenberg models
2. Microscopic approach : considers headways and speeds of individual vehicles

62
Greenshields model

He hypothesized that a linear relationship exist between speed and density expressed as
𝒖𝒇
̅ 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒇 −
𝒖 𝒌
𝒌𝒋

Since 𝑘 = 𝑞 ⁄𝑢̅𝑠 substitute k

𝒖𝒇
̅ 𝟐𝒔 = 𝒖𝒇 𝒖
𝒖 ̅𝒔 − 𝒒 (flow and speed parabolic rel)
𝒌𝒋

Since again
𝒖𝒇
̅ 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒇 −
𝒖 𝒌
𝒌𝒋

𝑢̅𝑠 = 𝑞 ⁄𝑘 substitute q
𝑢𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑢𝑓 𝑘 − 𝑘2 (flow and density parabolic rel)
𝑘𝑗

Determining the corresponding speed for maximum flow

𝑢𝑓
𝑢̅𝑠2 = 𝑢𝑓 𝑢̅𝑠 − 𝑞
𝑘𝑗

Differentiate q with respect to 𝑢̅𝑠

𝑢𝑓 𝑑𝑞
2𝑢̅𝑠 = 𝑢𝑓 − change of subject
𝑘𝑗 𝑑𝑢𝑠

𝑑𝑞 𝑘 𝑘
= 𝑢𝑓 𝑢𝑗 − 2𝑢̅𝑠 𝑢𝑗
𝑑𝑢𝑠 𝑓 𝑓

𝑑𝑞 𝑘𝑗
= 𝑘𝑗 − 2𝑢̅𝑠
𝑑𝑢𝑠 𝑢𝑓

𝑑𝑞 𝑘
For maximum flow 𝑑𝑢 = 0 , 𝑘𝑗 = 2𝑢̅𝑠 𝑢𝑗
𝑠 𝑓

𝒖𝒇
𝒖𝒐 = thus the space mean speed 𝑢𝑜 at which volume is
𝟐
maximum is half the free mean speed

63
Determining the corresponding density for maximum flow
𝑢𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑢𝑓 𝑘 − 𝑘2
𝑘𝑗

Differentiate q with respect to k

𝑑𝑞 𝑢
= 𝑢𝑓 − 2𝑘 𝑘𝑓
𝑑𝑘 𝑗

𝑑𝑞 𝑢
For maximum flow 𝑑𝑘 = 0, 𝑢𝑓 = 2𝑘 𝑘𝑓
𝑗

𝒌𝒋
𝒌𝒐 = thus, at maximum flow the density 𝒌𝒐 is half the
𝟐
jam density

The maximum flow for the Greenshields model is

𝐤 𝐣 𝐮𝐟
𝐪𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟒

Greenberg model

He used the analogy of fluid flow to develop macroscopic relationships for traffic flow in the
form
𝒌𝒋
̅ 𝒔 = 𝒄 𝑰𝒏
𝒖 since q = uk
𝒌

𝒌𝒋
q = 𝒄𝒌 𝑰𝒏 𝒌

differentiate q with respect to k,

𝑑𝑞 𝒌𝒋
= 𝒄 𝑰𝒏 −𝑐
𝑑𝑘 𝒌

For maximum flow

𝑑𝑞 𝒌𝒋
= 𝟎, 𝑰𝒏 =𝟏
𝑑𝑘 𝒌

Giving 𝐼𝑛 𝑘 𝑗 = 1 + 𝐼𝑛 𝑘𝑜
𝑘𝑗
That is 𝐼𝑛 = 1 substitute into
𝑘𝑜

𝑘𝑗
𝑢̅𝑠 = 𝑐 𝐼𝑛 𝑘

𝑢̅𝑜 = 𝑐 Thus the value of c is the speed at maximum flow

64
.

Use of these macroscopic models is dependent on traffic conditions and whether they
satisfy the boundary criteria of the fundamental diagram of traffic flow at the region that describes
the traffic condition.. The Greenshields model satisfies the conditions when k approaches zero as
well as when k approaches the jam density (kj). It is therefore valid under both light and dense
traffic conditions. The Greenberg model, on the other hand, satisfies the condition only when k
approaches the jam density (kj), but not when k approaches zero. Thus the Greenberg model is
applicable only to dense traffic conditions.

