Curriculum Planning and Development I NQF Level 6 10

Credits
General Course Information
Course Code CP160US

DEFINITIONS AND MEANING OF KEY CONCEPTS IN

CURRICULUM

Objectives of learning activity 1:

At the end of the Unit you should be able to:

a) Define the terms education and curriculum b) Identify functions of education

b) Explain the scope of curriculum studies d) Describe what a curriculum theory is.

c) Differentiate between aims, goals and objectives

d) Differentiate various dimensions of school curriculum

Summary of learning Activity 1

Generally, curriculum represents the expression of educational ideas in practice. The concept
of education has a variety of meanings attached to it by different people; for example school
attendance. However, one commonly accepted defini- tion of education is the process of
acquiring and developing desired knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Dimensions of the school curriculum include: formal (expressed), non formal and informal
(implied). Education has four main functions: productive, intellectual, personal and social
dimensions. The term curriculum on the other hand also has a variety of definitions; including
“A course of study”. This unit also discusses aims, goals and objectives; a crucial element of
curriculum, as well as meaning of curriculum theory

KEY WORDS
Education - Process of acquiring desirable knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Curriculum - A course of study.

Curriculum Theory - A set of related statements that give meaning to school

curriculum.
Aim - A statement that guides and directs educational planning

Goal - A statement that provides ultimate destination

Objective - A statement of performance to be demonstrated, stated in

measurable and observable terms

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 List of REQUIRED readings
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculum - Appendix I

http://www.businessballs.com/bloomstaxonomyoflearningdomains.htm

- Appendix III

List of relevant useful links

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education http://www.uwsp.edu/Education/lwilson/curric/curtyp.
htm

List of relevant resources

A computer with internet facility to access links and copyright free resources

Multimedia resources like Video, CD Rom.

Detailed description of activity 1

1. Read through the information provided in the text in this unit.

2. Carry out the specific activities presented in the various sections of this unit.

We shall begin by discussing the term education.

Meaning of Education

What is Education?

As a student teacher, you will need to reflect on the meaning and functions of education, to
understand, and prepare yourself to fully comprehend the concept of curriculum, its
development and implementation, and thus carry out your future role as an educator
effectively. Education has been described differently by different people. One way of viewing
education is that it is a process of acquiring the desirable knowledge, skills and attitudes to fit
well in society and become a useful member of that society. The term education means “to
draw out”, i.e. facilitating realization of self-potential and latent talents of an individual. The
teacher thus uses “curriculum” to bring out the best out of the learners.

What then are the function of education? Function of Education

Education has a variety of functions including the following:

•Intellectual function. This is to enable men awaken in and have a taste of knowledge. It is
also to develop intellectual powers of learners.

•Productive function i.e. provide individuals with knowledge, skills and attitudes that could
be used for economic activities in a society. Voca- tional training contributes to this
function.

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Curriculum Studies

• Social function. In this context, education is considered as a process of preserving

and transmission of cultural heritage. Beside education helps learners acquire skills for
interpersonal

• Education is also a means of individual development. It therefore serves personal function.

Meaning of Curriculum

The term ‘curriculum’ originated from the Greek word “curere” meaning to “run a course”. It
therefore represents a course of subjects covered by learners in their race towards a certain
educational goal or target. Curriculum definitions have developed along a continuum from
narrow to broad ones. There is also a myriad of curriculum definitions by different scholars.

Narrow definitions see curriculum as a plan, programme, course of study or a package that can
bring about learning. Following are some definitions from this narrow perspective:

• A course of study

• A plan for teaching and instruction; it can be viewed as a blueprint for instruction (Pratt,
1994)

Broad definitions on the other hand see curriculum as a process. The process includes the
thinking behind coming up with a ‘package’ and the continuous effort of making it serve the
needs of society. It includes values, attitudes, and experiences of students inside and outside
the school. Elements/components of a curriculum: A curriculum generally is expected to
consist of the following elements:

• Aims, goals and objectives.

• Subject content / learning experiences

• Methods / strategies of delivery / learning activities

• Organization of learning Experiences

Activity

1. Read carefully information in Appendix I: Curriculum.

2. Identify three of the curriculum definitions that you could adopt in curricu- lum planning
in your country. Justify your choice of definition. Use 100 words in each case.

Definition I Definition II

Scope of Curriculum Studies

Curriculum studies incorporate a variety of issues and processes including:

• Curriculum theory
• Curriculum planning
• Curriculum design
• Curriculum development

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Course Code CP160US

• Curriculum implementation
• Curriculum evaluation

Each of these terms is hereby explained briefly:

Curriculum Theory
What is curriculum theory?

Curriculum theory refers to a set of related statements that give meaning to school curriculum;
by pointing out the relationships among its elements and by directing its development, its use
and its evaluation. It gives justification for practices in curriculum.

According to Urevbu (1990), a curriculum theory should provide a practical guidance as to:

• “What to teach”

• “Who is taught”.

• Who should control its selection and distribution, and

• Who gets taught what?

In other words, it is a way of seeing ‘things’ or guiding principles for curricu- lum.

Functions of Curriculum Theory

What then are functions of a theory? Most philosophers of science argue that theory has 3
legitimate purposes:

• To describe
• To Explain
• To predict

Thus, a curriculum theory provides educators with a critical perspective about the society and
its schools. Hence, they describe and explain from a critical perspective.

Curriculum theory is therefore important for planning curriculum. It helps in guiding the
planning process and ultimates curriculum development. The theory used is reflected in the

produce i.e. the final curriculum.

Curriculum Planning
This can be viewed as the process of gathering, selecting, balancing and synthesi- zing relevant
information from many sources in order to design those experiences that will assist the learner
attain the goals of education (Glen, Hass, 1980).

Curriculum planning is therefore the thinking or conception stage of the curri- culum
development process. Thus, it deals with seeking key answers to crucial questions such as:

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Curriculum planning and Development

• What should be taught?

