Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-024-01423-2

REVIEW

Remote sensing insights into subsurface-surface relationships: Land

Cover Analysis and Copper Deposits Exploration
Matthieu Tshanga M1,2 · Lindani Ncube2 · Elna van Niekerk1

Received: 18 March 2024 / Accepted: 20 July 2024 / Published online: 16 August 2024
© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
This review article examines the critical role of remote sensing techniques in analysing land cover and its implications
for copper deposit exploration. The study aims to provide a comprehensive review of current research and technical
advancements in using remote sensing to characterise land cover in copper-rich areas. It draws attention to the complex
relationships that exist between subsurface copper mineralisation, surface vegetation, and soil types by combining case
studies and modern literature. Integrating satellite imagery, geospatial data, and advanced analytical methods, this review
demonstrates how remote sensing can effectively identify and map areas with high potential for copper deposits. Further-
more, it discusses the challenges and opportunities associated with remote sensing applications in geological studies and
offers insights into future research directions to enhance mineral exploration and environmental management practices.

Keywords Land cover analyses · Copper deposits · Mineral exploration · Resource management · Technical advances ·
Sustainable practices

Introduction application of these advanced technologies, our ability to

characterise and analyse surface features within copper-rich
In the initial stage of mineral exploration, remote sens- regions has been revolutionised, establishing remote sens-
ing technologies are crucial in identifying potential sites ing as an indispensable tool for acquiring a comprehen-
containing mineral deposits, including metallic and non- sive understanding of such deposits (Pour et al. 2013). The
metallic types, thus driving the reconnaissance process exploration and understanding of mineral deposits, particu-
(Ganguly 2023). The complexity of understanding copper larly copper, necessitate a comprehensive grasp of the intri-
deposits demands a thorough examination of the interplay cate relationships between subsurface geological structures
between surface land cover and subsurface mineralisation, and surface manifestations.
an endeavour that has been significantly transformed by the As a crucial element with broad industrial relevance,
advent of remote sensing (Savini et al. 2021). Through the copper often found in deposits exhibiting intricate geo-
logical contexts. Conventional exploration methods have
proven insufficient in accurately delineating these deposits,
Communicated by Hassan Babaie. necessitating the integration of state-of-the-art remote sens-
ing technologies (Machireddy 2023). The primary goal of
Matthieu Tshanga M this review is to synthesise recent studies and technological
[email protected]
advancements, offering insights into how remote sensing
Lindani Ncube contributes to understanding the relationships between sur-
[email protected]
face vegetation, soil types, and subsurface copper minerali-
Elna van Niekerk sation (Jung et al. 2022).
[email protected]
Through critically analysing relevant literature and case
1
Department of Environmental Sciences, College of studies, this study seeks to highlight key approaches and
Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South technical advances that have enhanced our understand-
Africa (UNISA), Pretoria, South Africa ing of land cover and its implications for copper explora-
2
Department of Geology, University of Lubumbashi, tion (El-Desoky et al. 2023; Sabins 1999). It serves as a
Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of Congo

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3980 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