3.5 Calibration of Macroscopic Traffic Flow Models.

The application of the models studied so far is that we can pick suitable data (speed , density, flow)
on any facility and determine specific characteristics, such as the speed and density at which
maximum flow occurs, and the jam density of the facility by fitting the collected data to any of
the traffic models discussed this far The most common method of approach is using linear
regression analysis. Excel or spss could be used

𝒖𝒇
̅𝒖𝒔 = 𝒖𝒇 − 𝒌 Greenshields
𝒌𝒋

𝒌𝒋
̅ 𝒔 = 𝒄 𝑰𝒏
𝒖 Greenberg
𝒌

̅𝒖𝒔 = 𝒄 𝑰𝒏 𝒌𝒋 − 𝒄 𝑰𝒏 𝑲

Example

Use the method of regression analysis to fit the speed and density data to the Greenshields and Greenberg
macroscopic Models

65
Table 3.1speed and density data from a facility

Table 3.2 Solution from excel

66
 R2 = 0.95 Showing a good fit

a = 62.55 = 𝒖𝒇 mile/hour

𝒖
b = - 0.53 = 𝒌𝒇
𝒋

𝟔𝟐. 𝟓𝟓
𝒌𝒋 =
−𝟎. 𝟓𝟑

𝒌𝒋 = 𝟏𝟏𝟖 veh/mile

𝐤 𝐣 𝐮𝐟
𝐪𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝟒

𝟏𝟏𝟖 × 𝟔𝟐. 𝟓𝟔
𝐪𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝟒

𝐪𝐦𝐚𝐱 =1846 veh/hour

𝒌𝒋
𝒌𝒐 =
𝟐

𝟏𝟏𝟖
𝒌𝒐 =
𝟐

𝒌𝒐 = 𝟓𝟗 𝒗𝒆𝒉/𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆

𝒖𝒇
𝒖𝒐 =
𝟐

𝟔𝟐. 𝟓𝟔
𝒖𝒐 =
𝟐

𝒖𝒐 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟖 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆/𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓

Please submit solution for Greenberg model as an assignment

67
3.6 Categories of traffic flow
Traffic flow on transportation facilities may be categorized as either uninterrupted flow or
interrupted fl0w. Uninterupted flow refers to flows on facitlities that do not have fixed elements
such as stop and yield signs,, traffic Signals and other type of traffic control devices to cause
changes in stream conditions. Any changes in flow conditions in uninteruupted flow are purely
the result of interactions among vehicles and the geometric characteristics of the roadway ( such
as length and degree of curve, gradients, sight distance etc). the traffic on freeways is considered
to be uninterrupted flow. Even if congestion on such roadways brings vehicular flow almost to a
halt, flow is still considered as uninterrupted because the reason for the congestion and slow –
down is internal to the traffic stream and not due to external factors.

Interrupted flow occurs on transportation facilities that have fixed elements and control devices
that cause traffic to stop or slow down periodically irrespective of how much traffic exists

3.7 Shockwaves and queue length due to red phase at a signalised intersection
Figure 3.3 also shows the traffic conditions that exist at an approach of a signalized intersection
when the signal indication is green then changes to red at the end of the green phase (start of the
red phase) and changes to green again at the end of the red phase (start of the green phase).
When the signal indication is green, the flow is normal as shown in section 1. When the signals
change to red at time t1, two new conditions are formed immediately.

Flow from this approach is stopped creating section 2, immediately downstream of the stop line
with a density of zero and flow of zero. At the same time, all vehicles immediately upstream of
the stop line are stationary, forming section 3, where the flow is zero and the density is the jam
density. This results in the formation of the frontal stationary shock wave with velocity v23 and
the backward forming shock wave with velocity v13.

At the end of the red phase at time t2 when the signal indication changes to green again, the flow
rate at the stop line changes from zero to the saturation flow rate as shown in section 4. This
results in the forward moving shock wave v24. The queue length at this time—that is at the end
of the red phase—is represented by the line RM.