• How should it be taught?
• To what segment of the population and
• What should be the relationship between the various components of the
curriculum?

Note that the issues raised in planning are related to those highlighted in curriculum theory.

Curriculum Design
This refers to the structure or pattern of organization of the curriculum (Doll,

1992).

Further details are provided in Unit III

Curriculum Development
Curriculum development is the term under which all processes and activities of the school
curriculum are subscribed. It is thus a continuing process of evolution and planning of
curriculum.

A deeper analysis of the concept is found in Unit III.

Curriculum implementation is putting into effect what has been planned. It is thus the process
of ensuring that the new curriculum and curriculum materials are made available to all the
schools and institutions targeted by the curriculum development project.

Refer to Unit III for more details on the implementation process.

Curriculum Evaluation

This is the process of checking the extent to which the curriculum objectives have been
achieved.

For more information, read Unit IV.

Curriculum as a field of study and as a programme of instruction

Curriculum can be viewed either as a field of study or as a programme of instruc- tion. As a

field of study, curriculum is designed to improve and advance knowledge about curricula, their
development and use. As a discipline for study, the area has enough knowledge content which
can be passed on through instruction and which grows through research.

On the other hand, curriculum as a programme of instruction incorporates a programme of

school work, dealing with all experiences of the learner, ie. all that which is planned and
provided for the learners for their education. This includes the syllabuses and the courses of
study, among others.

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 Educational, Aims, Goals and Objectives

Aims, goals and objectives are crucial in the curriculum development process. We shall
therefore, at this early stage in the module, explain the meaning of these terms. We shall also
discuss how to obtain curriculum objectives and the best way of stating them. Let us begin with
Aims.

Educational aims
Aims serve a visionary function in curriculum; a rallying point for all curriculum activities.
Aims also have a global quality and a broad framework. They help in guiding and directing
educational planning. They also establish the philosophy on which curriculum is based and
express the values expected. Thus, aims constitute the first stage of curriculum planning.

There are four dimensions of aims:

Intellectual – Focus on development of intellect. Social – Deal with interpersonal relationships.

Personal – Dealing with self development.

Productive – Address economic aspects of the society, both micro and macro economics.

Goals

These constitute a more specific application of aims, so goals provide destination. Goals have
an end in mind so that particular purposes can be achieved.

Goals indicate what is expected to be accomplished from particular effort. For instance from a
programme, course, subject, application of resources, amount of time allocated to a particular
curriculum task etc.

Objectives
Definition: Statement of performance to be demonstrated; derived from instruc- tional goal
and stated in measurable and observable terms.

Objectives provide more specific guidance in making decisions on various aspects of the
curriculum. Objectives are thus written using measurable and observable terms.

(For further reading on Aims, Goals and Objectives, see Appendix II

Why do we need objectives?

• They guide decisions about selection of content and learning experien- ces.

• They clarify what skills and abilities are to be developed at what levels.

•They enable the teacher to communicate with students what they need to achieve; and
make accountability and evaluation easier.

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Curriculum

Writing behavioral objectives

A behavioural objective should indicate:

• Behaviour expected (action verbs!)

• Conditions under which student behaviour is to be demonstrated
• Degree of mastery.

In writing objectives, we should consider the various Domains of learning, pro- posed by
Benjamin Bloom et al. The Domains of learning are:

• Cognitive Domain – Focussed on Intellectual Dimension

• Affective Domain – Includes emotions, attitudes and feelings

• Psycho-motor Domain – Physical aspects of learning.

Benjamin Bloom went further and offered a detailed classification of objectives in the cognitive
domain. The Taxonomic levels are: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation.

As we plan curricula, we need to incorporate the various levels of learning, from the lowest
level of knowledge, to the higher levels of evaluation.

For further details read appendices II and III.

Detailed description of the activity

1. Read Appendix II: “Aims, Goals and Objectives”

2. Differentiate between aims and objectives. Using your own words (50 words)

3. Read the material in Appendix III “Bloom’s taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

4. This will help you to further understand the area of educational objectives, especially the
construction of objectives.

5. Write Two educational aims from the subject (s) you are training to teach.

6. Write Two objectives for each of the aims you have written above.

Sources of Educational objectives

Generally, there are three main sources of objectives: the learners, society and subject matter.

Lets examine each in turn.

Learners as sources of objectives

In formulating goals and objectives, curriculum planners are concerned princi- pally with the
needs of learners as members of society. Also important are their interests, and aspirations
as well as their potential.

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 Learners needs can be categorised into the following:

• Physical Needs
• Social Needs
• Psychological Needs

Let us describe each of those needs briefly.

Physical Needs
Curriculum developers should ask themselves what the physical needs of students are as
members of the human community. Examples of universal human needs include food, clothing,
shelter and good health, among others.

Generally, all students have the same physical needs globally. To meet student’s physical
needs therefore means that educational objectives should be formulated specifically to cater for
areas of knowledge, skills and attitudes that will help meet those needs.

Sociological Needs
All students possess sociological needs which schools must strive to satisfy. These include
affection from home, school and peers; acceptance, belonging, success, security, status and
respect. Social needs of students must therefore form one of the basis for formulating
educational objectives.

Psychological Needs
The psychological aspects of learners’ e.g. emotional needs, should be taken into
consideration in deriving educational objectives.

Of special importance are needs of those who are in special circumstances, those with
disabilities such as mental, specially gifted children, emotionally disturbed, and retarded
children. Curriculum must address these situations for all children to benefit from education.

How then can these needs be identified?

Let us find out.

How to identify needs

The process of identifying learners’ needs is no mean task. This is due to the diversity of needs
for specific individuals, groups of students from various socio- economic backgrounds and
various age groups.

It may not be possible to study all aspects of students needs in many of our de- veloping
countries which are often quite diverse such as Kenya. However, some suggestions are made
to facilitate the investigation of the needs. The students needs should be broken into levels. For
instance, the needs of primary schools children, secondary and post-secondary youths. This
categorization can be fol- lowed by splitting the learners into various age groups.