valuable resource for researchers, geologists, and industry b) Radiance Processing: Radiance is the total electromag-
professionals involved in mineral exploration and resource netic radiation received by the sensor, which includes
management. Through the integration of remote sensing contributions from the target, atmospheric scattering,
technology, we can promote informed decision-making and and absorption. Atmospheric correction algorithms are
sustainable practices within the dynamic field of copper applied to remove the atmospheric effects and retrieve
deposit exploration (Yousefifar et al. 2009; Sahbeni et al. the surface reflectance, which represents the intrinsic
2023). properties of the observed targets.
c) Sensor Swath Width and Map Generation: The
swath width of a remote sensing sensor refers to the
Fundamentals of remote sensing width of the area imaged on the Earth’s surface during
a single pass. It is an important parameter that affects
Remote sensing involves capturing and interpreting data the spatial coverage and revisit time of the sensor. For
about the Earth using sensors on various platforms like generating maps from remote sensing data, the swath
satellites, drones, and aircraft. It relies on the electromag- width plays a crucial role in determining the number of
netic spectrum, where materials reflect or emit energy in images required to cover a particular area of interest.
different ways (Dharaiya 2022). There are passive sen- Sensors with wider swaths can cover larger areas with
sors, which detect natural radiation, and active sensors, fewer images, facilitating efficient map generation and
like radar, which emit and measure energy. Data from these reducing data redundancy.
sensors has multiple resolutions: spatial (detail level), spec- d) Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) and Sensor Measure-
tral (wavelengths recorded), temporal (time intervals), and ment: The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is a critical
radiometric (brightness levels). Image interpretation helps parameter that influences the quality of remote sens-
identify land cover, monitor changes, and assess conditions ing data. It represents the ratio of the desired signal to
(Gojiya et al. 2023). Remote sensing is used in agriculture, the unwanted noise. A higher SNR indicates better data
forestry, environmental monitoring, urban planning, and quality, as the signal is stronger relative to the noise
disaster management, often integrating with Geographic level. Improving the SNR is crucial for enhancing the
Information Systems (GIS) for enhanced spatial analysis. accuracy and reliability of remote sensing measure-
Techniques like image classification and change detection ments, particularly in applications that require high
are used to extract meaningful information from the data radiometric sensitivity or target detection.
(Mahnaz et al. 2023). e) Design and Image Noise: The actual design of airborne
Understanding the fundamentals is crucial for effective and satellite remote sensing sensors can significantly
and accurate use of remote sensing technology in different impact the level of noise present in the acquired images.
fields. As technology advances, remote sensing continues to Different sensor technologies and configurations exhibit
evolve, providing new opportunities for scientific research varying noise characteristics, which can affect the qual-
and practical applications (Navalgund et al. 2007; Yang ity and interpretability of the data. Understanding the
2020). After establishing the fundamental principles of sensor design and associated noise characteristics is
remote sensing, it is essential to delve deeper into its intrica- essential for developing effective noise reduction tech-
cies and broader implications. Beyond the foundational ele- niques and optimising data processing algorithms.
ments previously discussed, remote sensing encompasses f) Ground Moisture Conditions: Ground moisture con-
various atmospheric phenomena, sensor characteristics, and ditions play a crucial role in remote sensing, particularly
environmental factors, all of which significantly influence in the interpretation of data related to soil properties,
data acquisition and interpretation. Exploring these aspects vegetation health, and hydrological processes. The
provides a comprehensive understanding of remote sens- presence of moisture in the soil and vegetation can sig-
ing’s capabilities and challenges (Lasheen et al. 2023). nificantly influence the reflectance and emission charac-
teristics of the observed targets.
a) Atmospheric Windows and: Atmospheric windows g) Sun Angle and Illumination Conditions: The angle
refer to the wavelength regions where the atmosphere at which the Sun’s rays illuminate the Earth’s surface,
is relatively transparent, allowing the transmission of known as the Sun angle or illumination conditions, has
radiation to the Earth’s surface and back to the sensor. a significant impact on remote sensing data acquisition
Processing radiance measured at the sensor into surface and interpretation. The Sun angle affects the amount of
reflectance values is crucial for accurate interpretation radiation reflected or emitted from the Earth’s surface,
of remote sensing data. as well as the shadows and topographic effects present
in the imagery.