68
Table 3.3 Shockwave at signalized intersection

69
Also at this time, the backward recovery shock wave with velocity of v34 is formed that releases
the queue as it moves upstream of the stop line. The intersection of the backward forming and
backward recovery shock waves at point T and time t3 indicates the position where the queue is
completely dissipated with the maximum queue length being represented by the line ST. The
backward forming and backward recovery shock waves also terminate at time t3 and a new forward
moving shock wave with velocity v14 is formed

When the forward moving shock wave crosses the stop line, at time t4, the flow changes at the
stop line from the saturated flow rate to the original flow rate in section 1 and this continues until
time t5 when the signals change again to red. we can determine expressions for the velocities of
the different shock waves and the queue lengths

70
71
Example
The southbound approach of a signalized intersection carries a flow of 1000 veh/h/ln at a velocity
of 50 mi/h. The duration of the red signal indication for this approach is 15 sec. If the saturation
flow is 2000 veh/h/ln with a density of 75 veh/ln, the jam density is 150 veh/mi, determine the
following:

a. The length of the queue at the end of the red phase

b. The maximum queue length
c. The time it takes for the the maximum queue to be formed after the end of the red indication

Solution
𝑞1 − 𝑞3
𝑢1,3 =
𝑘1 − 𝑘3

1000 − 0
𝑢1,3 =
20 − 150
𝑢1,3 = − 7.69 𝑚/ℎ

Shock wave is travelling upstream opposite to the direction of traffic flow (backward
forming shockwave

Queue length at the end of red signal = r × 𝑢1,3

15
= 3600 × 7.69
= 0.03204 miles

𝑞3 − 𝑞4
𝑢3,4 =
𝑘3 − 𝑘4

0 − 2000
𝑢3,4 =
150 − 75
𝑢3,4 = − 26.67 𝑚/ℎ

Maximum length of queue

𝑟𝑢13 𝑢34
𝑆𝑇 =
𝑢34 − 𝑢13

15
×−7.69× −26.67
=3600
−26.67−(−7.69)

72
 0.8546
=−18.98
= 0.045 miles

Time it takes the queue to form after the red indication

𝑟𝑢13
𝑅𝑆 =
𝑢13 − 𝑢34

15
×−7.69
3600
=
(−7.69)−(−26.67)
−0.032
= 18.98
=
= 6.1 swconds

Can you determine the length of vehicles in the queues

And the time it takes for the queue to dissipate completely

73
3.8 Shock Waves and Queue Lengths Due to Temporary Speed Reduction at a
Section of Highway

Figure 3.5 shockwave created due to slow traffic

Consider a truck that enters a two-lane highway at time t1 and traveling at a much lower speed
than the speed of the vehicles driving behind it. The truck travels for some time on the highway
and eventually leaves the highway at time t2. If the traffic condition is such that the vehicles cannot
pass the truck, the shock waves that will be formed are shown in Figure 3.5. The traffic conditions
prior to the truck entering the highway at time t1 is depicted as section 1.

At time t1, vehicles immediately behind the truck will reduce their speed to that of the truck. This
results in an increased density immediately behind the truck resulting in traffic condition 2. The
moving shock wave with a velocity of v12 is formed. Also, because vehicles ahead of the truck
will continue to travel at their original speed, a section on the highway just downstream of the
truck will have no vehicles thereby creating traffic condition 3. This also results in the formation
of the forward moving shock waves with velocities of v13, and v32.
74
At time t2 when the truck leaves the highway, the flow will be increased to the capacity of the
highway with traffic condition 4. This results in the formation of a backward moving shock wave
velocity v24 and a forward moving shock wave with velocity v34. At time t3, shock waves with
velocities v12 and v24 coincide resulting in a new forward moving shock wave with a velocity
v41. It should be noted that the actual traffic conditions 2 and 4 depend on the original traffic
condition 1 and the speed of the truck.

Alternative explanation

The platoon will be defined by the truck at the front and the last vehicle to join at the rear. If the
platoon condition persist for a long time, traffic conditions in front of the platoon will approach
free flow. Two shockwave conditions characterize the platoon condition, one is seen between the
platoon condition and the free flow condition in front of the platoon, and the other is between the
platoon conditions and the last vehicle to join the platoon at the rear

The platoon formation creates a compression of vehicles. Whenever an opportunity for passing the
slow moving at the front of the platoon arises or when the slow moving vehicle decides to increase
speed or pull up at the shoulder of the road, the vehicles behind it will be put in a release condition,
that is they will be free to increase their speeds. When this happens, another shock wave would be
created in the traffic stream. This time between the platoon conditions and the release shockwave.
This shockwave is associated with the decompression of the vehicles

The shockwave associated with the platoon conditions (𝑞𝑏 , 𝑘𝑏 ) and the free flow condition (q =0,
k = 0) at the front of the platoon is
𝑞𝑏 − 0
𝑢𝑠𝑤 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡) =
𝑘𝑏 − 0

