G. C. E.

(Advanced Level)
PHYSICS
Resource Book

Grade 12

Unit 4: Thermal Physics

Department of Science
Faculty of Science and Technology
National Institute of Education
www.nie.lk

i
G. C. E. (Advanced Level)
PHYSICS
Grade 12
Unit 4: Thermal Physics

© National Institute of Education

First Print – 2020

ISBN 978 - 955 - 654 - 899 - 0

Department of Science
Faculty of Science and Technology
National Institute of Education
Sri Lanka

Published by: Press

National Institute of Education
Maharagama
Sri Lanka

Printed by: Sisara Printway (Pvt) Ltd,

No. 110, Pagoda Road,
Pitakotte.

ii
Message from the Director General

The National Institute of Education takes opportune steps from time to time for
the development of quality in education. Preparation of supplementary resource
books for respective subjects is one such initiative.

Supplementary resource books have been composed by a team of curriculum

developers of the National Institute of Education, subject experts from the national
universities and experienced teachers from the school system. Because these
resource books have been written so that they are in line with the G. C. E. (A/L)
new syllabus implemented in 2017, students can broaden their understanding of
the subject matter by referring these books while teachers can refer them in order
to plan more effective learning teaching activities.

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to the staff members of the National

Institute of Education and external subject experts who made their academic
contribution to make this material available to you.

Dr. (Mrs.) T. A. R. J. Gunasekara

Director General
National Institute of Education
Maharagama.

iii
Message from the Director

Since 2017, a rationalized curriculum, which is an updated version of the previous

curriculum is in effect for the G.C.E (A/L) in the general education system of Sri
Lanka. In this new curriculum cycle, revisions were made in the subject content,
mode of delivery and curricular materials of the G.C.E. (A/L) Physics, Chemistry
and Biology. Several alterations in the learning teaching sequence were also
made. A new Teachers’ Guide was introduced in place of the previous Teacher’s
Instruction Manual. In concurrence to that, certain changes in the learning teaching
methodology, evaluation and assessment are expected. The newly introduced
Teachers’ Guide provides learning outcomes, a guideline for teachers to mould the
learning events, assessment and evaluation.

When implementing the previous curricula, the use of internationally recognized

standard textbooks published in English was imperative for the Advanced Level
science subjects. Due to the contradictions of facts related to the subject matter
between different textbooks and inclusion of the content beyond the limits of the
local curriculum, the usage of those books was not convenient for both teachers
and students. This book comes to you as an attempt to overcome that issue.

As this book is available in Sinhala, Tamil, and English, the book offers students an
opportunity to refer the relevant subject content in their mother tongue as well as
in English within the limits of the local curriculum. It also provides both students
and teachers a source of reliable information expected by the curriculum instead
of various information gathered from the other sources.

This book authored by subject experts from the universities and experienced
subject teachers is presented to you followed by the approval of the Academic
Affairs Board and the Council of the National Institute of Education. Thus, it can
be recommended as a material of high standard.

Dr. A. D. A. De Silva
Director
Department of Science

iv
 Guidance
Dr. (Mrs.) T. A. R. J. Gunasekara
Director General - National Institute of Education

Supervision
Dr. A. D. A. De Silva
Director, Department of Science
National Institute of Education

R. S. J. P. Uduporuwa
Former Director, Department of Science
National Institute of Education

Internal Editorial Panel
P. Malavipathirana - Senior Lecturer, National Institute of Education
Dr. M.L.S. Piyathissa - Assistant Lecturer, National Institute of Education
Miss. R.A. Amarasinghe - Assistant Lecturer, National Institute of Education
Mrs. M.R.P.I. Herath - Former Assistant Lecturer - National Institute of Education

Writing Panel
W.A.D. Rathnasooriya - Former Chief Project Officer, National Institute of Education
B.A. Tilakarathna - Former Project Officer, National Institute of Education
Former SLEAS.-II
H.S.K. Wijeyathilaka - Former SLEAS -I
P. Wickramasekara - SLTS- I, Buddhist Girls' College, Mount Lavinia
S.R. Jayakumar - SLTS-I, Royal College, Colombo 07

External Editorial Panel

Dr. I.K. Perera - Former Senior Professor of Physics
Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka
Prof. S.R.D. Rosa - Department of Physics, University of Colombo
Prof. L.R.A.K. Bandara - Department of Physics, University of Peradeniya
Dr. P.W.S.R. Bandaranayake - Department of Physics, University of Peradeniya
Dr. M.K. Jayananda - Department of Physics, University of Colombo
Prof. J.C.N. Rajendran - Department of Physics, Open University of Sri Lanka
Dr. D.D.N.B. Daya - Department of Physics, University of Colombo
Dr. J.K.P. Bodika - Department of Physics, University of Ruhuna

Language Editing - M.A.P. Munasinghe - Former Project Officer,

National Institute of Education

Cover and Setting - Mrs. R.R.K. Pathirana - Technical Assistant;
National Institute of Education

Supporting Staff - Mrs.W.P.P. Weerawardana - National Institute of Education

M. Welipitiya - National Institute of Education
K.G.R. Dayawansa - National Institute of Education

v
vi
 Content

Unit 4 Thermal Physics

4.1 Temperature 01

4.2 Thermal expansion of solids and liquids 15

4.3 Gas laws 27

4.4 Kinetic theory of gases 38

4.5 Exchange of Heat 42

4.6 Changes of state 47

4.7 Vapour and humidity 53

4.8 Thermodynamsics 64

4.9 Transfer of heat 73

References 73

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viii
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Chapter - 01

Temperature

Temperature
We use our sense organs for various observations. We see with our eyes. We hear with our
ears. In the same way, we can feel hotness or coldness with our skin. We feel hot when the
temperature is high and we feel cold when the temperature is low. Most quantities that can
be perceived are physical quantities. Temperature is also such a quantity.

In this chapter, we discuss a number of phenomena associated with temperature and

thermal energy. We shall start by developing the idea of “temperature”.

Temperature and flow of heat

When you touch the bulb of a mercury thermometer at room temperature with your
fingers, you will see the mercury column rising. This is because heat flows from your
finger which is at a higher temperature, to the bulb which is at a lower temperature than
that of your finger. Then mercury gets expanded resulting in a rise of the mercury column.
So it is clear that heat flows from a location which is at a higher temperature to a location
which is at a lower temperature and it is meaningless to talk about an amount of heat
which a body contains.

Thermal equilibrium
Consider the flow of heat when two bodies A and B at the same temperature are in thermal
contact. We tend to say that there is no flow of heat. In thermodynamics, it is said that
there is no net flow of heat between A and B. It is considered that heat flows from A to B
as well as from B to A in equal amount per second and hence there is no net transfer of
heat. It is a dynamic equilibrium state and is called thermal equilibrium.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics says that, when two bodies A and B are in thermal
equilibrium separately, with another body C, then the bodies A and B are also in thermal
equilibrium.

A θ °C B θ °C A θ °C

C θ °C C θ °C B θ °C

A B C

A and C B and C then A and B are

in thermal in thermal also in thermal
equilibrium equilibrium equilibrium
Figure 1.1

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

When we take a reading from a thermometer we should wait until the thermometer comes
to thermal equilibrium with the body with the sensing part of the thermometer (e.g.
mercury bulb) is in contact.

The use of a thermometer can be taken as an example for the application of the zeroth law
as follows. Suppose the bulb of a liquid-glass thermometer is immersed in a fluid (liquid
or gas) and the thermometer gives the reading when it comes to thermal equilibrium.
Now if the thermometer gives the same reading in the equilibrium when it is immersed in
another fluid, then we can say that the two fluids are at the same temperature.

Here, the first fluid is taken to be the object A and the second fluid is taken to be the object
B. The object C is the thermometer showing the reading θ.

C C
θ θ

A B
A θ B
θ

A and C B and C Then A and B

In equilibrium in equilibrium also in thermal equilibrium
and their temperatures are equal.

Figure 1.2

Thermometric properties

To measure temperature, there should be some physical property that varies uniformly
with temperature. Measurable properties which vary with temperature in a known way
and which can be used in measuring temperature are called thermometric properties.
e g.:
i. Volume of a fixed mass of mercury
ii. e.m.f. generated in a thermocouple

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Important features of thermometric properties

1. To be a single valued function of temperature

Property Property

p2

p0 B

p1
A B

θ1 θ2 Temperature θ0 Temperature

Figure 1.3

The property should not give same value (p0) for two different temperatures (θ1 and θ2)
and also it should not give two different values (p1 and p2) for the same temperature (θ0)
as shown by above graphs. Even so this property can be used as a thermometric property
in a region where it behaves as single valued function of temperature (e.g. in the region
A to B in the Figure 4.1.3).

2. To be a continuous function of temperature

Property

θ0 Temperature
Figure 1.4

It should be continuous and should not be discontinuous as at θ0 shown by the above

graph. In it, at θ0 thermometric property is uncertain. When there is a change of state of
matter such discontinuation may occur.

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

3. To be a linear function of temperature as far as possible.

An ideal thermometric property should exhibit a linear variation with temperature as

shown by the following graphs.

Property (X)
Property (X)

Temperature (θ) Temperature (θ)

Figure 1.5

Since it is almost impossible to have a practical thermometric property behaving exactly

in this manner, a property which is close to this behavior is chosen. It is shown in the
following graphs.
Property (X)
Property (X)

Temperature (θ) Temperature (θ)

Figure 1.6

Some thermometric properties used in thermometers are,

1. Volume of a fixed mass of mercury.
2. Pressure of a fixed mass of a gas under constant volume.
3. Volume of a fixed mass of gas under constant pressure.
4. e.m.f. generated in a thermocouple.
5. Electrical resistance of a piece of platinum wire.

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Measurement of temperature
Let us consider a thermometric property (X) which varies linearly with temperature as
(θ) shown in the graph.

X

XH

Xθ
XL

(0,0) θ θH θ
θL

Figure 1.7
Suppose that the values of X relevant to two known fixed temperatures, namely lower
fixed point, θL and upper fixed point, θH are XL and XH respectively and at some unknown
temperature θ, it is Xθ.
Then by considering the gradient of the graph, we can write
Xθ − X L X H − X L
=
θ −θL θH −θL
 Xθ − X L 
θ −θL =   (θ H − θ L )
X
 H − X L 

 X − XL 
∴θ =  θ  (θ H − θ L ) + θ L
X
 H − X L 

When XL, XH and Xθ are known and θL and θH have definite values, θ can be calculated.
Note: Please note that the above expression is valid only when the thermometric property
X varies linearly with the temperature.

Celsius temperature scale

In this temperature scale, θL and θH are defined to be the fixed temperatures as follows.
θL - Melting point of pure ice at standard atmospheric pressure. This unique temperature
has been given the value 0 °C in this scale and is known as the lower fixed point.
θH - Boiling point of pure water at standard atmospheric pressure. This unique
temperature has been given the value 100 °C in this scale and is known as the upper
fixed point.

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Substituting the values of θL and θH in the above equation we get,

 Xθ − X L 
θ C =   ×100
 XH − XL 
Absolute thermodynamic temperature scale

Consider an ideal thermometric property (X) which varies according to the following
graph.
Eg. Variation of pressure of a fixed mass of ideal gas under constant volume.

X100

X0

O'

-273.15 (0,0) 100 θ °C

Figure 1.8

When the graph is extrapolated the point O' at which the graph cuts, the temperature axis
can be found. The value of temperature at O' is -273.15 °C (in celsius).

A new temperature scale known as thermodynamic scale was defined taking the point O'
as the origin and given the value of zero, known as absolute zero to that temperature. The
unit of measurement was taken to be kelvin (K). Usually absolute temperature is denoted
by the symbol T. Since this is based on an ideal thermometric property this a theorectical
scale. Therefore, it does not depend on the property of any particular substance. But it is
identical with the scale base on the pressure variation of an ideal gas at constant volume.

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Xtr

(0,0) Ttr T (K)

Figure 1.9

As this graph passes through the origin, only one well defined point would be sufficient
to draw the line. Therefore in this scale, only one fixed point is enough and that point is
known as the triple point of water (Ttr).