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000 3981

h) Vegetation Cover, Outcrop Exposure, and Regolith enhances data analysis and information extraction (Hus-
Development: Remote sensing techniques are widely sain et al. 2013). Overall, remote sensing offers a unique
used to study vegetation cover, outcrop exposure, and bird’s eye perspective of the Earth’s surface, unhindered by
regolith development, which are important aspects of ground-level hindrances, by providing applications such as
environmental monitoring and geological mapping. geology and mineral exploration, hazard assessment, land
Vegetation cover refers to the distribution and charac- degradation, environmental monitoring and many more.
teristics of plant life in an area, while outcrop exposure
refers to the exposed bedrock or geological formations Principles of remote sensing in land cover analysis
on the Earth’s surface (Gojiya et al. 2023).
Remote sensing applications in land cover analysis exploit
Mastering the intricacies of atmospheric windows, radiance diagnostic spectral reflectance signatures and textural pat-
processing, sensor swath width, signal-to-noise ratio, and terns to map surface distributions of soils, vegetation and
sensor design is essential for acquiring high-quality remote water which are indicative of subsurface conditions in cop-
sensing data and generating accurate maps (Dharaiya 2022). per deposits (Ourhzif et al. 2019; Sahbeni et al. 2023). Sev-
Moreover, considering factors such as ground moisture eral unique capabilities make remote sensing highly suited
conditions, Sun angle, and vegetation cover is crucial for for land cover analysis, such as vegetation classification,
interpreting remote sensing data accurately and extracting soil characterisation, and hydrological assessments. Remote
meaningful information about the Earth’s surface (Pour et sensing techniques offer advantages over other methods for
al. 2023; Sahbeni et al. 2023). measuring soil properties, including large-scale coverage, a
Figure 1 is a diagrammatic presentation of remote sens- non-destructive nature, temporal monitoring, multispectral
ing applications (Lasheen et al. 2023). capabilities, and rapid data acquisition (Aslan et al. 2020).
In one (1), the sun provides a very convenient energy Applications of remote sensing images include interpre-
source, and this energy comes in the form of electromag- tation of vegetation distribution, soil types, and hydrological
netic radiation. As the energy travels from its source to the features (Ruisi et al. 2011; Jones et al. 2019). Multispectral
target, it comes into contact with the atmosphere, in two and hyperspectral sensors facilitate the identification of
(2), when the sun passes through and interacts with it. This various land cover materials, based on diagnostic absorp-
interaction will occur a second time, as the energy is travel- tion features related to their chemical and physical compo-
ing from the target to the sensor. When the energy hits the sition. This enables detailed vegetation and soil mapping
target, in three (3), from the atmosphere, it interacts with the (Kokaly et al. 2017). Remote sensing is important in land
target, depending on the target’s properties, as well as the cover research because it provides valuable information on
radiation. Three types of interaction may occur when the the Earth’s surface features and how they interact with sub-
surface is incidental (I). These are absorption (A), transmis- surface conditions, particularly in copper mineralised areas
sion (T) and reflection (R). The cumulative incident energy (Ganguly 2023). Here are some key principles and applica-
will interact in one or more of those three ways with the tions of remote sensing in geological land cover analysis.
air. After the energy has been reflected or emitted from the
target, the electromagnetic radiation is detected and regis- Diagnostic spectral reflectance signatures
tered by a sensor, in D. The recorded energy is transmitted
to the ground stations, indicated by five (5), to be processed Diagnostic spectral reflectance signatures are fundamen-
before interpreting and analysing the obtained images as a tal to remote sensing applications in land cover analysis
final stage, namely six (6) (Gautam and Mehta 2015; Jung and copper deposit exploration (van der Meer et al. 2014;
et al. 2022). Sabins 1999). Spectral reflectance is the ratio of upwelling
Crucial stages in remote sensing include energy interaction to down-welling radiant fluxes for given surface, illumi-
with the surface, sensor data recording, data transmission/ nation, and observation properties, including the sensor’s
reception, processing, and interpretation. Advancements spectral sampling properties. A spectral signature is a func-
in sensor technology, radio transmission, electronics and tion of the wavelength and is defined as the ratio of reflected
computational power have vastly enhanced remote sensing radiation energy to incident radiation energy on an object.
capabilities over the past decades (Gautam and Mehta 2015; Spectral reflectance is the ratio of upwelling to down-
Mahnaz et al. 2023). Modern sensors, like hyperspectral welling radiant fluxes for given surface, illumination, and
scanners and synthetic aperture radars, acquire rich datas- observation properties, including the sensor’s spectral sam-
ets that are amenable to specialised processing, using tech- pling properties. Similar to the human eye’s brightness and
niques like band ratios, classification, principal components chromatic adaptation, normalisation by a down-welling flux
analysis and radar interferometry. GIS integration further enhances the interpretability of reflectance over radiance

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3982 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

Fig. 1 Remote sensing technique (Lasheen et al. 2023)

from a target. These unique spectral patterns, resulting features in the visible and near-infrared spectrum. Advanced
from the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and sensor technologies, particularly hyperspectral sensors, have
surface materials, provide crucial information about land revolutionized our ability to capture and analyse these spec-
cover composition and characteristics (van der Meer et al. tral signatures (Bournas et al. 2015). These sensors provide
2014). Different materials, including minerals associated data across hundreds of narrow, contiguous spectral bands,
with copper deposits, absorb and reflect electromagnetic enabling the detection of subtle variations in reflectance pat-
radiation in distinct ways, exhibiting characteristic absorp- terns and more accurate identification of minerals and rock
tion features in specific wavelength regions (Bournas et al. types associated with copper mineralization (Kruse et al.
2015; Clark 1999). For instance, copper-bearing miner- 2010).
als like malachite and azurite show distinctive absorption