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Curriculum planning

Information about the needs of learners can be obtained by using the following methods
among others.

1. Social investigation approach can be used – this may involve teachers observations;

2. Student interviews can be very helpful in providing the required data on students needs
and interests, and their expectations of what to expect from school;

3. Parent interviews can also be used to provide further information about their children;

4. Questionnaires could be used to provide useful information on some aspects which

interviews could not provide.

5. Tests and school records will throw light on skills and knowledge of various students in
schools.

You have now completed examining learners as a source of educational objectives. Let us
now examine society as a source.

Why do you think society should be considered as a source of objectives? Society is a

crucial source of educational objective for a variety of reasons:

• First the school is supposed to prepare the youth for life in society.
Hence the school curriculum should reflect what goes on in society. E.g. cultural
aspects of society should be incorporated.
• Secondly, society provides support for education, e.g. in funding resour- ces etc
and should therefore be consulted in curriculum planning.
• Thirdly, education should address the myriad of problems and cultural issues in
society such as unemployment, health issues such as HIV/Aids, and other vices
such as corruption. Think of at least three (3) other is- sues from society that
need consideration in objective setting; and write them down and explain briefly in
about 50 words
Subject specialists/subject matter
Who are subject specialists? These are experienced teachers and educators with adequate
experience to be involved with curriculum making. Subject specialist are crucial in the process
of objectives setting. This is because they are the “custodians” of knowledge. Text books are
written by subject specialists among other reasons. Their contribution is therefore vital for
curriculum objectives.

Now carry out the following activities.

Activity

1. To what extent do you think all the sources of information discussed above for curriculum
objectives are used in your country? You can answer that by discussing with an experienced
teacher in a school near your neighbourhood. Respond in about 150 words.

2. Identify and discuss three challenges/difficulties e.g. resources, that affect the emphasis
on considering learners needs in curriculum in your country?

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 Your can use the following format.

Reasons Justification

a)

b)

c)

3. Examine five goals of education in your country and identify the major student needs
e.g. health, social relationship, vocational etc. that are addressed in each goal. Discuss
each goal in about 50 words.

Dimensions of Curriculum
There are many dimensions of curriculum; including formal (or expressed), informal (or hidden)
and non-formal: among others. We shall briefly highlight what each of these curriculum
dimensions represents.

Formal dimension is generally considered as the written document that specifies what is to
be taught and how it will be taught and evaluated. The formal curricu- lum therefore includes the
aims, goals and objectives, learning content, delivery strategies and methods of evaluation. It is
the course of study or syllabus. This is the curriculum dimension that is “planned for” or the
predetermined part of the curriculum.

Non-formal curriculum – This refers to learning planned outside the formal learning
system. For example, learning taking place through students with si- milar interests coming
together and exchanging viewpoints, e.g. in clubs, youth organizations or workshops; or even in
various games.

Hidden Curriculum consists of indirect messages received by learners from the physical,
social and intellectual environments of the school. It includes norms and values of the
surrounding society. These are stronger and more durable than the formal curriculum and may
be in conflict with it. This is something that is not explicitly taught but it is part of what molds
the school environment, and consequently the learner.

Informal Curriculum, Sometimes referred to as hidden curriculum includes those activities

that happen that are not designed, planned or formally accepted by the school. Informal
learning occurs through the experience of day-to-day situations. It is learning from life, during
say play, exploring , during a meal at table etc.

Null curriculum consists of what is not taught in the school set-up. This may give students
the impression that these elements are not important in their edu- cational experiences or in
the society. The education system may use a combina- tion of formal, informal and non-formal
curricula and learning approaches. In some schools students can get points that count in the
formal – learning systems through working in informal – learning set-ups or circuits.

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 Summary

In this unit, we have examined the meaning of various terms used in curriculum studies. For
example, education was described as the process of acquiring and developing desired
knowledge, skills and attitudes.

We also noted that the term curriculum, as with many other terms in the field, has a variety of
definitions by different scholars. One common definition men- tioned was “Curriculum as a
course of study”. The scope of the field of curriculum was presented as including curriculum
theory, planning, design, development, im- plementation and evaluation.

Aims, goals and objectives were also discussed with aims considered as serving a visionary
function for education while objectives were the most specific. Sources of objectives include
learners themselves, society and subject specialists.

How to write good objectives in measurable and observable terms was empha- sized.

Finally, dimensions of curriculum were presented including formal, non formal and informal.

Formative Evaluation
Questions

1. Explain four functions of education. Which of the functions is stressed most in the
education system in your country? (150 words)

2. What is the purpose of a curriculum theory? (about 75 words)

3. Discuss the various sources of objectives (200 words)

Possible answers

Q1. Start by providing the meaning of the term education. Four functions include:

• Intellectual function
• Productive function
• Social function
• Personal function

Explain each of the functions and include any others from your own experience using
appropriate examples.

It is likely that the intellectual function is given prominence in most African countries. This
is due to excessive emphasis on the cognitive domain

Q2. A curriculum theory is a set of related statements that give meaning to the school
curriculum. Purposes of theories include:

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Learning activities

• Provides practical guidance to the curriculum development process.

• Assists in answering crucial questions as one embarks on curriculum planning e.g.

- What to teach?

- Who is to be taught? etc

Theories help in describing, explaining and predicting various issues that need consideration in
the process of curriculum making.

Q3. Three main sources of objectives are:

• The learner needs and interests.

• The society, its culture, problems and issues.
• Subject specialists.

(Expound on each of those points)

Curriculum planning

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Welcome to this unit on foundations of curriculum. In this unit we will explore the various
foundations of curriculum; Historical, Philosophical, Psychological and Sociological foundations
and how they affect decision making processes in curriculum making.

Summary of learning activity

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

1. Describe the various foundations of curriculum.

2. Explain the influence of historical foundation on curriculum.

3. Differentiate between the various philosophies and their influence of curriculum

development.