Triple point of water

The triple point of water is defined to be the temperature at which pure water, water
vapour and ice are in thermal equilibrium.

The triple point of water is equal to 273.16 K (in kelvin) and 0.01 °C (in celcius).

Now consider the following graph where the thermal property is Xtr at temperature Ttr and
XT at some unknown temperature T (Ttr is the triple point of water).

XT

Xtr

(0,0) Ttr T T (K)

Figure 1.10

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Now considering the gradient of the line we can write,

X tr X T
=
Ttr T

X 
∴T =  T  × Ttr
 X tr 

Since TTr = 273.16

X 
T =  T  × 273.16
 X tr 

Relationship between T and θ

To obtain the relationship between T and θ , let us consider the following diagram.

absolute zero
triple point

-273.15 0 θTr θ (°C)

0.01
T(K)
273.15 273.16

Figure 1.11

No. of °C divisions between ‘absolute zero” and “ triple point” is 273.16.

No. of K divisions between “ absolute zero” and “ triple point” is 273.16.
Therefore, it is clear that, one division of kelvin = one division of celsius.

So, it is very important to realize that when the difference of temperature (∆θ or ∆T) is
concerned, both kelvin value and °C value are equal. It should also be noted that, when
a particular single temperature is considered the kelvin value and the °C value are quite
different.
We can see from the diagram that,
0 °C = (273.16 – 0.01) K
= 273.15 K
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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Now, for any given value of temperature in celsius (θ), suppose that value in kelvin is T.
Then it is obvious that

T = θ + 273.15

It should be noted that thermodynamic scale is a theoretical scale and also that the absolute
zero (0 K) has never been reached.

Worked examples
1. Some thermometric property gives its values as 5.0 and 20.0 in relevant units
temperatures 0 °C and 100 °C respectively. When a thermometer which uses above
thermometric property, gives the value of that property as 11.0 when measuring the
temperature of a liquid. Calculate the temperature of the liquid. Give your answer
in °C and K.

 Xθ − X L 
Using θ =   ×100
 XH − XL 

 11.0 − 5.0  6.0
θ =  × 100 = ×100
 20.0 − 5.0  15.0

= 40 °C

Using T = θ + 273.15
T = 40 + 273.15 = 313.15 K
∴ temperature = 313.15 K


2. A thermometric property used in a thermometer gives the value 68.29 (in relevant
units) at the triple point of water. When this thermometer gives a temperature reading
of 300 K, what is the value of thermometric property at that temperature ?

XT
Using T = × 273.16
X tr
XT
300 = × 273.16
68.29

300 × 68.29
∴ XT = = 75
273.16

Value of the property = 75 (in relevant units)

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

3. Complete the following table by filling the blanks.

Occasion Temperature in oC Temperature in K

Melting point of water 0 .................................
Room temperature .............................. 303.15
Temperature of human 37 ................................
body
Boiling point of water ............................... 373.15

Thermometers
There are various types of thermometers. They differ depending on factors such as accu-
racy, usable range of temperature, sensitivity and response time.
Eg.
1. Mercury in glass thermometer (this will be discussed later)
2. Constant volume gas thermometer
The thermometric property used in this thermometer is the pressure of a fixed mass
of temperature.
3. Constant pressure gas thermometer
This thermometer uses the volume of a fixed mass of gas under constant pressure as
its thermometric property. The level of accuracy and the range of this thermometer
are almost similar to those of constant volume gas thermometer.
4. Platinum resistance thermometer
The thermometric property of this thermometer is the electrical resistance of a
platinum wire. For this also, temperature range is large and accuracy is high but not
as accurate as gas thermometers.
5. Thermocouple thermometer
(this will be discussed later)

Mercury- in- glass thermometer Thick glass

wall
The length of a column of mercury in a glass
bore
capillary tube which has a uniform cross section,
is the thermometric property of this thermometer.
Mercury
Stem
column

Bulb

Figure 1.12

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Usual range of this thermometer is from -30 °C to 350 °C. By introducing a gas above the
mercury column the upper limit can be extended to 500 °C.

Advantages of this thermometer

1. Easy to use and easy to transport.
2. Readings can be taken directly.
3. Low cost.
4. Since mercury is a good conductor, heat transfers quickly through the mercury.
5. Since mercury is opaque, it can easily be seen and also it has the quality of not
wetting the glass wall of the capillary.

Disadvantages of this thermometer

1. There may be errors due to non uniformity of the bore of the capillary tube.
2. Mercury in the bore is not at the same temperature as that in the blub.
3. Due to vapour pressure of mercury, there can be errors.
4. Errors may occur due to permanent deformation of the bulb in long term usage.
5. Accuracy is not of higher degree.

Thermocouple thermometer

The thermometric property of this thermometer is the thermoelectric e.m.f developed in a

junction of two different metals. For example, a jumction made using wires of copper and
iron. However to minimize errors, practically, this thermometer consists of two junctions
(Figure 1.13). One junction called the cold junction is kept at 0 °C using melting ice. The
other junction called the hot junction is kept at a temperature which is to be measured.

Cu Iron Cu
Cold junction

Hot junction

Melting ice

Figure 1.13

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Some of the pairs of metal which can be used to make thermocouples are,

1. Copper and iron

2. Nickel and nichrome
3. Platinum and platinum rhodium alloy
4. Copper and constantan

The phenomenon of developing an e.m.f. across a junction of two different metals is

called the thermoelectric effect or the Seeback effect. This e.m.f. is of the order of
few millivolts. Therefore, a sensitive millivoltmeter should be used to measure it. For
more accurate results, this e.m.f. is measured using a potentiometer. This thermometer
has a wide range of about – 200 °C to 1400 °C. There are other advantages of using this
thermometer.

For example –
1. Thermal capacity of the junction is too small. Therefore, it can be used to measure
varying temperatures because of its quick response.
2. Suitable to measure temperature of a small body or a small amount of a liquid.
3. Easy to construct.
4. Able to take direct measurements when a calibrated millivoltmeter is used.

Some of the disadvantages of this thermometer are;

1. Difficulty of using a potentiometer for accurate measurements.
2. Difficulty of maintaining one junction at 0 °C.
3. Remarkable non linear behavior at high temperatures as shown by the following
figure 1.14 (when temperature > 400 °C).

400 Temperature ( °C)

Figure 1.14

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Worked example

A mercury in-glass thermometer has a length of 25 cm along its scale from 0 °C to

100 °C . When the bulb is immersed in a liquid, the length of mercury column was 15 cm
from the zero mark of the scale. Calculate the temperature of the liquid.

Using θ =  X θ − X L  ×100 =  15 − 0  ×100 = 15 ×100 = 60

 
 XH − XL   25 − 0  25

∴ Temperature of liquid = 60 °C

Thermistor

Thermistor is a device having an electrical resistance which vary with its temperature.
Therefore, it can be used as a sensor to detect variation of temperature. Some thermometers
are made using thermistors.

Variation of resistance of the thermistor with its temperature can be converted into a
voltage or current variation. This variation is fed into an electronic circuit which processes
it to indicate temperature using a digital display.

There are two types of thermistors.

1. Thermistors of negative temperature coefficient (NTC type)
In this thermistor, the resistance decreases with the rise of temperature.
2. Thermistors of positive temperature coefficient (PTC type)
In this thermistor, the resistance increases with the rise of temperature.

It should be noted that most of the thermistors used practically are of NTC type. A typical
graph of resistance (R) versus temperature for NTC type thermistors shown below.
Thermistor Resistance (kΩ)

Temperature °C

Figure 1.15Ω
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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Following diagram shows physical appearance and relevant circuit symbol of the
thermistor.

+ t0

(NTC type) (PTC type)

Figure 1.16

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Chapter - 02

Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids

Expansion of Solids
In solids, molecules are subjected to undergo vibrations. Amplitudes of those vibrations
increase as the temperature of the solid material increases. As a result, space occupied by
the solid material increases. Therefore, its volume increases.
Increase of volume of a piece of material with rise of temperature is called thermal
expansion.

Linear expansion
If we consider only the increase of length of an object with rise of temperature, then it is
called linear expansion.
The amount of increase of length of an object is directly proportional to;

1. The original length (l0)

2. The rise of temperature (∆θ)

So,
∆l ∝ l0
∆l
∆l ∝ ∆θ
”¸
∴∆l ∝ lo ∆¸
∴∆ll== ααlloo∆∆¸¸ (( where
∴∆ where αα is
is aa constant)
constant)
∆l
∴α =
lo ∆¸

This constant is known as the linear expansivity of the material of the object and is defined
as the fractional increase of length per unit rise of temperature. The SI unit of α is K-1.

Consider a thin rod of length l1 at some temperature. When temperature is increased by the
amount θ, suppose its new length is l2.

l1
Temperature θ1

l2 ∆l
Temperature θ2

Figure 2.1

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

increase of length, ∆l = l2 - l1
increase of temperature, ∆θ = θ2 - θ1
∆l
linear expansion,
∆l ∝ =”¸
l ∆θ 1

l2- l1
∆l ∝ =
”¸
l1 (θ2 - θ1)
l2- l1 =∆ll1 ∝ (θ
” ¸2 - θ1)
=∆ll1 ∝ θ” ¸here θ = θ2 - θ1
l2 = l1+∆ll ∝ θ” ¸
l2 = l1+ (1+
∆l ∝θ)
”¸

Area expansion
If we consider only the increase of area of an object due to temperature rise, then it is
called area expansion.

The physical quantity ( β ) associated with the measurement of area expansion is known
as superficial expansivity and is defined as the fractional increase of area per unit rise of
temperature.

∆A
∴β =
A0 ∆θ

where, ∆A - increase in area

∆θ - rise of temperature
A0 - initial area

The SI unit of β is K-1.

Consider a surface area A1 of an object at some temperature θ1 . If the temperature is

increased to θ2 and its new surface area is A2.

area = A2
area = A1

at temperature θ1 at temperature θ2

Figure 2.2

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Increase of area ∆A = A2 − A1 , increase of temperature, ∆θ2 = θ2 - θ1

By definition of β,

∆A
β=
A0 ∆θ
A2 − A1
=
where
A1θ θ = θ2 - θ1 (increase of temperature)

∴ A2 − A1 = A1βθ

∴ A2 = A1 (1 + βθ ) ..................(1)

Relationship between β and α

Consider a thin rectangular sheet of length a and breadth b at some temperature θ1 Suppose
it’s temperature is increased to θ1 and its new length and breadth are a′ and b′ respectively.

A2 = a'b'
A1 = ab

b'
b

a a'
at temperature θ1 at temperature θ2

Figure 2.3

Considering linear expansion,

l2 = l1 (1 + α .θ ) where θ = θ - θ (increase of temperature)

2 1

∴ a′ = a (1 + α .θ ) where α is the linear expansively of the material of the sheet

b′ = b(1 + αθ )
∴ A2 = a′b′
= ab(1 + αθ ) 2
∆A = A2 − A1 = ab(1 + αθ ) 2 − ab
= ab(1 + 2α .θ + α 2θ 2 ) − ab
= ab(2α .θ + α 2θ 2 )

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Since α is a small decimal value α2 is much smaller. Therefore the term having α2 can be
neglected.
∴ ∆A = ab.∆2±. l ∝¸θ
”¸
∆A
Now, β =
A0θ
ab.2α .θ
= = 2α
ab.θ
∴ ²β = 2α

Then from equation (1)

A2 = A1 (1 + 2α .θ )

Volume expansion
Earlier it was stated that an increase of area of a piece of material with rise of temperature
is called area expansion. If only the volume expansion is considered, then the expansion
is called volume expansion.

The physical quantity γ associated with measurement of volume expansion is known as

volume expansivity and is defined as the fractional increase of volume per unit rise of
temperature.

∆V
γ=
V .∆θ where ∆V - increase of volume
V - initial volume
∆θ - increase of temperature
The SI unit of γ is K-1.