(U 2,3)

and that associated with the platoon conditions (𝑞𝑏 , 𝑘𝑏 ) and the approach conditions (𝑞𝑎 , 𝑘𝑎 ) is
𝑞𝑎 − 𝑞𝑏
𝑢𝑠𝑤 (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟) =
𝑘𝑎 − 𝑘𝑏

(U 1,2)

in principle the shockwave at the front of the platoon has a speed equal to the speed of the truck
at the front or the platoon of vehicles

75
if 𝑅𝑝 is the rate of platoon or queue growth

𝑅𝑝 = 𝑢𝑠𝑤 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡) − 𝑢𝑠𝑤 (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟)

𝑅𝑝 = 𝑢2,3 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡) − 𝑢1,2 (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟

At the end of time t measured from the start of platoon formation, the platoon or queue length,
Lp is given by 𝐿𝑝 = 𝑡 × 𝑅𝑝

The number of vehicles contained in this length of platoon Np is given by

𝑁𝑝 = 𝑙𝑝 𝑘𝑏

When an opportunity arises for vehicles in the platoon to increase their speed either because the
slow – moving vehicle pulls off the road or increase its speed, a release condition is created at
the front of the platoon. And another shockwave, this time between the platoon condition and the
release condition is created. The velocity of the release shock wave is simply evaluated using the
two stream conditions defining that shockwave.

The release shockwave will always travel upstream. The release shockwave will begin the
dissipation of the platoon or queue of vehicles earlier formed. At complete platoon dissipation,
another shockwave is again created, this time between the release condition and the approach
condition at the rear of the just dissipated platoon. Thus the deceleration and acceleration of
vehicles in a traffic stream in response to various stimuli create a series of shock waves or
accordon - like movements that travel back and forth along the traffic stream.

If 𝑢𝑠𝑤 (𝑟𝑙) is the shockwave associated with the release and platoon conditions, then the rate of
of platoon dissipation Rd, is the speed of the release shock wave relative to the speed of the
shock wave at the rear of the platoon

𝑅𝑑 = 𝑢𝑠𝑤 (𝑟𝑙) − 𝑢𝑠𝑤 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟)

𝑢2,4 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡) − 𝑢1,2 (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟

The time taken for the platoon of length 𝐿𝑝 to dissipate completely is given as
𝐿𝑝
𝑡𝑑 = 𝑅
𝑑

𝐿𝑝 = 𝑡 × 𝑅𝑝

76
Question

a) Traffic is moving on a one – way road at a flow rate of 2000 v/h and a density of 18
v/km. A truck enters the stream at a point 1km from an upstream benchmark at a speed of
21 km/h. Due to the decreased speed; the density behind the truck increases to 80 v/km.
After 8 minutes, the truck leaves the stream. The platoon behind the truck then releases
itself at capacity conditions, with a flow of 2400 v/h and a density of 50 v/km.
I. Determine how many vehicles will be in the platoon by the time the truck leaves the
highway
II. Determine the time it takes for the platoon to dissipate
III. State the direction in which all the shockwaves used in I and II above are moving.

a) Velocity of rear shockwave causing platooning

𝑞𝑏 − 𝑞𝑎
𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 =
𝑘𝑏 − 𝑘𝑎

2000 − 1680
𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 =
18 − 80
𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 = − 5.16 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

Shock wave is travelling upstream opposite to the direction of traffic flow

Velocity of front shockwave equals to the speed of the truck = 21 km/h

Rate of growth of platoon

𝑅𝑝 = 𝑢𝑠𝑤 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡) − 𝑢𝑠𝑤 (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟)

𝑅𝑝 = 21 − (−5.16 )

𝑅𝑝 = 26.16 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

Time spent by truck on the highway

8
=
60

= 0.1333 ℎ𝑟
Platoon length at the end of time t
𝑙𝑝 = 𝑡 × 𝑅𝑝
= 0.1333 × 26.16 ℎ𝑟
= 3.5 km

77
 Number of vehicles in platoon
𝑁𝑝 = 𝑙𝑝 𝑘2
= 3.5 × 80
= 280 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠

To find the time required for the platoon to dissipate

Release shockwave
𝑞𝑐 − 𝑞𝑏
𝑢𝑟𝑙 =
𝑘𝑐 − 𝑘𝑏

1680 − 2400
𝑢𝑟𝑙 =
80 − 50
𝑢𝑟𝑙 = −24 𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟