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000 3983

Multispectral and hyperspectral imaging and land cover information (Bournas et al. 2015; Cathles
and Smith 1983; Ciampalini et al. 2014). It allows for spa-
Multispectral and hyperspectral imaging represent advanced tial modelling, mapping and the integration of diverse datas-
remote sensing technologies that have revolutionised land ets for a comprehensive geological understanding (Hewson
cover analysis and mineral exploration, particularly in the et al. 2005). The fusion of satellite imagery with geophysi-
context of copper deposits (Van der Meer et al. 2014). While cal survey data (e.g., magnetics, gravity) in GIS improves
multispectral sensors typically collect data in a few broad geological interpretation and mapping capabilities (Sabins
spectral bands, hyperspectral sensors offer a large number of 1999; Van der Meer et al. 2014). Over the years, there has
narrow, contiguous bands across the electromagnetic spec- been a significant increase in the use of GIS tools for map-
trum, resulting in a high-resolution spectrum for each pixel ping, thanks to its widespread diffusion and significant
in the image. In copper exploration, multispectral imaging, technological advancements (Fu et al. 2023). Integration
using sensors such as Landsat and Sentinel-2, has proven of temporal remote sensing data into GIS enables 3D visu-
invaluable for regional-scale mapping and target generation, alisation and analysis of landscapes, revealing relationships
allowing for the identification of large-scale geological fea- between surface dynamics and underlying geological pro-
tures and alteration patterns associated with copper miner- cesses. Machine learning algorithms, applied to integrated
alisation (Wei 2020). remote sensing and geospatial datasets in GIS, increases
objectivity and efficiency of geological mapping (Abdel-
Environmental monitoring Maksoud 2023; Bahrami et al. 2021).
Understanding these principles and applying remote
Remote sensing is employed for monitoring environmental sensing techniques in geological studies enables geologists
changes related to geological processes such as landslides, to gather information efficiently, make informed decisions
soil erosion and volcanic activity (Mahnaz et al. 2023). The and contribute to the broader understanding of the Earth’s
status of remote sensing, as a rapid-response data source, is geological processes (Ruisi et al. 2011). Techniques, like
discussed and some perspectives are given on emerging air- photogrammetry, LiDAR and radar interferometry, yield
borne and satellite technologies. As technology is enhanced, high-precision digital elevation models, assisting in struc-
demand and expectations increase for near-real-time moni- tural and geomorphological mapping. Global DEMs of the
toring and visual images to be relayed to emergency ser- Earth, as well as coverage of the Earth’s sea floor and ice
vices and the public in the event of a natural disaster (Liu et caps, have fostered terrain modelling at broad spatial and
al. 2023; Ruisi et al. 2011; Shirmard et al. 2022). Satellite temporal scales. In some respects, this trend returns mor-
imagery and aerial photography help to track changes over phometry to its origins in the quantitative generalities sought
time. Quantitative analysis of vegetation health dynamics, by von Humboldt and his successors, but with a sophistica-
using spectral vegetation indices, aids the identification of tion and emphasis on geologic processes that were absent
areas affected by geogenic contaminants (Machireddy 2023; from the older work (Pike 2002).
Folkes 2017; Joyce et al. 2014; Navalgund et al. 2007; Extracting mineral signatures from high spectral reso-
Yusoff et al. 2015). Multi-temporal soil moisture analysis lution images is not an easy task and, usually, depends on
reveals changes in subsurface hydrogeological conditions the availability of specific image processing tools, such as
related to aquifer depletion or water table decline. Spec- hyper-spectral classifiers and reference spectra. Multi-tem-
tral change detection aids the identification of new mineral poral data facilitates observing surface changes over time,
exposures or hydrothermal alteration related to erosion, valuable for mapping processes like erosion, deposition,
weathering or anthropogenic activity over time (Joyce et al. subsidence or uplift. Compared to extensive field surveys,
2014; Son et al. 2021). These capabilities are essential for remote sensing delivers huge cost advantages in collecting
understanding and managing the environmental impacts of data over large, remote or hazardous areas (Crosta et al.
copper deposit exploration, ensuring sustainable practices 2003). These unique traits make remote sensing invaluable
and effective resource management. for cost-effective, quantitative and synergistic geological
analysis over areas ranging from local to global scales.
Integration with GIS and geospatial analysis
Types of remote sensing technologies for land cover
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer sys- analysis
tem that analyses and displays geographically referenced
information. It uses data that is attached to a unique loca- Over the past few decades, a range of remote sensing systems
tion. Integrating remote sensing data with geographic infor- and techniques have developed that are highly promising
mation systems (GIS) enhances the analysis of geological for analysing and mapping copper deposits by recognising

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3984 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

their distinct surface features. As highlighted by Pour et machine learning techniques, enables automated classifica-
al. 2023; systems such as EnMAP, Hyperion and AVIRIS, tion of alteration minerals associated with porphyry cop-
collect high spectral resolution images within hundreds per deposits (Khaleghi et al. 2020; Liu et al. 2023). Small
of narrow, continuous bands, spanning visible to infrared differences in absorption band position and shape can be
wavelengths. This capability enables comprehensive map- correlated with mineral compositional differences and vari-
ping of hydrothermal alteration minerals linked with copper ability (Dharaiya 2022). Hyperspectral datasets have been
deposits, leveraging their spectral signatures (Van der Meer acquired around the world, using airborne platforms and
et al. 2014). Various remote sensing technologies are used in recent satellite systems that provide spectral measurements
land cover analysis, each with its distinct strengths (Ourhzif for selected areas (Fu et al. 2023; Pike 2002; Sabins 1999).
et al. 2019). Here is an overview of key remote sensing tech- Hyperspectral imaging, using close-range, drone-based sys-
nologies pertinent to land cover analysis and the exploration tems, provide centimetre-scale resolution to quantify sur-
of copper deposits: face mineralisation related to subsurface copper grades for
selective mining (Homolová et al. 2013; Kruse 2010; Sabins
Optical remote sensing 1999).