Consider a piece of material of volume V1 at temperature θ1. Suppose its new volume is
V2 when it is heated to a temperature θ2 . Then by definition of γ ,

volume V2
volume V1

at temperature θ1 at temperature θ2

Figure 2.4

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

∆V V −V
γ= = 2 1
V0 .∆θ V1θ

where θ = θ2 - θ1 (increase of temperature)

∴V2 − V1 = V1γ .θ

V2 = V1 (1 + γ .θ ) (2)

Relationship between γ and α

Consider a cuboid with length, breath and height a, b and c respectively at temperature θ1
and that their new values are a',b' and c' respectively when its temperature is increased
to θ2 .
volume V2
volume V1

c'

b b'
a a'
at temperature θ1 at temperature θ2
Figure 2.5

V2 = a′b′c′
V1 = abc
Considering linear expansion,
a′ = a (1 + αθ ) b′ = b(1 + αθ ) c′ = c(1 + αθ )
V2 = a' b' c'
V2 = a (1+∆l ∝θ).
” ¸ b (1+
∆l ∝θ).
” ¸ c (1+
∆l ∝θ)
”¸

∴V2 = abc(1 + αθ )3
∴V2 = abc(1 + 3α .θ + 3α θ + α .θ )

2 2 3 3

∆V = V2 − V1
V2 = abc(1 + 3α .θ + 3α 2θ 2 + α 3 .θ 3 ) − abc
= abc(3α .θ + 3α 2θ 2 + α 3 .θ 3 )

Since α is very small decimal value α2 terms and α3 terms are even smaller and can be
neglected when compared with α.

19
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

∴V2 = abc.3αθ
By definition of γ

∆V abc.3αθ
= γ= = 3α
V0 ∆θ abcθ

∴ γ = 3α

Now the equation (2) above can be written as,

V2 = V1 (1 + 3αθ )

Worked example
1. A sphere made of a metal has a radius 4 cm at 30 °C. What is the new radius, surface
area and volume of the sphere when its temperature is raised to 130 °C? (linear
expansivity of the metal is 0.0001 K-1)

Considering linear expansion along a diameter,

l2 = l1 (1 + α .θ )

l2 = 8 [1 + 0.0001× (130 − 30) ]
8 cm
= 8(1 + 0.01)
= 8.08 cm

∴ New radius = 8.08 = 4.04 cm

2
Considering area expansion,
A2 = A1 (1+2∆±l ∝θ) ”¸

= 4π .42 (1 + 2 × 0.0001×100)

= 64π (1 + 0.02)
= 65.28 À
= 65.28 × 3.14
∴ new area = 205 cm 2

20
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Considering volume expansion,

V2 = V1 (1+3∆±l ∝θ)
”¸

4
= π . ( 4 ) (1 + 3 × 0.0001×100)
3

3
4
= π .64(1 + 0.03)
3
4
= À × 64 × 1.03
3
4
= × 3.14 × 64 × 1.03
3
= 275 cm3
∴ new volume = 275 cm3

2. A thin sheet of metal has the shape of a square of side 0.1 m. A small square of side
0.02 m has been cut off from the sheet as shown in figure given below. When the
temperature of the sheet and the cutting is increased by 150 °C, calculate the new
lengths of the sheet and the cutting. (linear expansivity of the metal is 0.00002 K-1)

l2 = l1 (1+
∆l ∝θ)
”¸ 0.1 m
Sheet
= 0.1 (1 + 0.00002 × 150)
= 0.1 (1 + 0.003)
= 0.1003 m
cutting
0.02 m
∴ new length of the sheet = 0.1003 m

As the cutting also expands,

l2 = l1 (1+
∆l ∝θ)
”¸
= 0.02(1 + 0.00002 × 150)
= 0.02(1 + 0.003)
= 0.02006 m

∴ new length of the cutting = 0.02006 m

21
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Expansion of liquids

As a liquid is kept in a container, when the liquid is heated, the container also gets heated.
Therefore, both the liquid and the container expand. As the shape of a fixed volume of
a liquid can vary depending on the shape of the container, the only expansion taken into
account when a liquid is concerned is the volume expansion.

If the material of the container is such that its volume expansion is much smaller than that
of the liquid, then we can neglect the expansion of the container. Then we can consider
only the observed expansion of the liquid when the container in heated. The observed
expansion of the liquid, without taking expansion of the container into account is called
the apparent expansion of the liquid. The amount by which the liquid actually expands
is called the real expansion of the liquid. The apparent expansion is less than the real
expansion.

Consider a liquid in a flask as shown in Figure 2.6.

a thin tube
A thin tube is fixed to the flask using a rubber stopper
as shown.
The liquid is filled up to the mark “a” on the tube. Rubber
stopper

When the flask is heated we can observe initially

the liquid level in the tube goes down slightly and
flask
thereafter it starts going up. Initial falling of the
liquid level is due to expansion of the flask and the
final raising is due to the expansion of liquid. liquid

Although both expansions take place at the same time,

for the simplicity of understanding let us suppose Figure 2.6
that only the container expands first and the liquid
expands afterwards as shown by Figure 2.7.
c
a a a
b b

Figure 2.7
initially considering expansion after expansion of
of the flask alone the liquid
22
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

From the above diagrams,

It is clear that volume in between the levels;
a and b is equal to the expansion of flask alone
b and c is equal to the real expansion of liquid
a and c in equal to the apparent expansion of liquid

Then it is obvious that,

(Volume between b and c) = (Volume between a and c) + (Volume between a & b)
i.e.
real expansion (of a liquid) = apparent expansion (of the liquid) + expansion of
the container

According to this, two expansivities can be considered based on real expansion and
apparent expansion.

Real expansivity ( γ real ) and apparent expansivity ( γ apparent ) of a liquid can be defined as
follows.

∆Vreal
where γreal = ∆Vreal is the real expansion
V0 ∆θ
∆Vapparent ∆Vapparent is the apparent expansion
γapparent =
V0 ∆θ
Vo is the initial volume

∆θ is the increase of temperature

By further calculation it can be shown that,

γreal = γapparent + γcontainer
and
γreal = γapparent + αγcontainer

Where γ real is the real expansivity of the liquid and α container is the linear expansivity of
the container material.

Eg. A Vessel contains a liquid of volume 0.0005 m3 at 30 °C. If the real (volume)
expansivity of the liquid is 0.001 K-1 and the linear expansivity of the material of
the vessel is 0.0001 K-1, find the apparent increase and the real increase of volume
of the liquid when the vessel is heated up to 100 °C.

23
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

for the liquid,

∆V
γ real = real

Vo ∆θ

∆Vreal
∴ 0.001 =
0.0005 × 70
∆Vreal = 0.001× 0.0005 × 70
= 3.5 ×10-5 m3

∴ real increase of liquid volume = 3.5 ×10-5 m3

from γreal = γapparent + 3α

0.001 = γapparent + 3×0.0001
... γapparent = 0.001 - 0.0003
= 0.0007 K-1

∆Vapparent
Now Using γ apparent =
Vo ∆θ

∴∆Vapparent = 0.0007 × 0.0005 × 70

= 2.45 ×10−5

−5
∴ apparent expansion of liquid volume = 2.45 ×10 m
3

Variation of density with temperature

m V2
m V1

ρ2
ρ1
at temperature θ1 at temperature θ2
Figure 2.8

24
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Consider a volume V1 of a fixed mass of liquid having density ρ1 at temperature θ1 . When

the temperature of the liquid is increased to θ2, let new volume and density be V2 and ρ2
respectively.

Then, The mass of liquid at θ1 ⇒ V1 ρ1

The mass of liquid at θ2 ⇒ V2 ρ2

Since the mass is fixed,

V1 ρ1=V2 ρ2 .......................(1)

Taking real expansivity of the liquid as γ

V2 = V1(1 + γθ)
where θ = θ2 - θ1 (increase of temperature)
∴ from (1), V1 p1 = V1(1 + γθ) ρ2
ρ1
ρ2 =
1 + γθ

So it is clear that the density of liquids decreases with increase of temperature. However
unlike other liquids water is found to behave in a different manner within a particular
range of temperature.

Anomalous expansion of water

Consider the following graph which shows the variation of volume (V) of a fixed mass of
water with temperature (θ).

Volume -V

Temparture - θ (°C)

Figure 2.9

25
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

It is clear from the graph that the volume of water increases with rise of temperature only
for temperatures greater than 4 °C. In the temperature range 0 °C to 4 °C, the volume of
water decreases with rise of temperature. Therefore, if temperature is decreasing from
4 °C to 0 °C, then the volume of water is increasing instead of decreasing. This is on
contrary to normal behaviour of a liquid. Normal behaviour is to decrease volume with
decrease of temperature. The expansion of water when temperature is going down from
4 °C to 0 °C is known as the anomalous expansion of water. Moreover, it is clear that for
a fixed mass of water the minimum volume and hence the maximum density exist at 4 °C
and hence maximum density of water exists at 4 °C.

Due to anomalous expansion, the density of water also varies accordingly with rise
of temperature. The density of water increases from 0 °C to 4 °C instead of decreasing,
and it begins to decrease with the rise of temperature beyond 4 °C. This is shown in
Figure 2.10.

Temperature in °C
Figure 2.10

26
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Chapter - 03

Gas Laws
In order to indicate the physical state of a given mass of a gas, its volume (V) pressure
(p) and temperature (T) can be stated as parameters. Gas laws are built up using the
relationships between V, p and T to explain the behaviour of a constant mass of a gas
between two states.

Since the distance between two molecules of a gas is about 10 times the distance between
two molecules of a liquid, the intermolecular attractive forces in a gas are as less as 1% of
that in a liquid. Also in every gas the volume of its molecules is extremely smaller than
the volume occupied by the gas. As an example, the volume of hydrogen molecules in a
litre (1000 cm3) of hydrogen gas is as small as 0.2 cm3. This is true for any gas. Hence
it can be considered that the physical behaviour of different gases does not depend on the
type of the gas molecules, and that all gases behave physically in a similar way.

Hence, for all gases, it can be assumed that,

1. The intermolecular attractive forces are negligibly small.
2. The volume of the gas molecules is negligibly small when compared with the
volume of the gas.

A gas which behaves according to above assumptions is known as a perfect gas. Gases
can be considered to behave as perfect gases under normal pressure and temperature
conditions. There are three fundamental laws obeyed by perfect gases.

Boyle’s Law

The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume, provided the
temperature remains constant.

1
p∝
V

1
p = k or pV = k
V

where k is a constant for the given mass and the temperature of the gas, the following
graphs can be drawn considering the above conditions.

27
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

p
p

V 1/V
(0,0) (0,0)
Graph of p against V Graph of p against 1/
V
Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2

pV
pV

ρ
V (0,0)
(0,0)
Graph of pV against V Graph of pV against p
Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4

If p1, V1 and p2,V2 are the pressures and volumes respectively of a given mass of gas in
two different states at a constant temperature, then

p1V1 = k and p2V2 = k

∴ p1V1 = p2V2

Worked examples

(1) The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas was reduced by 25% of its existing value,
keeping the temperature constant. What would then be the percentage change in
the volume of the gas?

28
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

The pressure, after reduction by 25%, 25 p 75 p 3

p2 = p − = = p
100 100 4
If the volume changes to V2,

p1V1 = p2V2

pV = 3 pV
2
4
4
V2 = V
3

4 V
Increase in volume ∆V = V2 − V1 = V − V =
3 3

Percentage increase in volume = ∆V × 100%

V
V
= ×100 = 33.33%
3V

(2) In a defective barometer, a quantity of air has entered into the space above the
mercury column in the tube. When the length of this air column is 250 mm the
height of the mercury column in the Barometer above the outside level is 750 mm.
When the length of the air column is reduced to 200 mm the height of the mercury
column is 746 mm. Calculate the atmospheric pressure. Assume that the temperature
remained constant.

Solution 200 mm
250 mm

746 mm
750 mm

Figure 3.5

Let h (mm) be the atmospheric pressure.