Shock wave is travelling upstream opposite to the direction of traffic flow

Rate of platoon dissipation
𝑅𝑑 = 𝑢𝑟𝑙 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡) − 𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟)

𝑅𝑑 = −24 − (− 5.16 )

𝑅𝑑 = − 18.84 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

The time taken for the platoon to dissipate completely

𝐿𝑝
𝑡𝑑 = 𝑅
𝑑

3.5
𝑡𝑑 = 18.84

𝑡𝑑 = 0.1858 ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 11.14 𝑚𝑖𝑛

78
3.9 Types of shockwave
Broadly three types

If 𝑢𝑠𝑤 > 0, the shock wave is traveling in the direction of traffic flow (downstream)

If 𝑢𝑠𝑤 < 0, the shock wave is traveling upstream

If 𝑢𝑠𝑤 = 0, the shock wave is stationary with respect to the roadway

Several types of shock waves can be formed, depending on the traffic conditions that lead to their
formation. These include frontal stationary, backward forming, backward recovery, rear
stationary and forward recovery shock waves.

Frontal stationary shock waves are formed when the capacity suddenly reduces to zero at an
approach or set of lanes having the red indication at a signalized intersection or when a highway
is completely closed because of a serious incident. In this case, a frontal stationary shock wave is
formed at the stop line of the approach or lanes that have a red signal indication.

Backward forming shock waves are formed when the capacity is reduced below the demand flow
rate resulting in the formation of a queue upstream of the bottleneck.The shock wave moves
upstream with its location at any time indicating the end of the queue at that time. This may occur
at the approach of a signalized intersection when the signal indication is red, as shown in Figure
6.9, or at a location of a highway where the number of lanes is reduced.

Backward recovery shock waves are formed when the demand flow rate becomes less than the
capacity of the bottleneck or the restriction causing the capacity reduction at the bottleneck is
removed. For example, when the signals at an approach or set of lanes on a signalized intersection
change from red to green, the traffic flow restriction is removed, and traffic on that approach or
set of lanes is free to move across the intersection, causing a backward recovery shock wave. The
intersection of the backward forming shock wave and the backward recovery shock wave indicates
the end of the queue shown as point T in Figure 3.4

Rear stationary and forward recovery shock waves are formed when demand flow rate upstream
of a bottleneck is first higher than the capacity of the bottleneck and then the demand flow rate
reduces to the capacity of the bottleneck. For example, consider a four-lane (one direction)
highway that leads to a two-lane tunnel in an urban area

3.10 Gap and gap acceptance

We considered the theory of traffic flow as it relates to the flow of vehicles in a single traffic
stream. Another important aspect of traffic flow is the interaction of vehicles as they join, leave or
cross a traffic stream. Examples of these include the changing of lanes by vehicles on a multilane
highway, and ramp vehicles merging onto a highway traffic stream.

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The most important factor a driver considers in making any one of these maneuvers is the
availability of a gap between two vehicles that, in the drivers judgment, is adequate for him or her
to complete the maneuver.

Gap acceptance

Is concerned with the evaluation of available gaps and the decision to carry out a specific maneuver
within a particular gap

Measures that involve the concept of gap acceptance

1. Gap is the headway in a major stream, which is evaluated by a vehicle in a minor stream
who wishes to merge into the major stream. It is expressed either as a unit of time (Time
Gap) or in units of distance (space gap).
2. Time lag is the difference between the time a vehicle that merges into a main traffic stream
reaches a point on the highway in the area of merge and the time a vehicle in the main
stream reaches the same point.
3. Space lag is the difference, at an instant of time, between the distance a merging vehicle
is away from a reference point in the area of the merge and the distance a vehicle in the
main stream is away from the same point

Basic maneuvers that involve gap acceptance

Merging is the process by which a vehicle in one traffic stream joins another traffic stream moving
in the same direction, such as a ramp vehicle joining a freeway stream.

Diverging is the process by which a vehicle in a traffic stream leaves that traffic stream, such as a
vehicle leaving the outside lane of an expressway.

Weaving is the process by which a vehicle first merges into a stream of traffic, obliquely crosses
that stream and then merges into a second stream moving in the same direction; Eg a ramp vehicle
joining highway stream on outer lane and moving on to inner lane.