Optical sensors capture images in visible, near-infrared and Lidar (light detection and ranging)
shortwave infrared bands. These sensors are widely used for
their ability to provide detailed and colourful images of the Lidar technology is used for high-resolution topographic
Earth’s surface, useful for distinguishing between different mapping, which is essential for understanding the geologi-
land cover types (Fu et al. 2023). In the context of copper cal features and structures associated with copper deposits.
deposits, optical remote sensing helps identify vegetation Lidar offers an alternative to in situ field surveying and
stress and soil anomalies that may indicate underlying min- photogrammetric mapping techniques for the collection of
eralization. By analysing vegetation indices, such as the elevation data. Its technology can be used to provide eleva-
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), research- tion data that is accurate, timely and increasingly affordable
ers can detect subtle changes in plant health that often cor- in inhospitable terrain. In geomorphometric analysis, a lin-
relate with subsurface copper deposits (Rowan et al., 2006; ear feature can have a geometric origin only and represent
van der Meer et al. 2014). In the simplest terms possible, the a change in terrain elevation, such as a valley or ridgeline,
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) measures slope break or inflex line (Gyozo and Schott 2005). Analy-
the greenness and the density of the vegetation captured in a sis of the vegetation penetration capacity of lidar surveys
satellite image. Healthy vegetation has a very characteristic aids mapping of subsurface lithological contacts and struc-
spectral reflectance curve which we can benefit from by cal- tural controls on mineralisation concealed by an overlying
culating the difference between two bands – visible red and canopy. Fusion of hyperspectral and lidar data enables com-
near-infrared. NDVI is that difference expressed as a num- bined spectral and spatial characterisation of complex areas
ber – ranging from -1 to 1. In copper exploration, this differ- with outcropping mineralisation and soil-vegetation cover
entiation is essential for identifying areas where vegetation (Gernhardt and Bamler 2012; Jung et al. 2022; Kulkarni et
might be affected by underlying mineralization. For exam- al. 2023; Wu et al. 2023).
ple, vegetation growing over copper deposits often exhibits
unique stress signatures due to the presence of metal ions in Satellite multispectral imaging
the soil, which can be detected using optical sensors. These
stress signatures, when mapped using NDVI and other veg- Multispectral satellite imagery from platforms like Land-
etation indices, can pinpoint areas of interest for further sat can be used for regional-scale geological mapping and
geological investigation (Abdelouhed et al. 2022). identifying areas with potential copper mineralisation,
based on spectral signatures. The accessibility of inexpen-
Hyperspectral remote sensing sive, satellite-borne, multispectral ASTER data has created
new opportunities for the regional mapping of geologi-
Hyperspectral sensors capture a large number of narrow cal structure and rock types, including alteration products
spectral bands, allowing for detailed analysis of mineral and regolith. These data have been used enthusiastically
compositions. This is valuable for mapping different min- by the minerals industry around the world. Analysis of
eral assemblages in and around copper deposits (Ourhzif et multi-temporal Landsat imagery, coupled with digital ter-
al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2017). Mineral physics dictates the rain data, enables the identification of surface mineralogi-
appearance of rocks and soils across the electromagnetic cal changes related to weathering and alteration or erosion
spectrum. Analysis of hyperspectral data, coupled with processes, highlighting new exploration targets. Data fusion