If the area of cross-section of the tube is (A) mm2,
In the first state, volume of the mass of gas V1 = (250 A) mm3

29
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Pressure of the mass of gas, p1 = (h -750) mm Hg (where h is the atmospheric pressure

in mm Hg)
In the second state,
Volume of the mass of gas, V2 = (200A) mm3
Pressure of the mass of gas p2 = (h -750) mm Hg
Since the temperature is constant,
Applying Boyle’s law,

p1V1 = p2V2
( h − 750 ) .250 A = ( h − 746 ) .200 A
5 ( h − 750 ) = 4 ( h − 746 )
5h − 4h = 3750 − 2984
h = 766 mm Hg

Charles’ Law

The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature,
provided the pressure remains constant.
V ∝T
V = kT
where k is a constant for the given mass of gas under constant and its pressure

V

=k
T

For two states of a given mass of a gas at constant pressure,

V1 V
= k and 2 = k
T1 T2
V1 V2
∴ =
T1 T2

Worked example
At 127 °C the volume of a given mass of perfect gas is 1000 cm3. If its temperature is
raised to 227 °C at constant pressure. What will be the new volume of the gas?

Solution V1 V2
=
T1 T2

30
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

1000 V2
=
(127 + 273) (227 + 273)

1000 V2
=
400 500
1000 × 500
V2 = = 1250
400

∴ new volume of gas = 1250 cm3

The pressures law
The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
provided the volume remains constant.
p ∝T
p = kT

Where k is a constant for the given mass of the gas under constant pressure.
p
=k
T

For two states of a given mass of a gas at constant volume,

p1 p
= k and 2 = k
T1 T2
p1 p2
∴ =
T1 T2

Solved example
A closed bulb contains air at a temperature of 27 °C under a pressure of 80 mm Hg.
What will be the pressure of air inside the bulb if the temperature of the bulb is raised to
100 °C ? Neglect the expansion of the bulb.
According to the law of pressures,

p1 p1
= at constant volume
T2 T1

80 p2
=
27 + 273 100 + 273

80 × 373
p2 =
300
p2 = 99 ⋅ 5
∴ the pressure of air at 100 °C = 99.5 mm Hg

31
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

For a further study of gas laws, an attention to the following would be beneficial.

Avagadro’s hypothesis
Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number
of molecules.

Mole
A mole is the amount of a substance containing the number of atoms equal to that contained
in 0.012 kg of the carbon - 12 isotope.

Avagadro number (NA)

The Avagadro number is the number of molecules contained in one mole of a gas.
NA = 6.02 × 1023 mol-1

At standard temperature (0 °C) and normal pressure (760 mm Hg), the volume of a mole
of any gas is 22.4 litres.

Molar mass
The mass of one mole of a gas is the molar mass of the gas.

Equation of state of a gas

It has been mentioned earlier that p, V and T are the three parameters which indicate the
physical state of a given mass of a gas.

By means of the gas laws discussed so far, it has been explained how these parameters
two at a time, vary from one state to another. The next step will be to study the variation
of all three parameters from one state to another.

For this purpose consider a fixed mass of a gas enclosed in a vessel using a movable
frictionless piston. Let the initial values of the volume, pressure and absolute temperature
be V1 p1 and T1 respectively.

Let the pressure be first changed to a new value p2 with the temperature kept constant at
T1 . As a result of which the volume changes to V'1.

[T1]
T1 p2
T1 p1
V1 V'

Figure 3.6

32
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Applying Boyle’s law for this change at constant temperature,

p1V1
p1V1 = p2V V '= ............ 4.3.1
p2
Next keeping the pressure constant, let the temperature changes to T2. As a result of
which the volume changes again to a new value V2 .

T2 p2
T1 p2

V' V2

Figure 3.7

Applying Charles law for the change at a constant pressure,

V ′ V2
=
T1 T2

TV
∴V ' = 1 2
T2 ....................4.3.2

From equations 4.3.1 and 4.3.2

pp11V1 TV
= 1 2
p2 T2
pp11V1 p1V2
∴ =
p2 T2

Hence for a given mass of a gas constant. This relationship is known as the equation of
state of a gas.

Worked Example

pV
A certain mass of an enclosed gas T = a occupies a volume of under a pressure of
20 kPa at a temperature of 27 °C. If the temperature of the gas is raised to 4.2 °C and the
volume is compressed to 200 l, to which value should its pressure be changed?

33
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Applying p1V1 = p2V2 to the mass of the gas,

T1 T2

20 × 400 p2 × 200
=
300 315
20 × 400 × 315
p2 =
300 × 200
p2 = 42 kPa
∴ New pressure = 42 kPa

Note: In the above substitution each quantity should have identical units on both sides.

Ideal gas equation pV

In the equation of state of a gas, is a constant.
T
If the mass of the gas is selected to contain one mole of gas then the above constant is
known as the universal gas constant ‘R’. Hence, for one mole of the gas

pV
=R
T
If the mass of the gas concerned contains ‘n’ moles of gas then,
pV
= nR
T
∴ pV = nRT

The above equation is the “Ideal gas equation”. By considering the fact that at standard
temperature and pressure, one mole of a gas occupies a volume of 22.4 litres, the value of
R can be calculated and shown that, R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1.

number of moles, n = 1
standard temperature, T = 273 K
standard pressure, p = 760 mmHg
= (760 × 10-3) × (13.6 × 103) × (9.8) Pa
V = 22.4 l = 22.4 × 10-2 m3
R = PV = 760 × 10 × 13.6 × 10 × 9.8 × 22.4 ×10
-3 -3

nT 1 × 273
= 8.31
... R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1

34
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Also, if the mass of the gas concerned is ‘m’ and its molar mass is ‘M’,

Then, m
n=
M
m
∴ pV = RT
M
m RT
p=
v M

RT
p=ρ
M
where is the ρ density of the gas at the given temperature T and pressure p.

Worked Example

1) A vessel of volume 3l and with an opening to the atmosphere, is filled with a gas
containing ‘n’ moles at 31 °C. In order to remove 1 th of the number of these moles
5
from the vessel, upto what temperature should the vessel be heated, assuming that
the gas remains under atmospheric pressure.

From , pV = nRT ,
pV
nT = = constant (V is constant at 3l and p is constant at atmospheric
R
pressure)
∴ n1T1 = n2T2

 n
n × 304 =  n −  T2
 5
4n
n × 304 = .T2
5
T2 = 380 K

∴ The temperature to which the vessel should be heated = 380 K

(2) A mass of 19 kg of a gas under a pressure of 9.5 times the atmospheric pressure is
stored in a cylinder at a temperature of 70 °C. When the cylinder is brought to an
environment at 27 °C, a safety valve in the cylinder is opened to release a certain
portion of the gas to the atmosphere. The escape of the gas takes place only when
the pressure of the gas in the cylinder exceeds 10 times the atmospheric pressure.
Calculate mass of the gas released.

35
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Solution
Let V be the volume of the cylinder and A be the atmospheric pressure. If n1 is
the number of gas moles inside the cylinder initially,
for the initial stage

pV = nRT
9 ⋅ 5 AV = n1 RT
9 ⋅ 5 AV
n1 =
280 ⋅ R
n2 is the number of gas moles in the cylinder for the final stage,
pV = nRT
10 AV = n2 R (300)

10 AV
n2 =
300.R

If m is the mass of the gas remaining in the cylinder finally, then since the mass of the gas
is directly proportional to the number of moles,
m n2
=
19 n1
m 10 × 280
=
19 9.5 × 300
m = 18.67 kg
∴ Mass of gas emitted to the atmosphere = (19-18.67) kg = 0.33 kg

Dalton’s law of partial pressures

This law is used to find the total pressure of a mixture of gases occupying a certain
volume at a given temperature. It is stated as follows.

“If a mixture of gases which do not react with each other is in a closed volume, the total
pressure exerted by the mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressures exerted by each
gas or vapour in the mixture.”

The partial pressure of a gas in a mixture is the pressure exerted by that gas alone when
it occupies the whole volume of the mixture at constant temperature.

36
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Dalton’s law of partial pressures can be explained as follows.

o and .
Consider a closed volume V of a mass of gas consisting of 3 constituents indicated as +,

Volume V

Temperature T
Figure 3.8

Then the partial pressure due to the constituent + can be illustrated by the following
diagrams.
Volume V

Temperature T

Figure 3.9

Similarly, Dalton’s law of partial pressures can be explained by the following illustration
If the three constituents are named as A ,B and C then the law can be written as,

Total pressure Partial pressure Partial pressure Partial pressure

of +, o and (p) of + (p+) of o (p0) of  (p)
Figure 3.10

p = p A + pB + pc
where,
p = total pressure of the mixture
pA = partial pressure of the constituent A
pB = partial pressure of the constituent B
pc = partial pressure of the constituent C

The mean squarl squral speed (c 2 ) obtained by squaring the individual speed of each gas
molecule and then calculating the mean of these squared speeds. The square root of it,
c 2 is called the mean square speed. 37
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Chapter - 04

Kinetic Theory of Gases

In the kinetic molecular theory of gases, a relationship between the pressure and the
volume of a gas is built up using the microscopic properties of gas molecules.

The following assumptions are made in developing this theory.

(1) Gas molecules behave as perfectly elastic spheres.

(2) The volume of the gas molecules is negligible in comparison with the volume of
the vessel containing the gas.
(3) The intermolecular attractive forces between the molecules are negligibly small.
(4) The time of collision of a molecule with the wall of the container is negligibly
small when compared with time between two collisions of molecules.

In this theory, the following expression has been derived by considering the force due
to the change of momentum resulted by the collisions of molecules with the walls of the
container.
1
pV = mN c 2
3
where
p = pressure of the gas
V = Volume of the gas
m = mass of a gas molecule
N = total number of gas molecules in the gas volume

c 2 = mean square velocity of molecules

Kinetic theory of gases was first forwarded by the scientist James Clark Maxwell in 1860.

Mean square speed ( c 2 )

At any temperature, the speeds of the molecules of a gas are not equal to each other.
This is due to the changes that occur in velocity during their collisions.

The mean square speed ( c 2 ) is obtained by squaring the individual speed of each gas
molecule and then calculating the mean of these squared speeds. The square root of ,
c 2 is called the root mean square speed.

38
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Relation between the density of a gas and its root mean square speed
The total mass of the gas is Nm.
Nm
Hence density ρ =
V
1
According to pV = mN c
2

3
1 mN 2
p = c
3 V
1 2
p = ρc
3
3p
∴ c2 =
ρ

Worked Example
At a given temperature, a balloon is filled with hydrogen gas of density 0.09 kg m – 3
under a pressure of 105 Pa. What is the root mean square velocity of hydrogen molecules
at this temperature?

3p
Using c 2 =
ρ

3 ×105
c2 == 1 ⋅ 8×103 m s −1
0 ⋅ 09
The relation between the temperature and the root mean square speed

1
Considering equations pV = mN c 2 and pV = nRT ,
3
1
c 2 = nRT
pV = mNpV
3

Since Nm is the mass of the gas
Nm
No of gas moles = n = where M is the molar mass of the gas.
M 1 Nm
∴ mN c 2 = RT
3 M
1
∴ M c 2 = RT
3
3RT
c2 =
M
3RT
c2 =
M

39
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Hence, when M is constant, r.m.s speed depends on T.
and when T is constant, r.m.s. speed depends on M.

The relation between mean kinetic energy and the temperature of gas molecula

1
considering pV = nRT and pV = mN c 2 equations.
3
1
mN c 2 = nRT
3
1 3
mN c 2 = nRT
2 2
1 2 3 nRT
mc =
2 2 N
1 2 3 RT
mc =
2 2 NA
1 2 3 where k is Boltsman constant k = 1.38 × 10-23 J K-1
mc = kT
K-1 2 2

Distribution of molecular speeds of a gas

It has been revealed by experimental data that in a given temperature, the speeds of the
molecules of a gas are different from each other while most of the molecules gather
around a certain speed. This result is illustrated by the graph given below.