Time - space diagram for vehicles in the vicinity of a stop sign

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 Figure 3.6 time space diagram for vehicles in the vicinity of a stop sign

Gap acceptance is of importance when

 Engineers are considering the delay of vehicles on minor roads wishing to join a mojor-
road traffic stream at a priority intersection
 Considering the delay of ramp vehicles wishing to join a highway
 For timing the releases of vehicles at an on – ramp of an expressway, such that the
probability of the released vehicle finding an acceptable gap in arriving at the freeway
shoulder lane is maximum

To use gap acceptance in regulating the above, data on waiting times, queue lengths and average
minimum gap length that will be accepted by drivers would be required.

Greenshields referred to the ’Critical gap’ as “acceptable average minimum time gap” and
defined it as the gap accepted by 50% of the drivers.

Raff defined the ’Critical gap’ as the gap for which the number of accepted gaps shorter than it is
equal to the number of rejected gaps longer than it.

Using Raff’s definition the critical gap can be determined either by the

 graphical method or
 Algebraic method

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Computation of critical Gap (tc)

Gaps Accepted and Rejected

Length of Gap Number of Accepted Gaps Number of Rejected Gaps
(t sec) (less than t sec) (greater than t sec)
0 0 116
1 2 103
2 12 66
3 32 m= 38 r=
4 57 n= 19 p=
5 84 6
6 116 0

Consecutive Change in Number of Change in Number of Difference Between

Gap lengths Accepted Gaps Rejected Gaps Columns 2 and 3
(t sec) (less than t sec) (greater than t sec)
(2) (3)
0.0 - 1.0 2 13 11
1.0 - 2.0 10 37 27
2.0 - 3.0 20 28 8
3.0 - 4.0 25 19 6
4.0 - 5.0 27 13 14
5.0 - 6.0 32 6 26

Graphical method

two cumulative distribution curves are drawn; one relating gap length t with the number of
accepted gaps less than t, and the other relates t with the number of rejected gaps greater than t.
the intersection of these two curves gives the value of the critical gap tc

Algebraic approach.

First identify the gap length between which the critical gap tc lies by comparing the change in
number of accepted gaps less than t sec for any two consecutive gap lengths, with the change in
the number of rejected gaps greater than t sec for the same consecutive gap lengths

The critical gap lies in the consecutive gap length with the smallest difference between the two
changes.

∆𝑡(𝑟 − 𝑚)
𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡1 +
(𝑛 − 𝑝) + (𝑟 − 𝑚)

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m = number of accepted gaps less than 𝑡1
r = number of rejected gaps greater than 𝑡1
n = number of accepted gaps less than 𝑡2
p = number of rejected gaps greater than 𝑡2

1(38 − 32)
𝑡𝑐 = 3 +
(57 − 19) + (38 − 32)

= 3.14 sec

Stochastic approach to gap and gap acceptance

If we assumed that the distribution of main stream traffic arrivals is poisson, and if V represents
the total number of vehicles arriving in time T sec, and the average number of vehicles arriving
per second is

𝑉
𝜆=
𝑇
then the probability of a gap (ℎ ≥ 𝑡) or (ℎ < 𝑡) occuring is

𝑃(ℎ ≥ 𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑥
𝑃(ℎ < 𝑡) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑥

Whilst the expected number of gaps greater than or equal to t is given as

(ℎ ≥ 𝑡) = (𝑉 − 1) 𝑒 −𝜆𝑥

and the expected number of gaps less than t is given as

𝑃(ℎ < 𝑡) = (𝑉 − 1)1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑥

Where V is in vph and 𝜆 is in vps

Question

V = 1800 vph, T = 3600 sec, tc = 3.5 sec, then 𝜆 = 0.5 vps and the expected number of
acceptable gaps in I hr is (ℎ ≥ 3.5) = (1800 − 1) 𝑒 − 0.5×3.5 = 312

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 4 Queuing theory
4.1 Models of traffic flow
In modeling the time between the arrivals of successive vehicles; that is the concept of vehicle
time headway, We have the Deterministic Model and the Poison Model.