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000 3985

approaches increase lithological discrimination capacity Key remote sensing parameters for subsurface
and accuracy of satellite mapping relevant to copper pro- analysis
spectivity analysis and exploration targeting (Hewson et al.
2005; Kruse 2010). Several key geological parameters associated with copper
Combining these remote sensing technologies allows mineralisation can be discerned through remote sensing
geologists and exploration teams to comprehensively study datasets, providing valuable clues to subsurface conditions.
the geological context of copper deposits, from regional Spatial mapping of surface lithology, using optical, radar or
mapping to detailed site characterisation. The integration of gravity data reveals subsurface geological domains and rock
multiple data sources enhances the accuracy and efficiency types. ASTER data have a relatively high spectral resolu-
of copper exploration and resource assessment. LiDAR tion in the visible near-infrared (VNIR), short-wave infra-
provides precise, high-resolution digital elevation data, to red (SWIR), and thermal infrared (TIR) bands, which can
model terrain morphology, and identifies the structures con- distinguish spectral differences between rocks and minerals
trolling mineralisation, like faults and lithological contacts. more accurately (Wu et al. 2023). Identification of hydro-
LiDAR is capable of penetrating vegetation cover. SAR thermal alteration minerals with hyperspectral VNIR-SWIR
radar backscatter data, from systems like AIRSAR, JERS-1 data elucidates subsurface fluid flows and alteration halos
SAR and Sentinel-1, contain information on surface rough- guiding exploration. Lineaments and fracture traces from
ness, morphology and moisture content, to complement optical, LiDAR and radar data help delineate structural fab-
optical data for structural and lithological mapping (Erol et ric controlling ore deposition (Labdaoui et al. 2023).
al. 2020). The tonal differences within the surface are reflected as
Digital photogrammetry creates detailed 3D terrain direct lines on the satellite images that can be interpreted
models from overlapping aerial or satellite stereo imag- as visible lineaments. Using high resolution DEM data
ery, to assist in interpretable geological feature identifica- analysis, folds like synclines and anticlines, indicative of
tion. Medium-resolution multispectral data, from satellites deformation, may be identified as subtle topographic or geo-
like Landsat, Sentinel-2 and WorldView, provides essential morphological features. Variations in surface texture, vis-
baseline information on geology and structures at regional ible in optical or radar data, can help discriminate important
scales (Ourhzif et al. 2019). GIS offers great potential in lithological boundaries and structural grains. DEM-based
mineral exploration by providing a wide range of tools to landform element mapping reveals critical landform expres-
manipulate, analyse, integrate and visualise geochemical, sions of subsurface structures and lithologies (Dewaele et
geological and geophysical data in a faster time, as com- al. 2006). Thermal, radar and hyperspectral remote sensing
pared to conventional practices. AIRGrav and pre-pro- sensors can detect characteristic moisture patterns that offer
cessed gravity data provide critical information on regional clues to subsurface hydrological regimes influencing cop-
subsurface density variations and structures associated with per deposition. Multispectral optical data enable land cover
copper mineralisation (Yusoff et al. 2015). characterisation, aiding the assessment of erosion, regolith
ASTER images on board Terra satellites have a higher stability, weathering, and associated subsurface conditions
spectral resolution in the short-wave infrared band com- (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. 2009). Subsurface analysis, using
pared to multispectral data, such as Landsat. They were used remote sensing, involves studying features and phenomena
for distinguishing different iron oxides, as well as Al-OH beneath the Earth’s surface. While traditional remote sens-
and Mg-OH alteration minerals, such as kaolinite, montmo- ing techniques primarily focus on surface-level information,
rillonite, dolomite and yellow potassium–iron alum. As a some parameters and technologies can be employed to infer
result, ASTER data have become the most commonly used subsurface characteristics indirectly (Mbianya et al. 2021).
remote sensing data for extracting hydrothermal alteration Here are key parameters and considerations for subsurface
mineral information from porphyry copper mines (Liu et analysis using remote sensing:
al. 2023). This can direct exploratory activities. UAVs offer
flexibility for responsive, high-resolution terrain and hyper- Spectral reflectance
spectral mapping at local scales to complement regional
datasets (Aslan et al. 2020). The appropriate integration of Spectral reflectance is the ratio of upwelling to down-well-
these different remote sensing technologies provides a pow- ing radiant fluxes for a particular surface, illumination and
erful approach to copper deposit exploration. observation features, including the spectrum sampling prop-
erties of the sensor (Navalgund et al. 2007). It is a measure-
ment of the amount of light that is reflected by objects on the
Earth’s surface. The light used for this measurement comes
from a satellite or aircraft-mounted sensor and is, typically,

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3986 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