800 K
N(c)
1200 K

c1 c2 c
Figure 4.1
In this graph, c denotes the molecular speed and N(c) is the number of molecules having
that speed.

At 800 K, c1 is the speed of most of the molecules and at 1200 K, c2 is the speed of
most of the molecules. It is clear that when the temperature increases, the most probable
speeds of gas molecules too increase and hence the mean speed and the root mean square
speed of the gas molecules also increase.

40
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Worked example
At a temperature of 300 K and pressure of 2 x 105 Pa, the volume of a certain mass of
helium gas is 0.04 m3. Calculate the following. (Relative molecular masses of helium and
hydrogen are 4 and 2 respectively. Molar gas constant is 8.3 J mol-1 K-1 )
(i) Mass of helium gas
(ii) Root mean square speed of helium gas molecules
(iii) When the temperature of this gas is raised to 432 K under constant pressure, the
root mean square velocity of its molecules
(iv) Root mean square velocity of hydrogen molecules at 432 K

Solution
(i) Let n be the number of helium gas moles.
according to V = nRT

pV 2 ×105 × 0.04
n = = = 3⋅ 2
RT 8 ⋅ 31× 300
Mass of Helium gas = 3.2 x 4 = 12.8 g

mass 12 ⋅ 8 ×10−3
(ii) Density of helium gas = = = 0 ⋅ 32 kg m −3
volume 0 ⋅ 04
3p 3 × 2 ×105
∴ r.m.s. speed of helium = = = 1369 m s −1
ρ 0.32
(iii) Since r.m.s. speed ∝ T , if cHe is the r.m.s. velocity of helium gas
molecules at 432 K,
cHe 432
= = 1.44 = 1.2
1369 300
−1
∴ cHe = 1.2 ×1369 = 1643 m s

1
(iv) Since, at a given temperature, r.m.s. speed ∝
M
If cH is the r.m.s. speed of hydrogen gas molecules at 432 K,

cH M He 4
= = = 2
cHe MH 2
cH
= 2
1643
∴ cH = 2 × 1643 = 2324 m s −1

41
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Chapter - 05

Exchange of Heat

Heat and transfer of energy

If a hot material is in contact with a cold one, the hot one cools down and loses internal
energy, while the cold one heats up and gains internal energy. The energy transferred is
known as heat. Thus, heat is the energy transferred from a body at a higher temperature
to one at a lower temperature.

According to kinetic theory, atoms in a solid are vibrating to and fro about their equilibrium
positions. Due to these vibrations, the solid has an internal energy. The hotter the material
is, the faster its atoms move, and the more its internal energy is. Hot objects have higher
temperatures. Thus the temperature of a body can be used in measuring the internal
energy of a body.

Heat capacity of a body (C)

The amount of heat that has to be given to a body in order to increase the temperature of
it by one unit is defined as the heat capacity.
If the temperature of a body rises by (θ), when an amount Q of heat is given to the body;

The amount of heat needed to increase the temperature by one unit = Q = C

θ
Q
∴C=
θ
The SI unit of heat capacity is J K-1. Above equation is used as follows to find the amount
of heat that a body gains or loses.

Q = Cθ

Worked example
The heat capacity of a copper container is 320 J K-1 . Find the amount of heat that should
be supplied to increase the temperature of the container by 40 °C.

C = 320 J K-1 θ = 40 °C = 40 K (Difference of 1 °C = difference of 1 K)

Q = Cθ = 320 × 40 = 12800 J = 12.8 kJ

42
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Specific heat capacity of a substance (c)

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
1 unit of temperature (1 °C or 1 K) defined as the specific heat capacity of that substance.
If amount Q of heat is required to raise the temperature by amount θ of a body of mass m;
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature by θ of the mass m = Q

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature by θ of the mass 1 kg =

Q
θ
Q
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature by 1 °C (1 K) of the mass 1 kg = =c
mθ

Units of specific heat capacity is J kg-1 K-1 (or J kg-1 °C-1)

Following equation can be used to calculate the amount of heat transferred from or to a
body.

Q = mcθ

Relationship between heat capacity and specific heat capacity

If the heat capacity of a body is C and the heat needed to raise the temperature of the body
by θ is Q , then

Q = Cθ
If the specific heat capacity of the substance is c and the mass of the body is m

Q = mcθ
From above two equations,

C = mc

Worked Example

100 g of water at 20 °C is in a copper calorimeter of mass 50 g. Find the amount of heat

required to increase the temperature to 60 °C.
specific heat capacity of copper = 390 J kg-1 K-1
specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 K-1
Amount of heat required

Q = ( mCu cCu + mwcw )(θ 2 − θ1 )

 50 100 
= × 390 + × 4200  ( 60 − 20 ) = (19.5 + 420 ) × 40=17,580
40 = 17,580
JJ
 1000 1000 

43
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Heat exchange
When a hot object is in contact thermally with another cold object, heat flows from the
hot object to the cold object and finally the temperature of both objects comes to the same
value.

According to the principle of heat exchange;

If the heat loss to the environment is negligible

Heat removed from the hot object = Heat acquired by the cold object

Worked example

Find the final temperature when an iron piece of mass 50 g heated to 100 °C is put into
100 g of water 20 °C in a container of heat capacity 420 J K-1.
Specific heat capacity of iron = 120 J kg-1 K-1
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 K-1
Temperature of water at the beginning = 20 °C

If the heat loss to the environment is negligible;

Heat removed from the piece of iron = Heat acquired by water + Heat acquired by the
container
50  100 
×120× (100-¸θ) =  ×4200+420  ( ¸θ-20 )
1000  1000 
6× (100-¸θ) = ( 420+420 )(θ¸ -20 )
600 - 6¸θ =840¸θ - 840×20
600+16800 =846¸θ
17400
θ¸ = =20 ⋅ 57  C
846

100 °C

20 °C

44
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Molar heat capacities of a gas

A change in temperature of a gas involves a change in pressure and volume. Keeping

any one of those pressure and volume constant, one at a time, two molar heat capacities
for a gas can be defined.

1. The molar heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure (CP). This is defined as the
amount of heat required to produce unit temperature rise in one mole of the gas
when the pressure remains constant.
2. The molar heat capaicty of agas at caonstant volume (CV). This is defined as the
amount of heat required to produce unit temperature rise in one mole of the gas
when the volume remains constant.

When a gas in heated at constant pressure it expands and some of the heat supplied to the
gas is used to do external work. Therefore not all the heat suppled, is used to increase
the temperature. But, when a gas in heated at constant volume all the heat supplied to it,
is used to increase the temperature. It follows that the amount of heat required to rise the
temperature of a gas at constant pressure is grater then that required to rise its temperature
by the some amount at constrant volume. Therefore in particular CP is greater them CV .

For a gas the ratio C C which is denoted by γ , depends on the atomicity of the gas.
P
V

This is because there is a a rotational kinetic energy in addition to the translational

kinetic energy, when a molecule contains more than one atom. Following table shows
relevant values depending on the atomicity of the gas.

atomicity γ
monoatmomic 1.67
diatomic 1.40
polyatomic 1.33

The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg -1 0 C-1 ( or 4200 J kg -1 K -1 ) . This means that it
requires 4200 J of heat to increase the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 °C (1 K).

45
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Newton’s law of cooling

The rate of loss of heat of a body, when it is cooling under conditions of forced
convection, is directly propertional to the difference in temperature between the body and
its surroundings.

dQ dQ
∝ (θ − θ R ) where = rate of loss of heat
dt dt
θ = temperature of the body
θR = temperature of the surroundings

The rate of heat loss of the body depends on the amount of surrounding areas of it and the
nature of that area as well as, therefore,

dQ
∝ (θ − θ R )
dt
dQ
= kA(θ − θ R )
dt
where A is the surface area of the body of the body and k in
a constant which depends on the nature of the surface area.

This law can be taken to be a good approximation for cooling under conditions of
natural convection (eg: a body cooling in still air) provided that excess temperature in
not greater than 30 °C.

Using

dQ dQ ------(ii) (m and c are constants for a given object)

= mc
dt dt
from equaton (i) and (ii) above
dθ
kA(θ − θ R ) = mc
dt
dθ kA
∴ = (θ − θ R ) = K (θ − θ R )
dt mc
kA
where = K which depends on A, m, c and k (k depends on the nature of the
mc surface)

46
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Chapter - 06

Changes of state

Substances can be in the states of solid, liquid or gas. In addition, it can change the state
(eg. from solid to liquid or liquid to gas) at a specific temperature. These state changes can
happen to the reverse direction also. These transformations are called “changes of state”.
e.g.:- Conversion of ice to water and water to steam

Fusion
Conversion of a solid to its liquid is called “fusion”. The constant temperature at which
occurs is called the “melting point” of the solid.

solid liquid
at melting point

• Thermal energy is absorbed by the solid for this process during the whole period in
which this transformation occurs. Even though the thermal energy is absorbed there is
no increase in temperature. Therefore, this energy is called “latent heat”.
• The thermal energy absorbed while a solid is converted to a liquid is called “the latent
heat of fusion”.

e.g:- ice at fusion

water at
0 0C melting point = 0 0C 0 0C

Vapourization (Boiling)
Conversion of a liquid to its vapour is called “vaporization”, while the constant temperature
at which it occurs is called its “boiling point”.

liquid vapourization
gas
at boiling point

Thermal energy is absorbed by the liquid for this process also while the temperature is
not changed. Therefore, this energy is also considered as a latent heat and it is called “the
latent heat of vapourization”.
e.g.:-
water
water vapourization vapour
100 0C boiling point 100 0C 100 0C

47
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Specific latent heat of fusion of a solid (l)

Specific latent heat of fusion of a solid material is defined as the heat required to change
the state of a unit mass of a solid to liquid without change of temperature (at its melting
point).

If the amount of heat required to convert mass m of solid at boiling point to liquid at
boiling point is Q;

Q
specific latent heat of vapourization = =l
m

∴ Q = ml

Unit of specific latent heat of fusion is J kg-1.

E.g.:-
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice (l) = 3.36 × 105 J kg-1. This conveys that it needs 3.36
× 105 J of energy to convert 1kg of ice at 0 °C.

Specific latent heat of vapourization of a liquid (L)

Specific latent heat of vapourization of a liquid is defined as the heat required to change
the state of a unit mass of a liquid to its vapour without change of temperature (at its
boiling point).

If the amount of heat required to convert mass m of solid at boiling point to liquid at
the boiling point is Q :
Q
specific latent heat of vapourization = =L
m

∴ Q = mL

Unit of specific latent heat of vaporization is J kg-1.

Specific latent heat of vapourization of water (L) is 2.24 × 106 J kg-1. This implies that it
needs 2.24 × 106 of energy to convert 1 kg of water at 100 °C to vapour at 100 °C.

Worked example
01) Calculate the amount of heat required to convert 100 g of ice at 0 °C to vapour at 100 °C.
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 × 105 J kg-1
Specific latent heat of vapourization of water = 2.24 ×106 J kg-1
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 K-1

48
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

100 g of 100 g of 100 g of

100 g of
ice at 0 0C water at water
water at
Q1 = ml 100 0C vapour
0 0C Q2= mcθ Q3 = mL
100 0C

Amount of heat required = 0∙1 × 3∙36 ×105 + 0∙1 × 4200 × 100 + 0∙1 × 2.24 ×106

= 3∙36 × 104 + 4.2 × 104 +22.4 ×104

= 29∙96 × 104
= 3∙0 ×105 J

02) Find the final temperature of the system, if 40 g of ice at 0 °C is added to a calorimeter
100 g of water at 20 °C. Neglect the heat exchange with the surroundings.