4. Explain the role of sociological foundations in curriculum design

5. Explain the influence of political factors on curriculum development.

6. Explain the influence of psychology on the learning process and conse- quently the
curriculum.

Summary

Foundations of curriculum are those factors that influence curriculum decisions. There are
traditionally four of them; historical, philosophical, sociological and psychological foundations.
Other determinants include political issues, and technological factors.

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 The curriculum developer has to keep in mind these factors to produce a cur- riculum that is
relevant, implementable and useful to individual learners and society

KEY WORDS
Curriculum foundation: The basis upon which curriculum is developed.

Historical foundation: Factors and issues from the past that

influence curriculum at present.

Philosophy: search for truth; pursuit of wisdom or knowledge.

Sociological foundation: issues from society including groups and

insti-tutions in the culture and their contribution to education.
Psychological foundation: includes insights gained from the
field of psy- chology that have a bearing on the learning process and
consequently the curriculum.

List of relevant readings

List of relevant resources

Computer

Multimedia resources

List of relevant useful links

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology of education http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant

conditioning

Detailed description of the activity

You are expected to read the information presented in this unit on each of the four foundations:
historical, philosophical, sociological and psychological. At the end of each section, there are
specific tasks and questions which you need to answer as instructed. I suggest that you first
scheme through the entire unit, paying special attention to the activities, and then go back and
read the text in detail.

What is a Curriculum Foundation?

Many scholars define curriculum foundation as the “Values, traditions, factors and forces
which influence the kind, quantity and quality of the experience the school offers its learners”
(Shiundu & Omulando, 1992: 59).

They therefore constitute the basis upon which curriculum is developed.

Generally, scholars propose four major categories of curriculum foundations. These are:

• Historical foundations

• Philosophical foundations

• Psychological foundations and

• Sociological foundations

Let us now examine each of them in turn.

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 Historical Foundations of Curriculum
Historical foundations of curriculum refer to factors and issues from the past that have an
influence on the curriculum at present. For instance, the nature of the present curriculum in any
school system of education is influenced by the nature of the curriculum in the past. Both the
content and pedagogical practices are outgrowths of specific historical conditions. Additionally,
the various histo- rical movements in education influence the current curriculum to some
degree. Some of the major forms of education in the past that are recognized globally in
education include:

• Traditional Education

•Ancient Education which includes: Greek Education, Roman educa- tion and Christian
Education

• Early Modern Era, which includes: Renaissance, Reformation and

• Enlightenment (Age of Reason)

• Modern Era including: Progressivism

Within the African context, education systems and practices during the colonial era (for most of
Africa) would have an influence on current curriculum.

We shall now briefly highlight aspects of some of these types of education.

Traditional Education
In all societies, traditional education was aimed at learning the ways of the parents. It was,
and still is in some communities, a very conservative form of education and emphasizes on
maintaining the status quo in society. The culture, traditions and practices of the people are
passed on from one generation to the next in methods that do not change much over the
years.

The Republic of Kenya, for example, has communities that uphold traditional education dearly.

Ancient Era

The ancient era is often considered as being that of the Greek, the Roman, the Hebrew and
the Christian periods. The greek education, which has influenced the current world systems of
education, is credited to the work of Socrates and other Greek scholars such as Aristotle. The
main aim of Greek education was Good citizenship for the populace, who would support and
defend the state and its laws; development of a rational mind; and creativity.

The Roman Education in turn emphasized on equipping the citizenry with knowledge and skills
to defend the state; respect tradition; and highlighted the value of practical skills among other
aims of education.

On the other hand, the Christian Education was focused on moral education and character
building.

Progressivism

With regard to progressivism, the emphasis was on a child – centred curriculum, which
necessitates a flexible broad curriculum. There was also an emphasis on practical skills.

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 In general, it is possible to identify elements of past education in the present day curricula
in many education systems within Africa and the rest of the world, de- pending on the past
history. For example, the colonial periods (where applicable) had a major influence on
curriculum during and post the colonial era.

Now carry out the following activity for further understanding

Activity

1. Read the above information on historical foundations.

2. Select one of the ‘Types’ of education offered in the past (say for example Roman
education) and discuss how it has influenced the present curriculum in your country. To
show that you understand the issues, write a 200-word essay and support your arguments
with examples from your system. You could follow the following structure:

Essay Topic:

a) Introduction

b) Body of the essay highlighting major points

c) Conclusion

2. We will now try to have a look at the evolution of education in your own country. In
order to do that, you are required to gather at least two referen- ces presenting the
evolution in your country.

a) Write a brief summary and the full reference of these two readings that you
find. Use the following format:

Reference: Show the following information: Name of the author, year of publi- cation, Title
of the publication, city of publication and publishers. Exam- ple: Doll R. C. (1992) Curriculum
improvement: Decision making and process. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Write a brief summary per reading. Reading #. 1

Reference

Brief summary (50 words).

Reading #2

Reference

Brief summary (50 words)

3. Identify 3 major factors that have influenced education in your country, and justify your
answer. You could use the following structure.

Factor e.g. population explosion, colonization Justification (i.e. how the issue has influenced
curriculum)- 100 words
(where applicable) etc.

1.

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 2.

3.

Philosophical Foundations
Welcome to the philosophical foundations of curriculum. In this section we will explore the
philosophical foundations which include, Idealism, Realism, Prag- matism, Existentialism,
and Educational philosophies which are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism and
Reconstructionism.

Let us start by addressing the question; “What is Philosophy?”

Many sources consider Philosophy to be the “Search for truth”; Pursuit of wis- dom or
knowledge, especially ultimate reality (Oxford Dictionary). Locke defines Philosophy as a
“process of liberation from ignorance and prejudice”.

According to Doll (1992: 28) Philosophy has the multifaceted effect of helping us to:

• Indicate in general what we mean

• Make what we mean more specific and definite

• Develop what we mean into a useful construct.