4.1.1 Deterministic model

The simplest approach to vehicle arrival modeling is to assume that all vehicles are equally or
uniformly spaced. This results in what is termed a deterministic, uniform arrival pattern. Under
this assumption, if the traffic flow (q) is 360 veh/hr, the number of vehicles arriving in any 5 –
minute time interval is 30 and the headway(h) between all vehicles is 10 seconds ( because h will
equal 3600/q).
4.1.2 Poisson model
Models that account for the nonuniformity of flow are derived by assuming that the pattern of
vehicle arrivals (at a specified point) corresponds to some random process. The problem then
becomes one of selecting a probability distribution that is a reasonable representation of observed
traffic arrival pattern. An example of such a distribution is the Poisson distribution.

( λt)n 𝐞−λt
P(n) = (2.1)
n!
where
P(n) = probability of having n vehicle arrivals in time t,
𝝀 = average vehicle flow or arrival rate in vehicle per unit time (veh/s) ,
t = duration of the time interval over which vehicles are counted, and
e = base of the natural logarithm (e= 2.718) (Mannering et al., 2009).

The assumption of Poisson vehicle arrivals also implies a distribution of the time interval between
the arrivals of successive vehicles (time headway). To show this, note that the average arrival rate
is
𝑞
𝜆= (2.2)
3600
where
q = flow in veh/hr, and
3600 = number of seconds per hour

Substituting Eq. (2.2) into Eq. (2.1) gives

( qt⁄3600)n e−qt⁄3600
P(n) = (2.3)
n!
Note that the probability of having no vehicle arrive in a time interval of length t, P(0),
is equivalent to the probability of a vehicle headway, h, being greater than or equal to the time
interval t. So from Eq. (2.3),

𝑃(0) = 𝑃 ( ℎ ≥ 𝑡) (2.4)
= e−qt⁄3600

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This distribution of vehicle headways is known as the negative exponential distribution and is
often simply referred to as the exponential distribution (Mannering et al., 2009).

4.2 Queuing theory

Queuing theory is a theory that models (describes) the process when customers line up to wait for
service. or theories of queuing behavior entails the process by which queues form and dissipate.

A queue is formed when arrivals wait for a service or an opportunity, such as the arrival of an
accepted gap in a main traffic stream, the collection of tolls at a tollbooth or of parking fees at a
parking garage. The formation of traffic queues during congested periods is a source of
considerable delay and results in a loss of highway performance.

4.2.1 Characteristics of queuing models

A queuing system has the following basic characteristics:
 arrival pattern of customers,
 service pattern of servers,
 number of servers,
 queue discipline.
 system capacity and

4.2.1.1 Arrival distribution or arrival pattern

The arrivals can be described as either a deterministic distribution or a random distribution. Light
–to – medium traffic is usually described by a Poisson distribution, and this is generally used in
queuing theories related to traffic flow.

4.2.1.2 Departure characteristics or Service Distribution

In addition to vehicle arrival assumptions, the derivation of traffic queuing models requires
assumptions relating to vehicle departure characteristics. Of particular interest is the distribution
of the amount of time it takes a vehicle to depart, for example, the time to pass through an
intersection at the beginning of a green signal, the time required to pay a toll at a toll booth, or the
time a driver takes before deciding to proceed after stopping at a stop sign. As was the case for
arrival patterns, given an average vehicle departure rate (denoted as 𝜇, in vehicles per unit time),
the assumption of a deterministic or exponential distribution of departure times is appropriate.

4.2.1.3 Number of available departure channels or channel layout

Another important aspect of queuing models is the number of available departure channels. For
most traffic applicators only one departure channel will exist, such as a highway lane or group of
lanes passing through an intersection. However, multiple departure channels are encountered in
some traffic applications, such as at toll booths. Garber and Hoel (1999) establishes that the
number of channels usually correspond to the number of waiting lines and is therefore used to
classify queues, for eg. as a single-channel or multichannel queue, and in the case of multiple
channels whether they are in series or in parallel

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4.2.1.4 Queue Discipline or Service Method
Queues can also be classified by the method used in servicing the arrivals. These include first
come-first served, where units are served in order of their arrivals, and last in-first served, where
the service is reversed to the order of arrival. The service method can also be based on priority,
where arrivals are directed to specific queues of appropriate priority levels. Queues are then served
in order of their priority level. first-in, first-out (FIFO), and last-in, first-out (LIFO), indicating
that the last vehicle to arrive is the first to depart. For virtually all traffic-oriented queues, the FIFO
queuing discipline is the more appropriate of the two.