Heat capacity of the calorimeter = 320 J K-1

Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 ×105 J kg-1
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 K-1
Since the heat exchange with the surroundings is negligible,
Heat supplied by the container + Heat supplied by water = Heat acquired by ice
40 g

0 °C

20 °C

100 g

Figure 6.1

First it should be checked whether the water reaches 0 °C when the whole ice is melted
at 0 °C.
heat given by "calorimeter + when reaching 0°C,
Q1 = (320 + 100 × 4200)(20-0) = 14800 J
1000

40
heat required to melt ice at 0 °C, Q2 = × 3 ⋅ 36 ×105 = 13440 J
1000

49
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

As Q2 < Q1, the water does not do down to 0 °C

 100  40 40
 320 + × 420  ( 20 − θ ) = × 3 ⋅ 36 ×105 + × 4200 × (θ − 0 )
 1000  1000 1000
740 ( 20 − θ ) = 40 × 336 + 168 × θ
1360
θ= = 1⋅ 5 0 C
908

Latent heat
Consider a case in which a solid is converted to a liquid.

solid liquid

fusion
at melting point

Latent heat is absorbed

Figure 6.2

The molecules are closely packed in the solid and when it converts to a liquid the attractive
forces among molecules are weakened to make the molecules drift apart. Most of the
latent heat is consumed in this process. An additional work is done in increasing the
volume.
Latent heat of vapourization can also be explained in a similar way.

liquid vapour

Vapourization

(at boiling point)

Latent heat is absorbed

Figure 6.3

50
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

In vapourization heat is absorbed to destroy the bonds between molecules. In addition,

heat is used to do work in increasing the volume. Consider a case where heat is supplied
to a solid at a constant rate. Then the time readings and the relevant temperature readings
are recorded. Using those readings, the graph of temperature (θ) Vs. time (t) is given in
Figure 6.5.

solid parafin

Figure 6.4

Graph of temperature vs. time

θ (0C)

F
D
θ2 E
B
θ1 C

t (s)
t1 t2

Figure 6.5

θ1 - melting point
θ2 - boiling point
AB - heating up as a solid
BC - state change (fusion)
CD - heating up as a liquid
DE - state change (vapourization)
EF - heating up as a vapour
51
 Gradient of
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Gradient of AB
Q θ 
A B, Rate of heat absorption   = mcsolid  
t   t  AB

B C, Rate of heat absorption  Q  ml

 =
 t  t1

C D, Rate of heat absorption Q θ  Gradient of CD

  = mcliquid  
t   t CD

D E, Rate of heat absorption  Q  mL

 =
 t  t2
From the above four equations
θ  ml
mcsolid   =
 t  AB t1

θ  mL
mcliquid   =
 t CD t2

l and L can be found using above two equations.

52
AB
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Chapter - 07

Vapour and Humidity

Vapour
In any liquid, those molecules possessing high energy are in the process of leaving the
liquid zone through its surface. This phenomenon is called evaporation. This evaporation
process can take place at any temperature and can be explained as follows using the
molecular structure of a liquid.

When molecules of a liquid are considered, they are in random motion and the kinetic
energy of these molecules increase with the supply of thermal energy. Molecules on the
surface of a liquid are bound to the liquid. Molecules in the liquid having high energy on
reaching the surface escape from it to form vapour.

vapour.

liquid

Figure 7.1

Saturated vapours and unsaturated vapours

Consider a vapour in contact with its liquid. As shown above, since those molecules having
high energy evaporate into the vapour zone, the amount of vapour in the vapour zone
increases. As the amount of vapour in the vapour zone increases at a given temperature,
the returning of molecules in the vapour zone back to the liquid zone can also occur. At
some instance these two processes reach an equilibrium in which the vapour contains the
maximum amount of vapour molecules it can possess at that temperature. Such a vapour
in equlibrium with its liquid known as “saturated vapour”.

If the amount of liquid vapour present in a given volume at some temperature, is less
than the maximum amount of liquid vapour it can possess at that temperature, then that
vapour is called unsaturated vapour.

53
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

The number of unsaturated vapour molecules in a closed volume in contact with its
liquid, remains a constant (ie. the mass of vapour is constant even when the temperature
changes) and hence unsaturated vapour obeys gas laws. But the number of saturated
vapour molecules does not remain constant when the temparature changes (ie. the mass
of vapours is not constant). Therefore, saturated vapour does not obey gas laws.

The following activites show that gases in general as well as vapours exert pressure. For
this purpose, consider a barometer consisting of a glass tube about 100 cm long inserted
vertically in a vessel filled with mercury. When a liquid is inserted into the tube from
below as shown in Figure 7.2, it can be seen that when the liquid reaches the vaccuum
zone above the mercury, it evapourates and the mercury level in the tube goes down from
its initial level.

Saturated
vapour
liquid

h0
siringe
Mercury
container
H0 liquid

Figure 7.2

Observe the diagram above from which it becomes clear that the vapour exerts a
pressure. As seen here, as long as the liquid remains on the mercury surface without
getting evapourated the mercury level (ho) remains unchanged without falling. Thus it
can be concluded that pressure of a saturated vapour takes a constant value at a given
temperature and is referred to as “saturated vapour pressure” (p0) at the given temperature.

The set of apparatus shown by the diagram in the next page can be used to investigate
practically the relationship between the vapour pressure and the volume of vapour at
constant temperature.

Initially the mercury surface in the tube B is brought close to the tap T which is then
open and a small quantity of a liquid is introduced into it. The tap is then closed not

54
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

allowing air to occupy the space above the liquid. When the mercury level in the tube B
is now lowered (keeping some liquid remains on the mercury surface) saturated vapour is
formed in the closed space above the liquid.

H0

A
T

Figure 7.3

If h is the difference between the mercury levels in tubes A and B, p0 is the saturated
vapour pressure of the liquied in tube B.

p0 = H0 + h ρg

Where H0 is the atmospheric pressure. As long as the liquid exists in the tube B, and the
temperature remains constant, it can be observed that the difference in the mercury levels
remains constant irrespective of the volume of vapour in B is. This observation confirms
that the saturated vapour pressure remains constant at constant temparatue.

When the liquid on the mercury surface in tube B completely evapourates, the vapour in
the tube B becomes unsaturated. The variation of pressure of an unsaturated vapour with
its volume is the same at the general behavior of a gas. The variation of pressure of a
saturated vapour as well as an unsaturated vapour at a constant temperature is illustrated
by the graph in Figure 7.4 (a).

55
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

pV
p

(0,0) Saturated Unsaturated V V

Saturated Unsaturated
vapour vapour
vapour vapour
(a) (b)

(0,0) Saturated Saturated 1/V

vapour vapour

(c)

Figure 7.4

All these graphs (a), (b) and (c) indicate that unsaturated vapour obeys gas laws while
saturated vapour deviates from gas laws. The reason for this is that in a saturated vapour,
the number of vapour molecules in contact with the liquid does not remain a constant
when the volume changes.

The set –up shown in Figure 7.4 (a) can be used to study the variation of saturated vapour
pressure with temperature.

56
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

The temperature of saturated vapour can be varied by

varying the temperature of hot water flowing around
the barometer tube and the pressure of saturated
vapour can be measured using the barometer. When Saturated
this pressure (Pa) is plotted against temperature (θ) vapour

it gives the graph shown in Figure 7.6.

Generally, the pressure of a gas at constant volume

Hot
increases with temperature due to increase of kinetic water
energy of molecules and thereby increasing the
number of bombardment of molecules on the walls
of the container.

Figure 7.5
saturated vapour
pressure
C

Figure 7.6 Temperature (θ)

But in case of a saturated vapour, the number of vapour molecules increases with
temperature and therefore increases pressure at a rate greater than the rate of increase of
pressure of a gas (AB). Hence it can be seen that the pressure (p0) of a saturated vapour
increases at a higher rate with temperature.

Ex.:- A closed vessel initially contains a little amount of water and with the increase of
temperature of the vessel ultimately all the water evapourates indicate by means of a
graph, the variation of vapour pressure with temperature.

57
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Initially, since the vapour in the vessel is

Saturated
vapour saturated (because the vapour is in contact
with water), the pressure increases faster
with increase of temperature. But when
all the water evapourates at a certain
temperature (θ 0 ), the vapour becomes
water unsaturated and begins to behave as a gas
Figure 7.7 obeying Charles' law. This is shown by the
graph in Figure 7.8.

θ (°C)
-273.15 (0,0) θ0

Saturated Unsaturated
vapour vapour

Figure 7.8

Evapouration and vapourization (boiling)

The evapouration process of a liquid has been described earlier. There is a special
temperature where the entire liquid volume starts transference into vapour state. This is
known as vapourization (boiling) of a liquid and the temperature at which this occurs is
called the boiling point. The table 7.1 shows the differences between vapourization and
evapouration.
Table 7.1 Comparsion of Evapouration and Vapourization
Evapouration Vapourization
A process that can occur Occurs only at a constant temperature
at various temperatures (boiling point of a liquid)
Takes place only on liquid surfaces Takes place within the whole liquid
volume
Depends on the amount of vapour Does not depend on the liquid vapour
existing above the liquid existing above the liquid

58
Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Hygrometry

The amount of water vapour existing in the environment is an important factor in day-to-
day activities. It affects environmental conditions such as growth of trees and health of
people.

The energy released from the human body during metabolism (chemical processes occur
within living organisms) leaves the body along with the water vapour. This process is
referred to as “perspiring” in general. When the amount of water vapour present in the
environment is less the sweat produced by perspiration, leaves the body easily. Various
methods are used to provide comfort to human body by controlling the amount of water
vapour in the environment. The use of electric fans and air conditioning machines are
some of them.

Two measurements used to find the amount of water vapour existing in the environment
are considered now. They are known as absolute humidity (AH) and relative humidity
(RH).

Absolute H umidity (AH)

Absolute humidity is defined as the mass of water vapour present in a unit volume of air
in the environment. Assume that m is the mass of unsaturated vapour present in a closed
volume V in the environment.
V-volume

m -mass of water
vapour present

unsaturated
vapour

Figure 7.9

In Figure 7.9, mass of water vapour present in a volume V = m

Hence the absolute humidity, which is the mass of water vapour present in the unit
volume is given as,

m
AH =
V

The unit of absolute humidity is kg m-3, therefore it can be considered as a measurement

of vapour density.
59
Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Worked example
The absolute humidity of air in a closed hall of volume 500 m3 is 20 g m-3. Find the mass
of water vapour present in the hall. If an air conditioning machine is to be used to remove
a certain amount of water vapour in the hall in order to reduce the absolute humidity to 16
g m-3, find the mass of water vapour to be removed.
Mass of water vapour present in a unit volume of air = 20 g
∴ Mass of of water vapour present in 500 m3 of air = 20 × 500 kg
1000
= 10 kg

Mass of water vapour to be present in the room after = 16 × 500 kg

air conditioning 1000
= 8 kg
∴ Mass of water vapour to be removed = (10-8) kg = 2 kg

Relative humidity (RH)

The water vapour present in the atmosphere is usually unsaturated and in order to express
its deviation from saturated vapour, the quantity called relative humidy (RH) is used.

The relative humidity of a given volume of air at some temperature is defined as the
ratio of the mass (m) of water vapour present in that volume to the mass (m0) of water
vapour present in the same volume at the same temperature when it is saturated with
water vapour.

By considering the volume V in Figure 7.10, the relative humidity can be obtained as
follows.

m
m – mass of water vapour present
volume V
m0 – mass of water vapour when saturated
m0
Relative humidity (RH) = m
m0
Figure 7.10 m
Since m ≤ m0 all the time ≤1
m0
In practice , RH is expressed as a percentage.

m
RH = ×100%
m0

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Worked Example :-
The mass of water vapour present in a given volume of air is 400 g. If this volume of air
becomes saturated when 120 g of water vapour is admitted into it, find its initial relative
humidity.
The mass of water vapour present in the given volume of air = 400 g
The mass of water vapour present when the same volume is saturated = (400 + 120) g
= 520 g
∴ Relative humidity of the volume (RH) = 400
× 100
520
.
= 76 9 %
Other expressions for relative humidity
According to definition of relative humidity,
m
RH = × 100%
m0

By considering a volume V, relative humidity can be written as,

m
RH = v × 100%
m0 ρ

v ∴ RH = ×100%
ρ0
where ρ = density of the existing water vapour
ρ0 = density of saturated water vapour

Since a vapour obeys gas laws from unsaturated state up to the just saturated state, the
perfect gas equation pV = m RT becomes applicable.
M

m RT RT
Re- adjusting this equation P = . =ρ
v M M

 RT 
p= ρ
M 
Hence it is clear that when T and M are constant. p ∝ ρ
thus the ratio of densities can be replaced as,

ρ p

=
ρ0 p0

p
∴ RH = ×100%
p0

where p = vapour pressure at the given temperature

p0 = saturated vapour pressure at the same temperature

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Worked example
At 27 °C the vapour pressure in a given volume of air is 12 cm Hg. Calculate the relative
humidity of air inside this volume. What will be the new relative humidity if the room
temperature is brought to 40 °C. The saturated vapour pressures at 27 °C and 40 °C are
20 cm Hg and 24 cm Hg respectively.