in the visible or infrared part of the electromagnetic spec- Multi-frequency microwave radiometry improves the esti-
trum. Spectral bands in the infrared and infrared and short- mation of soil moisture at deeper subsurface levels (Gojiya
wave infrared (SWIR) regions can be indicative of certain et al. 2023; Ikponmwen and Oyibo 2023).
minerals associated with subsurface features. Analysing
spectral reflectance patterns aids in identifying mineral Hydrogeological parameters
composition. SWIR spectral analysis aids identification of
alteration minerals associated with buried mineral deposits. Hydrogeological parameters are generally defined as the
Hyperspectral thermal infrared data enhance the mapping of measurable properties of an aquifer system that affect the
subsurface hydrothermal alteration zones. Multi-temporal ability of that system to store and transmit groundwater.
SWIR spectra monitoring provides insights into subsurface Assessing and determining potential groundwater zon-
hydrological changes (Cathles and Smith 1983; Liu et al. ing using field observations is costly and time-consuming
2023; Pour et al. 2013). (Draganov et al. 2009; Folkes 2017; Mahnaz et al. 2023).
The application of geospatial technology has provided the
Satellite-based altimetry best alternative for rapid understanding of the presence of
groundwater and mapping of groundwater potential in geo-
Satellite-based altimetry is a technique that uses satellites logical studies. Remote sensing can monitor surface water
to measure the height of the sea surface above the geoid, or bodies and changes over time, providing insights into sub-
the Earth’s gravitational field. It ensures the collection of surface hydrogeological processes and interactions. Optical
high-precision global data of uniform accuracy on sea level, and radar satellite data maps interactions between surface
which enables monitoring of the geophysical characteristics water and groundwater. Satellite altimetry monitors surface
of the sea and larger water surfaces, that is, marine topog- water dynamics related to aquifer-river exchanges (Ndatu-
raphy and circulation within liquid water bodies (Rajaram wong and Yadav 2014; Wang et al. 2022).
et al. 2009; Voorhies et al. 2002). Satellites equipped with Geological exploration, resource management, and envi-
radar or lidar instruments can measure the distance from the ronmental monitoring can all benefit from improved sub-
satellite to the surface of the water, and this information can surface analysis through an understanding of these factors
be used to create a topographic map of the ocean’s surface. and the application of a variety of remote sensing methods.
Satellite altimetry data can be used to monitor ground sub- It’s important to integrate remote sensing data with other
sidence over time, which may be indicative of subsurface ground-based geophysical and geological surveys to achieve
processes such as groundwater extraction or geological a more comprehensive understanding of subsurface condi-
activities (Bašić 2023). tions. Critical insights into the subsurface environments
and structural controls governing copper mineralisation
Soil moisture content can be gained by integrated investigation of these essential
geological characteristics visible through various remote
This technique uses electromagnetic radiation to measure sensing platforms. Due to the lack of global coverage of
the amount of water in the soil. The amount of water in the spaceborne hyperspectral sensors, routine aircraft based,
soil affects its dielectric constant, which is the ratio of the and drone-based hyperspectral surveys are carried out in
capacitance of a material to its vacuum capacitance. Soil different countries using different advanced hyperspectral
moisture is defined as the amount of water present in the sensors, such as the advanced visible infrared spectrometer
soil, typically expressed as a percentage of the soil’s weight (AVIRIS) and its latest version, AVIRIS-next generation
or as the depth of water in a specific soil layer (Tapley et (AVIRIS-NG); HyMap; the digital airborne imaging spec-
al. 2004; Zhang et al. 2017). Microwave sensors, especially trometer (DAIS), etc. (Pour et al. 2023).
in the radar frequency range, can be sensitive to soil mois- The selection of appropriate remote sensing data tailored
ture content. Soil moisture has been mapped with airborne to the specific copper deposit type and geology optimises
microwave radiometers to measure the water retained in the extraction of information on subsurface conditions from
the spaces between soil particles. Its importance is due to surface expressions. Quantitative validation of the subsur-
the microorganism metabolic activity, regulation of the face information inferred from surface expressions remains
soil temperature, and carriage of nutrients, among oth- an ongoing challenge. Direct borehole and geophysical data
ers. Changes in soil moisture may be related to subsurface correlation helps confirm and refine geological interpreta-
water movement or geological conditions. Satellite-based tions from remote sensing (Ganguly 2023). Remote sensing
L-band radar monitors spatial and temporal variations in improves preliminary mapping, but direct subsurface mea-
soil moisture content. Soil moisture data aids subsurface surement is still required to validate and calibrate indirect
characterisation by determining hydrological parameters.