4.2.1.5 Queue Length or System Capacity

This refers to the maximum length of the queue, that is, the maximum number of units in the queue,
is specified, in which case the queue is a finite or truncated queue, or else there may be no
restriction on the length of the queue. Finite queues are sometimes necessary when the waiting
area is limited.

4.2.1.6 Oversaturated and Undersaturated queues

Oversaturated queues are those in which the arrival rate is greater than the service rate, and
underrsaturated queues are those in which the arrival rate is less than the service rate. The length
of an undersaturated queue may vary but will reach a steady state with the arrival of units. The
length of an oversaturated queue, however, will never reach a steady state but will continue to
increase with the arrival of units .

4.2.2 Dimensioning of queues

Queuing models are often identified by three alphanumeric values. The first value indicates the
arrival rate assumption, the second value gives the departure rate assumption, and the third value
indicates the number of departure channels.
For traffic arrival and departure assumptions, the uniform, deterministic distribution is denoted D
and the exponential distribution is denoted M. Thus a D/D/1 queuing model assumes deterministic
arrivals and departures with one departure channel, similarly, an M/D/1 queuing model assumes
exponentially distributed arrival times, deterministic departure times, and one departure channel
(Mannering et al., 2009).

4.3 Queuing models

Deterministic queuing model. (The D/D/1 queue )
Stochastic queuing models ( M/D/1, M/M/1, M/M/N and M/G/1 models.)
4.3.1 M /M /1 Queuing
Under standard M /M /1 assumption, it can be shown that given the traffic intensity or utilization
factor
𝜆
𝜌 = 𝜇 (2.5)
the following queuing performance equations apply ( assuming that the 𝜌 is less than 1):
𝜌2
𝑄̅ = (2.6)
1−𝜌

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 𝜆
𝑤
̅= (2.7)
µ(µ − 𝜆)
1
𝑡̅ = (2.8)
µ−𝜆
Where
𝜆 = average arrival rate in vehicles per unit time, and
µ = average departure rate in vehicles per unit time,
𝑄̅ = average length of queue (in vehicles),
𝑤
̅ = average waiting time in the queue, in unit time per vehicle,
𝑡̅ = average time spent in the system (𝑤
̅ + 1/µ), in unit time per vehicle.
Mannering et al. (2009
Kleinrock (1976) in discussing the M/M/1 queuing system used in some instances a different set
of notations from that used by Mannering et al. (2009). He argues that

since the M/M/1 system has a poisson input (with an average arrival rate 𝜆 ) and makes unit step
changes (single service and single arrivals), then 𝑝𝑘 which is the long- run probability of there
being K customers in the system (the fraction of time that the system will contain k customers in
the steady state) is given by
𝑝𝑘 = (1 − 𝜌)𝜌𝑘 (2.9)

and average number in the system is given by

𝜌
𝑁= (2.10)
1−𝜌
With variance
𝜌
𝜎𝑁2 = (2.11)
(1 − 𝜌)2
Using little’s result

𝑁 = λT (2.12)
𝑁𝑞 = λW (2.13)
and 𝑁𝑞 = 𝑁 – mρ (2.14)

where 𝑁𝑞 is the average number in queue and m the number of servers, we may immediately write
down the two basic performance expressions for average delays in M/M/1: the
average waiting time in queue
𝜌⁄𝜇
𝑊= (2.15)
1− 𝜌
and the average time in the system
1⁄𝜇
𝑇= (2.16)
1− 𝜌

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 𝑇= 𝑥+ 𝑊 (2.17)

where 𝑥 is the average service time each customer requires

𝑥 = 1⁄𝜇 (2.18)

The terms 𝑁, W, and T all demonstrate the same behavior as regards the utilization factor 𝜌;
namely, they all behave inversely with respect to the quantity (1 − 𝜌). This effect is dominant for
M/M/1 as well as for most common queuing systems, and in figure 2.5 Kleinrock (1976) shows
the average time in system as a function of the utilization factor 𝜌.

1
𝜇

0 𝜌 1

Figure 2.4 Average delay as a function of traffic intensity 𝝆

for M/M/1 queue, (Kleinrock, 1976, p.11)
Thus as 𝜌 approaches unity from below, these average delays and queue sizes grow without bound.
This is true for essentially every queuing system one will encounter and shows the extreme price
that must be paid if one is interested in running a system close to its capacity (𝜌 = 1). In all cases
a stable system (one that yields finite average delays and queue lengths) is one for which

0≤ 𝜌<1 (2.19)

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