Vapour pressure at 27 °C p27 = 12 cm Hg

Saturated vapour pressure at 27 °C p27 = 20 cm Hg

p
∴ RH = ×100
p0
12
RH = ×100 = 60%
20

∴ At 27 °C the relative humidity in the volume of air = 60%

To find the vapour pressure p40 when the temperature is raised to 40 °C, Charle’s pressure
p p
law can be used. 1 = 2
T1 T2

Substituting
p 40 p27
=
T40 T27

p 40 12 313
= = ⇒ p40 = ×12 = 12.52 cm Hg
313 300 300
saturated vapour pressure at 40 °C, p040 = 24 Hg cm

p 40 12.52
Relative humidity RH = ×100 = ×100% = 52.2%
P040 24

Dew point
Unsaturated vapour in a given volume of air can be converted to saturated vapour in
two ways. One way is to add more water vapour into the given volume of air until it gets
saturated. The other way is by reducing its temperature to reach the saturation point.

The vapour molecules in a given unsaturated vapour are in random motion and when the
temperature is reduced the kinetic energy of the vapour molecules gets reduced. When
the temperature is further reduced in this manner, certain vapour molecules having low
kinetic energy being unable to exist in the vapour zone get deposited on the walls of the
container. This state is equivalent to the saturated state of a vapour when the temperature
keeps on reducing, The temperature at which the volume of air gets saturated for the first
time with water vapour existing in it, is known as the dew point of that volume of air. The
dew point of a given volume of air depends on vapour density in the volume and can be
equal to less than or more than the room temperature.
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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

The deposition of dew on a cool drink bottle taken out for refrigerator also takes place in
the manner described above. The cool drink bottle absorbs heat from the surroundings and
there by reduces the temperature of surrounding air. Then the water vapour in air close
to the drink bottle gets saturated and the deposition of dew on the bottle can be observed.

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Chapter - 08

Thermodynamics

Heat flows from where there is higher temperature to where there is lower temperature. In
thermodynamics, heat is considered to be energy in transit. Heat is not a form of energy
that can be stored in a body.

So we must think of heat in the same way as we think of work. Work is not stored. If
work is done on an object its energy (kinetic energy and potential energy) increases. If
the work is done by the object its energy decreases. In general, when heat is supplied to
an object it can be expected that its internal energy (kinetic energy and potential energy)
may increase. When heat is emitted (lost) from an object, its internal energy decreases.

In an ideal gas internal energy appears only in the form of kinetic energy. (There are no
intermolecular forces in a gas and hence there is no potential energy.) Therefore, for an
ideal gas (approximately for all gases), when heat is supplied, if its temperature rises, then
its kinetic energy increases. Then its internal energy increases. When heat is lost from the
gas, if its temperature decreases, then its kinetic energy decreases. As a result, its internal
energy decreases.

The first law of thermodynamics

In a system, if the net exchange of heat is ∆Q, the change of internal energy is ∆U and the
amount of work done is ∆W then,
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Above three quantities have their signs according to a convention as follows,

Quantity (Change) Sign

Supply of heat to the system + ∆Q
Loss of heat from the system - ∆Q
Increase of internal energy + ∆U
Decrease of internal energy - ∆U
Work done by the system + ∆W
Work done on the system - ∆W

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Application of this law to gases

1. Constant pressure process - [p]

A process occurred under a constant pressure

Light and frictionless + ∆Q x

piston

gas
[p] [p]

Figure 8.1

Consider a case where an ideal gas is confined to a cylinder using a light frictionless
piston as shown in Figure 8.1.
When heat is supplied to above system under constant pressure, the piston raises,
A - cross sectional area of the piston
x - distance by which the piston is raised

Increase of volume of gas = Ax = ∆V

Pressure on the piston =p
∴ Force on the piston = p.A
Work done by the gas = p.A.x = p.Ax = p.∆V

In this example ∆V is positive (+ ve) .

Because the gas has expanded and the work is done by the gas.

Consider a situation where ∆V is negative (- ve ).

Then the gas has contracted and the work is done on the gas (by the external thrust force
due to outside pressure)
Note that,
When the volume of a gas increases is ∆W is + ve.
When the volume of a gas decreases is ∆V is - ve.

In any of the above cases,

∆W = p.∆V (under constant pressure)

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

The 1st law of thermodynamics

∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Now becomes ∆Q = ∆U + P.∆V
Under constant pressure p
When ∆Q is + ve, (i.e. If heat is supplied to the system)
∆U is - ve, is (i.e. temperature increases)
p.∆V is also + ve (i.e. work is done by the gas)
When ∆Q is - ve , (i.e. If heat is lost from the system)
∆U is - ve is , (i.e. temperature decreases)
p.∆V is also -ve (i.e. work is done on the gas by external forces)

2. Constant volume process [ ∆V =0]

This is a process occured under constant volume.

+∆Q

[V] [V]

Figure 8.2
Under constant volume, no work is done by the gas or done on the gas. (i.e. ∆W = 0 as
there is no change of volume.)
The 1st law ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Now becomes ∆Q = ∆U + 0
∴ ∆Q = ∆U

When heat is supplied to the system,

∆Q is + ve, and hence ∆U is - ve (temperature increases)
When heat is lost from the system,
∆Q is - ve, and hence ∆U is - ve (temperature decreases)

+∆Q

[θ] [θ]
Figure 8.3

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

3. Isothermal process [θ]

This is a process occurred keeping the temperature constant.

Practically a very slow process is an isothermal process. Slow process allows the system to
be in thermal equilibrium with the environment which is almost at a constant temperature.
So the temperature of the system is always constant, i.e. it is at the environmental
temperature.
For the isothermal process
∆θ = 0 as temperature is constant)
∴ KE = 0 (as KE ∝ θ in kelvin)
∴ ΔU = 0 (for an ideal gas internal energy is totally kinetic energy)
i.e. Internal energy of the system is constant.

The 1st law ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W

Now becomes, ∆Q = ∆W
If ∆Q is + ve, then ΔW will also be + ve (i.e. work is done by the system).
If ∆Q is - ve , then ΔW will also be-ve (i.e. work is done by the system).

4. Adiabatic process [∆Q = 0]

This is a process in which there is no net transfer of heat between the system and the
outside. Therefore, ∆Q = 0.

∆Q = 0

Figure 8.4

Practically, a quick process is an adiabatic process. A process taken place within a very
short period of time, doesn’t allow the system to transfer any heat. Because transfer of
heat requires some finite duration of time.

The 1st law ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W

Now becomes 0 = ∆U + ∆W
∴ ∆U = - ∆W or - ∆U = ∆W

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

If ∆W is + ve (i.e. if the gas expands), we use -∆U =∆W

Then ∆U is -ve.
Therefore, sudden expansion of a gas causes decrease in internal energy (U). Hence
decrease in temperature.

If ∆W is -ve (ie. if the gas contracts), we use - ∆U = ∆W

Then is ∆U is + ve.
So sudden compression of a gas causes increase in internal energy (U). Hence, increase
in temperature.
eg. :- 1. When a bicycle tyre is being inflated using an inflator, we observe an
increase in temperature of the valve of the tube. This is due to the
sudden compression of air at the valve.
2. When the valve of an inflated tyre is opened, we observe that the out
coming air and the valve become cool. This is due to the sudden
expansion of out coming air.

Pressure - volume (p-V) curves (for ideal gases)

We can plot the graph of pressure against

P
volume for a fixed mass of an ideal gas.
This type of graph is known as pressure –
volume (p-V) curves or graphs. An arrow
head is marked on the graph to indicate
the starting point and the end point.

If we increase the volume of a fixed mass

[θ]
of gas under constant temperature, its
pressure decreases (Boyles’ law). This is
shown by the p-V graph in Figure 8.5. (0,0) V

Figure 8. 5

If the temperature of the gas is also a variable then the curve can get any shape.
Under constant temperature, the pressure of the gas decreases with increase of volume
as shown above. If the temperature is also varied appropriately while increasing the
volume, the pressure can be made increasing decreasing or remain constant. So, it can be
understood that the p-V curve can have any shape such as shown in Figure 8.6, depending
on variation of temparature.

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

p p

(0,0) (a) V (b) V

(0,0)

p p

(0,0) (c) V (0,0) (d) V

Figure 8.6

Graph (a) represents a constant pressure process.

Graph (b) represents a constant temperature (isothermal) process.
Graph (c) represents a process where all three parameters volume, pressure and temperature
are varying.
Graph (d) represents a constant volume process

Work done and p –V curve

Consider a constant pressure process
p

p0

(0,0) V1 V2 V


Figure 8.7

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

The work done during the process (shown in Figure 8.7) where volume increases from
V1 to V2 under constant presure p0 is given by p0.∆V, Hence ∆V = V2-V1
∆W = p0(V2-V1)
∆W = p0 ∆V

Since p0(V2-V1) is the area of the shaded rectangle in the above graph, it is clear that the
work done is given by the area under the relevant part of the curve.
By applying similar argument, it can be shown that the area under any p -V curve gives
the relevant ∆W.
Consider the process shown by the p-V curve in Figure 8.8.
p

∆W is + ve

(0,0) V

Figure 8.8

This process increases the volume of the gas (the direction of the arrow indicates that
the volume in increasing).
When the volume of a gas increases (i.e. when the gas expands) ∆W is + ve.
Consider the process shown by the p-V curve in Figure 8.9.

∆W is - ve

(0,0) V

Figure 8.9

The arrow head on the graph indicates that the volume of the gas is decreasing. To
decrease volume, work should be done on the gas by external forces. Therefore, when
the volume of a gas decreases is ∆W is - ve.

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Cyclic process
If a system returns to its starting point after going through several processes, it is called
a cyclic process.
The p – V curve shown in Figure 8.10, represents a cyclic process. The starting point of
the process is A. The end point is also A.

p
A C

(0,0) (b) V

Figure 8.10
Process from A to B
In this process volume is increasing and therefore, ∆W is + ve is and is given by the
shaded area (area under AB).

Process from B to C
In this process there is no change of volume. Therefore, ∆W = 0.

Process from C to A
In this process volume is decreasing. Therefore, ∆W is - ve and is given by the area under
AC.

For the whole cyclic process,

∆W = ∆WAB + ∆WBC + ∆W CA
= area under AB + 0 – area under CA
= (area under CA – area under AB)
= - area ABC

So it can be concluded that for a cyclic process the magnitude of ∆W is given by the area
enclosed by the curve. The sign of ∆W is determined by the summation of all +ve ∆W's
and all -ve ∆W's.

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

In this example, magnitude of the -ve ∆W's is larger than the magnitude of + ve ∆W's
Therefore, ∆W for the above cyclic process is -ve.

Consider the cyclic process shown in Figure 8.11.

p
A B

(0,0) V

Figure 8.11

This is similar to the process shown in Figure 8.10 except the fact that this cyclic process
is clockwise while the previous is anti- clockwise.

In this cylic process,

∆WAB is +ve
∆WBC = 0
∆WCA is - ve

for the whole cyclic process,

∴∆W = ∆WAB + ∆WBC + ∆W CA

= area under AB + 0 - area under CA
= + area ABC
Therefore, ∆W for this cyclic process is + ve.