Thus, Philosophy is a crucial determinant of curriculum trends and the curricu- lum development
process by helping clarify our thought process. And because philosophy is a process of the
mind, there are a variety of philosophical thoughts that we are going to consider.

To start with there are two broad categories of Philosophy: the traditional and modern
philosophies. In each of those categories, there are major Philosophies such as idealism,
realism, pragmatism and existentialism, as well as educational philosophies arising from
those major philosophies. These include perennialism and essentialism in the traditional
category; while progressivism and reconstruc- tionism fall under the modern philosophies.

We will now discuss each of these Philosophies in turn.

Idealism
This is considered to be one of the oldest philosophical systems, whose main proponent
was the Greek philosopher Plato. Idealism advocates that ideas consti- tute what is real
and permanent, i.e. ideas are the only true reality. Idealism also emphasizes the spiritual
component of man, i.e. man is a spiritual being.

According to this philosophy, education is the process of development of a person, his/her

conscious and spiritual self. The ultimate responsibility for learning rests with learners. The
school exists to develop his character, increase his knowledge and cultivate his aesthetic taste.
Teacher is expected to be a model, friend and guide to the learners.

Realism
The Realists school of thought can be traced back to Aristotle, another Greek, as the main
philosopher. According to this school, matter or objects that we see exist by themselves; i.e.
they exist absolutely with or without man. In other words, matter is not a construct of human
mind.
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 The following principles are therefore upheld;

• The principle of independence of matter

• The principle of orderliness of the world behind its organization. This means that law and
order prevail in the universe.

• The principle of the world as real as discovered by the scientist.

Thus, it is possible to have objective knowledge of the world. Our senses are also a source of
knowledge. The philosophy also advocates that values exists objectively; they are absolute and
eternal.

What then are the Educational implication of realism? Following are a few.

• The ultimate educational aim is achievement of knowledge of nature and inner workings
of the universe.

• Education is essentially transmission of inherited culture from one gene- ration to another.

• Disciplines of curriculum should contain certain elements of culture.

•Students should learn disciplines to develop intellectual skills to disco- ver important
principles and theoretical insights.

There should therefore be a core curriculum compulsory for every learner.

Pragmatism
The main proponent of pragmatism was John Dewey (1859 -1952). The propo- nents of
pragmatism were reacting against what they considered to be failures or Shortcomings of the
traditional school system, supported by idealism and realism. Some of the criticisms were: (1)
traditional curriculum content included a lot of meaningless and needless content (2) Traditional
curriculum did not give a Utility Education (3) The curriculum was rigid and did not cater for
individual needs of particular learners.

Pragmatists therefore advocated for reality being considered as instrumental, i.e. used as
instrument to solve problems. The Philosophy is therefore built on practical usefulness, i.e.
“cash value of ideas. Hence, truth is what works, what turns out all night. Truth also should be
the idea that has been tested, verified and found effective in solving problems.

What are the Educational implications of Pragmatism? They include:

Learning from Experience

If experience is source of knowledge, it is also a source of education. We learn by doing.

However, not every experience is educative; Experience must be pro- ductive; i.e. produce
growth.

Aim of education is to develop learners’ ability to deal with future pro- blems;

That is, to develop his intelligence to solve problems. According to Dewey, the process involves,
(1) Identifying the problem (2) Formation of hypothesis(es) (3) Gathering or collecting data and

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 tools to solve (4) Testing each hypothesis (5) Storage of the unity of knowledge to be used in
some of similar situation.

Curriculum: Pragmatists propose a curriculum based on problems that arise out of daily living.
School is therefore an extension of home and community.

Methods of study

These should include: problem solving; activity; projects and group involvement. Teachers
should be a resource and guide; thus motivator. Teaching must be child- centred

For pragmatists, all subjects are vital. However sciences were favoured because the child
is able to explore new knowledge.

Let us now examine Existentialism as a philosophy and its influence on curri- culum.

Existentialism

According to Akinpelu (1981) Existentialism is defined as “the philosophy of existence”. Sartre

(1957) also state that “Man is nothing else but what he makes of Himself ”. Man is therefore free
to choose the type of life he would like to live; he is in control of his destiny. He is thus free to
make his choices and be responsible for them.

Reality therefore is subjective. Values emphasized are those that the individual chooses
freely according to his/her perception.

Implications of Existentialism on Education and Curriculum

The main implication is an emphasis on knowledge and abilities for personal choice. Hence,
the need to acquire knowledge and principles of the human condition; and Acts of choice
making.

The Curriculum should have a broad range of subject matter from which learners can choose;
i.e. electives. Inclusion of subjects that involve human emotions; aesthetics; and also
philosophical subjects. Most important is that the philosophy tries to free learners what they are
to learn and believe. Thus, there should be no standard guides for teachers to follow, given that
learners are unique.

The following activity will help you internalize the information on philosophies.

Activity

1. Study the above text on major philosophies, and any other source you may access.

2. Explain in your own words what you understand by “Pragmatism” (50 words)

3. Identify three aspects of secondary school curriculum in your country which you would
consider to represent ‘Pragmatism’ as a way of approach to curricu- lum making (write an
essay of 200 words. Specify each aspect and explain.

Aspect Explanation (50 words each)

a)

b)

c)

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 Educational Philosophies
Based on the major philosophies so far discussed, certain educational philosophies were
developed by various scholars. Let is examine some of them.

We begin by pointing out that there are two broad categories of educational philosophies, that
is, the traditional and the modern philosophies.

Traditional educational philosophies include perennialism and essentialism; while modern

educational philosophies include progressivism and reconstructionism.

Perennialism

Perennialism draws from both idealism and realism. The Perennialists believe that the “cement
of education is the common nature of man” (Doll, 1992:29). With that focus, education should
be the same for everyone.