Hence it is clear that in a clockwise cyclic process, ∆W is +ve and in an anti-clockwise

cyclic process ∆W is - ve.

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Chapter - 09

Transfer of heat

There are three ways of transferring heat. Those are,

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

Conduction of heat
The property of transferring heat from one particle to another without any movement of
the particles (as a whole) in a medium, is known an conduction of heat.

Conduction of heat can be explained by two mechanisms.

(1) This applies to materials with a supply of free electrons (e.g. metals). Free electrons
gain energy due to temperature rise of the material and then their velocities increase.
They are able to move over larger distances and pass on energy quickly to cooler
parts.
(2) Materials which do not have enough free electrons, the atoms at higher temperature
vibrate more vigorously in the lattice than their colder neighbours. As they are
coupled by inter-atomic bonds, they pass on some of their vibratory energy to
colder atoms enabling them to vibrate more energetically as well. These in turn
affect other atoms and thermal conduction occurs.
It can be explained by the mechanism (1) above, that good electrical conductors are also
good heat conductors because of the availability of free electrons.

Conduction of heat along a rod

We can get an idea of how heat conducts along a conducting rod by doing the following
activity.
Steps
(1) Get a metal rod with the diameter of about 5 – 10 mm and length nearly 20 cm
(a long screw driver may be used).
(2)
Pin

Drops of wax

Metal rod
Figure 9.1

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

(2) Place several pins at equal distances along the rod using candle wax as shown in the
diagram. The pointed ends of the pins should be directed outwards.

(3) Hold the rod at one end using a pair of pliers or a piece of cotton cloth and rotate
it, so that the pins are directed downwards. Then heat the other end of the rod using
a flame (Figure 9.2).

Figure 9.2
(4) Observe whether there is any order (sequence) of dropping down the pin and try to
get an idea of how heat flows along a rod.

Conduction when the rod is lagged.

When the curved surface of the rod is covered with a heat insulating material, the rod is
said to be lagged. Lagging is usually represented as follows (Figure 9.3).
Heat insulator

Rod

Figure 9.3
When heat is supplied to one end of the rod, lagging ensures that the heat flow is axial
along the rod. This is because no heat can flow through the curved surface. This axial
flow is indicated using arrows as shown in Figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

To measure temperature at various points on the rod, it should be made with small cavities
on the rod at the required points (Figure 9.5).

Mercury
thermometer

Cavity

Figure 9.5
These cavities are filled with mercury and bulb of each thermometer is immersed in
the mercury. This improves better thermal contact between the rod and the bulb of the
thermometer.

Supply
A B
of heat

Figure 9.6

The end A of the rod is heated with a source of heat at constant temperature (Figure 9.6).
Then the readings of the thermometers increase and after some period of time a stage is
reached where there is no further change of the readings of the thermometers. This is
known as steady state. i.e. An object is in steady state when the temperatures of all points
in it are steady.

To decide that a particular point is in steady state, the temperature reading of that point
should remain unchanged at least for about 30 seconds.

When a rod which is lagged is conducting heat in the steady state. The graph of temperature
(θ) vs. distance from the heating end (l) is as follows (Figure 9.7).

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

θ( °C)

×
×
l(cm)

Figure 9.7

This shows that the temperature gradient is constant. The temperature gradient is ∆θ/∆l
and is given by the gradient of the graph. In the steady state of flow of heat, the temperature
gradient along the axis of a rod which is lagged is constant.

Conduction when the rod is not lagged

When the rod is not lagged (i.e. when the flow of heat is not axial) the graph of θ vs. l in
the steady state is as follows (Figure 9.8).
θ( °C)

×
×

l(m)
Figure 9.8

When the rod is not lagged, the temperature gradient along the rod is not constant. This
is due to the fact that heat transfers from the rod to the surroundings through the curved
surface of it, resulting that, the flow of heat is not axial This is shown in Figure 9.9. This
leads to the curved shape of the graph θ vs l.

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Figure 9.9

Thermal conductivity
Let us consider conduction of heat along a rod which is lagged.

θ1 °C θ2 °C
P R

l
Figure 9.10

In the steady state, the rate of flow of heat through any cross section like P or R should be
the same because the flow of heat is axial.

It has been shown experimentally when the rod is lagged, that the rate of flow of heat
ΔQ in the steady state, is proportional to,
/∆t

(1) The cross sectional area of the rod (A)

∆θ
(2) The temperature gradient along the rod
∆l

where θ1 and θ2 are the tempratures at P and R respectively.

∆Q  ∆θ 
Therefore, ∝ A 
∆l  t∆l 

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

∴ ∆Q A (θ1 − θ 2 )
∝
∆lt l

∆Q A (θ1 − θ 2 )
=K
∆t l

where θ1 and θ2 are the temperatures at P and R respectively.

The proportionality constant K here is known as the thermal conductivity of the material
of the rod.
 ∆Q 
Now, ∴ K =  ∆t 
θ −θ
[ A]  1 2 
 l 

Therefore, K is the rate of flow of heat per unit cross sectional area and per unit temperature
gradient.

W
W WW
Units of KK == == =W m-1-1 KK−−11
=Wm
m
m KK
22
mmKK
mm

 ∆Q 
 ∆t  ML2T −3 MLT −3
Dimensions of K = = = = MLT −3θ −1
θ1 − θ 2  θ θ
[ A]   L2 .
L
 l 

(θ here has been taken as the dimension symbol for temperature)

Convection of heat

Convection is the process in which heat is transferred through a fluid by the movement of
the fluid particles itself.

If a beaker containing a liquid is heated from underneath, the liquid at the bottom
becomes warmer than that above it. As for liquids, in general, their densities fall with
rise of temperature. So the heated liquid at the bottom, raises to the top and cooler liquid
from above, moves downwards. On reaching the bottom, this also becomes heated and
moves upwards. Continuation of this process forms a circulating currents of liquid called
convection currents.

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

Convection can occur in both liquids and gases and clearly it cannot occur in solids. The
occurrence of convection currents can be shown by the following activity (Figure 9.11).

water

convection currents

Potassium permanganate
crystals

Figure 9.11

Put some water in a large round bottom flask. Place an open tube in the water vertically,
with one end above and the other end at the bottom of the flask. Drop some potassium
permanganate crystals into it. Then put one finger over the top end and remove the tube,
leaving the crystals on the bottom of the flask. Place a small bunsen flame underneath the
crystals. Then purple streamers rise gently up the middle of the liquid and then fall down
close to the wall of the flask. Thus a convection current has been set up.

Radiation of heat

Radiation of heat can be described as being electromagnetic radiation emitted by a

body solely on account of its temperature. This radiation spans a continuous range of
wavelengths depending on the temperature of the emitter. At temperatures below about
1000 °C, the energy is associated almost entirely with infrared wavelengths. At higher
temperatures than this visible and ultraviolet wavelengths are also involved.

This radiation of heat can not be deflected by mere electric and magnetic fields. It travels
at a speed of 3 x 108 m s-1 in a vacuum. The intensity of the radiation produced by a point
source falls off with the distance from the source in accordance with the inverse square
law.

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Radiation of heat can be demonstrated as follows.

black and rough

surface
B A
d flame d tiny drop of
wax

small pin

wooden stand white and shiny surface

Figure 9.12

A and B are two identical sheets of copper of dimensions nearly 3 x 4 cm. A is painted
shiny white and B matt black. On the back of each plate is a drop of wax which supports
a small pin. Place a suitable flame midway between the two plates which are about 10 cm
apart (d = 5 cm). The flame should be at the same level as the drops of wax.

It can be observed that the pin on B falls after some time and the pin on A falls later. Heat
arrived at both A and B by means of radiation because hot convection currents are only
upwards and negligible conduction is there as air is a bad conductor. This also shows that
black rough surface absorbs heat radiation more quickly than shiny white surface.

Worked examples
(1) A lagged compound bar of length 25 cm consists of copper bar of length 15 cm
joined to an aluminum bar of length 10 cm long. The two bars are of equal cross-
sectional area. The free end of the copper bar is maintained at 100 °C and the free
end of the aluminum bar is at 0 °C.
(thermal conductivity of copper = 390 W m-1 K-1 and
that of aluminum = 210 W m-1 K-1 )
(i) Are the rates of flow of heat through copper and aluminum bars equal?
Give reasons.
(ii) Take the temperature at the joint as θ °C and write an expression for the
temperature gradient of
(a) copper bar
(b) aluminum bar
(iii) Taking the cross sectional area of the bar as A, write an expression for the rate of
transfer of heat of
(a) copper bar (b) aluminum bar
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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

(iv) Considering your answer for part (i) above, write an equation and calculate the
value of θ.
Cu Al
θ
100 °C 0 °C

15 cm 10 cm

Answer
(i) Yes, because the follow of heat is axial along the bar as it is lagged.

(ii) a) 100 − θ
15 ×10−2

θ −0
b)
10 ×10−2

(iii) a) 390 × A ×
(100 − θ )
15 ×10−2

b) 210 × A × θ
10 ×10−2
1
K
390 × A ×
(100 − θ ) = 210 × A × θ 9
−2
15 ×10 10 ×10−2
(iv) ∴ (
39 100 − θ ) 21× θ
=
15 10
∴ 39000 − 390θ = 315θ
705 × θ = 39000
39000
θ=
705
θ = 55.3 0 C

(2) A vessel having an effective surface area of 250 cm2 and walls 2 mm thick is filled
with lumps of ice mixed with water at normal pressure and then placed it in a
water-bath maintained at 95 °C.
What mass of ice will melt per minute when conditions become steady?
Latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 x 105 J kg-1, thermal conductivity of the material
of the vessel = 0.84 W m-1 K-1.

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

Answer
Q (θ − θ )
= KA 1 2
t l
Q
∴ = 0.84 × 250 ×10−4 ×
( 95 − 0 )
t 2 ×10−3
−4
∴ Heat transferred per minute = 0.84 × 250 ×10 × 95 × 60
2 ×10−3
Heat required to melt 1 kg of ice = 3.36 ×10 J
5

(0.84 × 250 ×10−4 × 95 × 60) / 2 ×10−3

∴Mass of ice melted per minute = = 0.1781 kg=178.1 g
3.36 ×105

(3)
The temperature inside a boiler is 105 °C. The wall of the boiler is 2 cm thick and
is lagged with 4 cm thickness of a material whose thermal conductivity is 1 of
/9
that of the material of the boiler. At the steady state the temperature of the outside
surface of the lagging in contact with the air is 10 °C. What is the temperature of the
common surface of the boiler and the lagging?
2 cm 4 cm

Outside
Inside 10 °C
10 °C K 1
K
9

Wall of boiler

lagging

Assume that the thermal conductivity of the material of the boiler is K (in SI units),
∴ The thermal conductivity of the lagging material is 1 K
Consider a surface area A of the boiler 9
Then,
Q Q
  = 
 t  through the wall  t  through the lagging

A (105 − θ ) 1 A (θ − 10 )
∴K = K
2 ×10−2 9 4 ×10−2

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Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics Unit - 04 Thermal Physics

(where θ is the temperature of the common surface)

∴
(105 − θ ) = (θ − 10 )
2 9× 4
∴18 (105 − θ ) = (θ − 10 )
∴1890 − 18θ = θ − 10
∴19θ = 1900
1900
∴θ = = 100 o C
19

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Unit - 04 Thermal Physics Grade 12 - G. C. E. (A/ L) Physics

References:

Breithaupt, J. (2003). Understanding Physics For Advanced Level - Fourth Edition.

Nelson Throne, Cheltenham, UK.

Edmonds Jr., D. S. (1993).Cioffari’s Experiments in College Physics -Ninth Edition. D. C.

Heath and Company, Massachusetts, USA.

Muncaster, R. (1993). A-level Physics - Fourth Edition. Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd,
Cheltenham, UK.

Nelkon, M. & Ogborn, J. M. (1987). Advanced Level Practical Physics - Fourth Edition.
Heinemann Educational Books, London, UK.

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