Education must therefore pursue perennial truths. These truths are absolute and universal.
The philosophy presupposes that there are permanent studies and knowledge that is available,
particularly from the great books, which should be taught to all students.

The stress is on significance of reason and intellectual development. Curriculum is expected to

contain “important” subjects taught in their customary separate form e.g. History as History;
Geography as geography; Civics as Civics rather than combining them and naming them
“Social Studies” for example.

Other subjects emphasized on include Literature, Philosophy and Theology, because of their
ability to “sharpen the mind”.

Essentialism

As with perennialism, essentialism is also on the major traditional philosophies of idealism

and realism. The aim of essentialists education is to develop intellec- tual powers, as well as
educating competent persons. Schools should therefore not be side tracked into catering to
the personal problems and social needs of students. Cultural heritage needs should be
considered for curriculum making. Essential skills especially Reading, Writing and Arithmetic
(three Rs) and academic sub- ject such as English, Science and Mathematics should be
given priority in the education process; with an emphasis on mastery of concepts and
principles of subject matter.

As with perennialists, the curriculum is subject centred and emphasized separate organized
disciplines as opposed to integrated subjects. The teacher in this case is considered an
authority in his/her subject field. Moving from traditional edu- cational philosophies, let us now
examine more modern ones.

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Progressivism

Progressivism is one of the educational philosophies originating from pragmatism.

Hence all that we discussed earlier about pragmatism holds true for progressi- vism.

Besides Dewey’s contribution, other scholars in this area include Montessori, Cor- nelius, and
Raisseau. Their studies and research were geared towards identifying the most appropriate
type and nature of curriculum for learners.

Progressivists education seeks to promote democratic schooling as well as social living. The
other major emphasis is on a child or learner centred curriculum. The curriculum therefore is
based on the learners interests, needs, abilities and aspirations, among other characteristics of
the learners.

Progressive education curriculum emphasized five approaches to the teaching/learning process,

namely:

• Teacher – pupil planning of curriculum activities

• Flexible curriculum and individualized instruction

• Learner-centred teaching and learning methodology

• Selection of study material in line with the expressed interests and concerns of
the learner

• Non – formal curriculum activities and physical training in areas like games,
related hobbies and other co-curricular areas.

The aim of this form of education is to provide a learning atmosphere that al- lows children
maximum self-direction and to reduce teacher domination in the teaching/learning process.

Lets now explore reconstruction as an educational philosophy

Reconstructionism

Reconstructionists hold on to an anthropological –sociological philosophy that would put

schools in the forefront of remaking society.

Reconstrutionism evolved from a critical perspective of the work of the progres- sivists; who put
too much emphasis on the needs of the child sometimes at the expense of needs of society.

The aim of the reconstructionists education is to improve and reconstruct society as need be;
as well as education for change and social reform. Thus, the study of contemporary social
problems become the centrepiece of curriculum content.

The critical social problems might be national or global including such issues as oppression,
poverty, hunger, racial/ethnic strife, war, and health issues such as HIV/Aids.

The reconstructionists believe that resources are available to solve these problems and the
education profession could be the catalyst to prepare and organize future generation to make
this possible. They, however try to avoid indoctrinating chil- dren; rather, they seek to lead
them in rational discussion and in critical analysis of issues.

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Curriculum planning

Reconstructionists use multiple teaching materials and they consider inclusion of subject
matter that would be useful to serve the central cause of the issue of concern. Planning of the
curriculum often involves various stakeholders including learners, parents and community
leaders.

The Table below summarises the various educational philosophies. The summary highlights
the philosophical base of each of the educational philosophies; Aim of education, knowledge
to be emphasized on. Role of education and suggests what the curriculum should focus on as
advocated for by each of the respective philosophies.

Table 1 overview of Educational Philosophies

Educational Philosophical Aim Knowledge Role Curriculum

Philosophy Base Focus
of of
Education Education

Perennialism Idealism To educate Focus on Teacher Classical

Realism the Rational past and helps subjects;
person; to permanent students constant
cultivate studies; think curriculum
the intellect mastery of rationally;
facts and explicit
timeless teaching of
knowledge traditional
values

Essentialism Idealism To promote Essential skills Teacher is Essential

Realism the and academic authority in skills (three
intellectual subjects; his or Rs) (Reading,
growth mastery of Writing and
her subject
of the concepts and field; aRithmetic)
individual; principles and essential
explicit
to educate of subject subjects
teaching of
the matter (English,
traditional
competent
values science, history,
person
maths.

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Curriculum Studies

Progressivism Pragmatism To promote Knowledge Teacher is Based on

democratic, leads to students’
a guide for
social living growth and interests;
problem
development; solving and involves the
application
focus on scientific
of human
active and inquiry
problems
relevant
and affairs;
learning
interdisciplinary
subject matter;
activities and
projects

Reconstructionism Pragmatism To improve Skills and Teacher Emphasis on

And subjects serves as an social sciences
reconstruct needed agent and social
society; to identify research
of change
education and solve methods;
and reform;
for change problems of examination
helps
for change society. of social,
students
and social economic,
become
reform and political
aware of
problems.
problems
confronting
human kind

Source: Adapted from Ornsten and Hunkins (1988)

Now carry out the following activity to consolidate your learning on educational philosophies

Activity

1. Study the text and the table above on Educational philosophies.

2.

(a)Describe essentialism and progressivism in your own words (use 50 words

in each case)

Essentialism

Progressivism

b. What do you consider as major differences between the two philosophies?

Explain your answer. (70 words)

c. Which of the two philosophies do you consider to have had more influence on
the secondary school curriculum in your country? Justify your answer. Write an
essay of 250 words.

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Curriculum planning

Let us now examine theories of subject matter related to the educational phi- losophies.

Theories of Subject Matter

Based on the educational philosophies; perennialism, essentialism and
progressivism,certain theories of subject matter have been advanced. The theories state as
follows: these theories highlight the type and purpose of subject matter in the curriculum.

Theory 1: Subject matter should be taught for its own sake. Theory 2: Subject matter should be
taught for use.

Theory 3: Subject matter is merely a medium for teaching intellectual processes, skills, attitudes
and appreciations.

Let us now expound on each of the theories.

Theory I: “Subject matter should be taught for its own sake”. Supporters of this theory believe
that everything has intrinsic value. They belief that each subject has value in and of itself.

Naturally then some subjects are more valuable than others, not because they are more useful
than others but because they have greater instrinsic value. According to this position, whether
or not the pupil will ever make use of subjects like Al- gebra, Latin or Physical Education does
not matter. The important thing is that the learner should study subjects that have the greatest
value. The task for the curriculum developer is to identify those subjects deemed to have more
value.

These are views of perennialists.

Theory 2: “Subject matter should be taught for use”. Supporters of this theory hold that the
value of a subject depends upon the use that is made of it. This position derives from the
philosophical belief that value is operational instrumental.

Basically this is an essentialist’s position. According to this belief, in planning curricula, priority
should be given to those studies that the learners will most likely need to know. In this sense
these subject are essential.

Theory 3: “Subject matter is merely a medium for the teaching of intellectual processes, skills,
attitudes, ideals, and appreciations”.

Supporters of this theory are mainly the progressivists. They belief that in this changing world
of changing world of changing values, no subject matter is essen- tial for its intrinsicvalue; and
that it is very difficult to tell which subject matter is likely to be most functional.

Therefore the progressivists believe that it is not the subject matter but the process of
education that matters. In their view subject matter is only a medium by which to teach
students the skills they need to become independent individuals.

Following now is a discussion on sociological foundations.

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Curriculum planning

Sociological Foundations

Welcome to this section on sociological foundations of curriculum.

The Sociological Foundation refers to issues from society that have an influence on curriculum.
Since the school exists within a given society; and the fact that the ‘products’ of the school i.e.
the ‘graduates’ go back to the society, makes the latter an inevitable determinant of
the curriculum. There are many aspects of the society that need consideration in curriculum
making. These include: Changes occurring in societal structures; Transmission of culture;
social problems as issues for Curriculum and Economics issues.

Societal changes
Changes that occur in the wider society and culture have an influence on cur- riculum.

Changes include:

• Family life disintegration in many of our African countries and globally; which forces the
schools to take on more responsibilities previously assumed by the family.

• Movements of the population, for instance, rural-urban migration.

These issues need consideration in curriculum development. Also, some of these issues
affect formal schooling for some people; necessitating the need for other modes of education,
such as distance education.

Let us now discuss some of those issues, starting with culture.

Transmission of Culture
Culture in any society incorporates valued traditions. In this context, curriculum can be
considered to be a reflection or a piece of the culture. These traditions include those in the
wider society as well as traditions upheld in the school sys- tem.

Influence of various Interest groups. Certain groups who have an influence on school curriculum
include: Parents, religious groups such as churches, Donors, Trade Unions such as the Kenya
National Union of Teachers, Boards of Gover- nors and the media. Each of these groups has
certain values that they would want incorporated into the curriculum. As much as possible, their
inputs should be considered to ensure their support in curriculum implementation.

Social Problems as issues for curriculum

Every society battles with certain issues that have an influence on curriculum. These include:

 Equality and Equity issues; such as class systems in society; racial or ethnic issues;
Gender; issues of access to education and equality of op- portunity. Factors that affect
equality of opportunity include financing of education, fees payments and distances to
schools.

 Crime, Delinquency and Security issues: The curriculum would need to focus on
knowledge, fairness and avoidance of the issues raised.

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  Health Issues: Health challenges in many parts of the world currently include HIV/Aids,
Drug abuse, pollution and other environmental is- sues, family life education including
 Birth control and family planning. HIV/Aids has in many African countries wrecked havoc
leaving many learners as orphaned and vulnerable. Curriculum planning must take that issue
into consideration.
 Economic Issues. There is need to incorporate in the curriculum knowledge, skills and
attitudes that would facilitate economic growth at a personal and national level.

Political Dimension of Curriculum

It is important to acknowledge that education is essentially a political activity. The political

climate prevailing in a country is very important and significant in determining the type of
schooling and curriculum for the young.

Education also has a political function; in that it promotes ideologies which influence the power
structure within society. It is noteworthy also that political forces, the most powerful of which are
associated with the government of the time, are responsible for allocation of resources that are
necessary to support a curriculum. Hence, the need to take the politicians views into
consideration in curriculum planning. In addition, a curriculum worker is also likely to have a
political and ideological stand in life that would influence his/her decision making process in
curriculum matters. (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992: 57).

Now focus on the following activity:

Activity

Discuss the influence of any two major sociological issues of your choice on curriculum in the
field education in your country. Explain clearly how the issues have impacted on the curriculum.
Structure your essay to include, aims of education, the type of content and any other aspect you
would wish to discuss (use 200 – 250 words).

Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

Welcome to this section on psychological foundations of curriculum The Psycho- logical
Foundations focus on insights gained from the field of psychology that have a bearing on the
learning process, and consequently on the curriculum.

Psychology of learning
Helps us to know:

• Whether the children have developed adequately to be able to unders- tand

certainconcepts. i.e. Ed. Psychology enables us to follow the deve- lopment of
children e.g. lower primary – children are at concrete stage.
• Methodology should be such that you have to use real objects to help them
understand.
•
Abstract thinking and interpretation would need to come later. Use of Psychology of learning in
selecting objectives:

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• Helps to identify and select those goals that are feasible from those that will likely
take a very long time – and are almost impossible to attain depending on the age
level.
• Enables us to determine the length of time required for the attainment of a
particular objective and the age levels at which learning will take place most
efficiently; considering also the students.
• To determine the conditions necessary for the learning of certain types of
objectives.
• Helps us to realize that most learning experiences produce multiple outcomes.
• Learning which are consistent with each other, which are in that sense integrated
and coherent, reinforce each other.

There are a variety of theories in the field of psychology. The most commonly used theories in
most educational systems are the cognitive theories, though they have their limitations. Let us
therefore examine some these in some detail.

Cognitive Theories
These are sometimes referred to as simply cognitive development theories or even human
development theories. These theories recognize that most of the learning in schools
concentrates on the cognitive dimension of learning.

Jean Piaget (1896 – 1989), a Swiss psychologist, is considered to be the hero of the
human development theorists. He provided a comprehensive view of cognitive growth and
development of children as occurring in progressive stages; with a fixed sequence and
hierarchy of steps.

These are:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to age 2 years)

Child progresses from reflex operations to complex sensorimotor actions in relation to the
environmental patterns. E.g. establishing simple relations between similar objects.

2. Pre-operational Stage (ages 2 to 7 years)

At this stage objects and events begin to take on symbolic meaning; e.g. a chair for sitting,
clothing is what we wear, oranges and bananas are fruits; etc.

3. Concrete operations Stage (ages 7-11 years)

Here the child begins to organize data into logical relationships; and be- gins manipulating
data in problem – solving situations. Learning occurs only if CONCRETE objects are
available; or drawing from actual past experiences.

4. Formal operations stage (ages 11-17 years)

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Characterized by the development of formal and abstract operations; including:

• Analysis of ideas;
• Logical thinking about abstract data;
• Evaluation of data
• Hypothesizing etc.
Hereditary and environmental factors may speed up or slow down cognitive development; but
not change the sequence.

Most curriculum specialists and learning theorists and teachers tend to be co- gnitive oriented
because:

1. The cognitive Approach constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting
learning.

2. The approach is rooted in the tradition of subject matter.

3. Educators have been trained in cognitive approaches and better unders- tand them in
many African countries and globally.

Note: Learning in school largely involves cognitive processes. Schools the- refore tend to
emphasize the cognitive domain of learning at the expense of other aspects of learning, i.e.
affective and psychomotor. Schools should therefore be more humane places where students
can fulfill their human potential. Hence, let us now examine Humanistic psychology.

Humanistic Psychology (Humanism)

Humanistic psychology is concerned about the human beings above all else in the universe; it
centers on helping people in various ways. This theory has given rise to a focus on:

• Affective education i.e. education about feelings, attitudes, and self-esteem

• Classification of values for curriculum

• Holistic approach to education

• Top priorities being choice (for students) and responsibility

Thus, the learner should have an awareness of self. That is, the concept we hold of ourselves
i.e. who we are, determines what we do; and the extent to which we learn. In other words,
cognitive performance will be influenced by self-concept. Some of the scholars associated with
this theory include: Maslow (1908 – 1970) and Carl Rogers.

In summary, each of the psychological theories is useful to curriculum planners as they

seek alternative approaches for preparing most useful curricula for lear- ners.

Activity

1. Which of the three psychological theories would you find most useful in designing
Secondary School Curriculum in your country and why (Write an essay of 200 – 300 words) 2.

Visit a primary school class and observe pupils in a lower primary class (say class 2) and

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another primary class (say class 7) and identify differences with regard to:-

a. The methodology adopted by the teachers and learning materials and relate
them to the developmental levels of the children on average per class.

b. Talk to teachers in those classes and find out how their methods relate to levels
of development for the average child in those classes. Write a report of about 200
words.

Summary

In this unit, we have examined foundations of curriculum; that is, the values, tra- ditions, factors
and forces which influence curriculum making. Four foundations were explored; i.e. Historical,
philosophical, sociological and psychological. We established that historical foundations were
those factors and issues from the past that have an influence on the curriculum at present.
Examples of various forms of education from the past that have influenced were given including
ancient edu- cation such as Greek and Roman education. Other examples were Renaissance,
reformation and progressivism.

Philosophical foundations were presented; idealism, realism, pragmatism and existentialism.

Educational philosophies discussed included perennialism, essen- tialism, progressivism and
reconstructionism. Influence of each philosophy on curriculum was highlighted. For example,
a curriculum developed by pragmatists emphasizes on considering problems that arise out of
daily living. A practical curriculum therefore results from such an approach.

Sociology of education emphasizes on the need to focus on societal issues in curriculum

development. These include culture and traditions, societal changes and political issues.

Psychological foundations on the other hand deals with the insights gained from the field of
psychology with regard to the learning process and the influence on the curriculum. For
example, psychology assists in areas such as identifying the developmental levels of children
and consequently selecting learning objectives appropriate for those levels. It also assists in
identifying appropriate content, methodology and conditions necessary to attain the required
learning.

Formative Evaluation
Questions

1 a) What do you understand by the term “Curriculum foundation”?

b) Distinguish between perennialism and progressivism in relation to thei- rin fluence an

curriculum.

2. Which of the educational philosophies you have studied in this unit do you think is most
commonly used to develop curriculum in your country? Justify your answer in an essay of
about 250 words.

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Possible Answers

Q1 a) Curriculum foundation can be considered as a basis for curriculum. b) Perennialism

– one of the traditional philosophies that advocate for permanence of curriculum and
experiences being more important than change. Perennialist therefore advocates for a
common curriculum for all learners. Curriculum should also contain ‘important’ subjects
taught separately. Progressivism on the other hand is a modern philosophy, based on
pragmatism, which emphasizes change as the essence of reality. The curriculum that
results from a progressivist approach is child-cente- red. It should also be flexible with
teacher acting as a facilitator.

Q2. You will need to analyse the curriculum in your country and establish various
characteristics that would suggest a given philosophical approach. For example, if the
curriculum is presented in separate individual subjects as opposed to intergration that
could suggest a traditional philosophy in use, e.g. perennialism. Secondly, if there is an
emphasis on prevocational/vocational subjects, that could suggest an essentialist
approach. On the other hand, a flexible curriculum with broad choices for learners could
suggest a progressivist approach to curriculum making.

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