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000 3987

interpretations of subsurface conditions based on surface boundaries of basins and plates, as well as faults and
expressions. rock fractures. These lineaments may represent faults,
shear zones, or other tectonic structures (Masoud and
Koike 2011).
Remote sensing for copper deposits analysis e) Deformation Monitoring: InSAR is used to monitor
ground deformation over time. This technique measures
The importance of land cover analysis in copper deposit changes in the Earth’s surface, such as subsidence or
exploration and showcases how remote sensing techniques uplift, which can be indicative of active faulting or other
offer valuable insights into geological and environmental geological processes (Joyce et al. 2014; Osmanoğlu et
factors impacting mineralisation. Utilising high-resolution al. 2015).
imagery and advanced data processing methods, geolo- f) Landslide Identification: Remote sensing is employed
gists can recognise surface features, monitor environmental for monitoring changes in the landscape, including the
changes, and deduce subsurface structures critical for locat- identification of landslides. Optical and radar data help
ing and assessing copper deposits copper deposits (Sun et detect changes in terrain morphology associated with
al. 2018). landslides (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. 2009).
Remote sensing plays a crucial role in identifying and
studying geological structures, which result from tectonic The integration of various remote sensing technologies and
processes and deformation within the Earth’s crust. The analytical methods allows geologists to gain a deep under-
analysis of these structures aids in understanding subsur- standing of Earth’s geological formations. Understanding
face-surface relationships in the context of land cover anal- the Earth’s crust’s dynamic processes, geological mapping,
ysis and copper deposit exploration (Rajesh 2004). Through hazard assessment, and resource exploration greatly benefit
the detection of surface features such lineaments, litho- from the insights gained through remote sensing. By iden-
logical boundaries, fracture traces, fold patterns, and topo- tifying surface indicators of concealed faults, stratigraphic
graphic discontinuities observed in satellite multispectral interfaces, and fold formations, remote sensing facilitates
imagery, and geophysic data, researchers can gain vital the detection of hydrothermal fluid pathways, significantly
information about underlying structures influencing copper enhancing copper exploration and drilling operations. Inte-
mineralisation 200. Here are ways in which remote sensing grating remote sensing structural data with borehole and
is employed in the analysis of geological structures: field surveys offers valuable information on the structural
architecture and paleo-stress history, which are critical fac-
a) Faults and Fractures: Remote sensing data, particu- tors in locating hidden copper ore formation sites beneath
larly high-resolution satellite imagery or aerial photog- the Earth’s surface (Rajesh 2004).
raphy, is used for mapping linear features on the Earth’s
surface, known as lineaments. These lineaments can Application of remote sensing to identify geological
represent faults and fractures, providing insights into structures
the tectonic activity in an area (Masoud and Koike
2011). Remote sensing delivers a regional perspective to trace
b) Folded Structures: Lidar and high-resolution optical geological structures like faults, folds, and lithological
imagery contribute to detailed topographic analysis. contacts over large areas, enabling structural mapping at
By studying the topography of an area, researchers can scales greater than feasible by fieldwork alone. The most
identify folded structures, such as anticlines and syn- distinct geologic features visible on satellite images cover-
clines, which are indicative of compressional or exten- ing most areas are regional lineaments which are reflected
sional tectonic forces (Gyozo and Schott 2005). in the topography. These lineaments can represent over-
c) Impact Structures: High-resolution DEMs derived thrusts, faulting zones, systems of close faults with similar
from remote sensing data help identify impact struc- strikes, or large individual faults (Kresic 1995). This syn-
tures, such as meteorite impact craters. The topographic optic coverage facilitates the extrapolation of localised out-
signature of impact craters can be analysed to under- crop observations to predict regional subsurface structural
stand their geological characteristics (Lin et al. 2021). trends. Optical, thermal infrared and radar sensors have
d) Tectonic Lineaments: Satellite imagery is instrumental penetrative capacities that allow them to reveal geological
in identifying and mapping tectonic lineaments, which structures obscured by overlying vegetation, soil cover, or
are linear features associated with tectonic plate bound- cloud cover (Kulkarni et al. 2019).
aries. Regional lineaments are commonly interpreted as This ability to image features beneath obscuring mate-
surface expressions of geologic weak zones at tectonic rials is key for identifying surface expressions indicating

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3988 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

concealed subsurface structures. Multispectral remote sens- Fault recognition

ing enables lithological discrimination through the detection
of diagnostic spectral absorption features related to rock- Faults can often be recognised on remote sensing images
forming mineral compositions (Lasheen et al. 2023). Trac- if one or more of the following landforms or topographic
ing contacts between distinct lithological units elucidates features are present: (1) Different types and ages of rock
associated geological structures and structural boundar- units sitting side by side with a displacement between
ies. This section examines some of the key applications of them (offset); (2) Abrupt topographic discontinuities; (3)
remote sensing for structural geology mapping. Depressions along the fault trace (eroded broken rock); (4)
Scarps or cliffs; (5) Sudden shifts of drainage courses; and
Structural analysis (6) Abrupt changes in vegetation patterns. These features
can provide important clues for locating and characterising
Remote sensing aids in the analysis of geological structures faults and their related tectonic activity. Geologists can map
such as faults, folds, and fractures. High-resolution imag- out the location and extent of faults using remote sensing
ery and digital elevation models (DEMs) help geologists images and use this knowledge to analyse the history and
study the topography and understand the geological pro- evolution of the landscape (Liu et al. 2023; Ourhzif et al.
cesses shaping the landscape. Geological lineaments are the 2019; Ruisi et al. 2011).
Earth’s linear features indicating significant tectonic units in
the crust associated with the formation of minerals, active Mapping volcanic structures
faults, groundwater controls, earthquakes, and geomor-
phology. Lineaments and fracture patterns extracted from Remote sensing using thermal infrared sensors can detect
satellite imagery using line enhancement or edge detection and monitor volcanic activity. Thermal anomalies can indi-
techniques can augment field-based structural maps. Linea- cate the presence of lava flows, volcanic vents, and other
ments of tectonic origin are often characterised by period- volcanic structures. By using the hotspot satellite thermal
icity and characteristic spatial patterns. DEM-based terrain monitoring system to estimate time-varying TADR (time-
analysis enables the extraction of additional geological averaged discharge rate) and the Magflow physics-based
structures like ridges and escarpments masked by vegeta- model to simulate lava flow paths, the Lave hazard platform
tion or sediment cover (Gyozo and Schott 2005; Kamangar allows the timely definition of parameters and maps essen-
and Minaei 2023). tial for hazard assessment, including the propagation time
of lava flows and the maximum run-out distance (Ganci et
Fold recognition al. 2012).
Radar interferometry measures surface deformation
Identification of folded bedrock structures is crucial for related to magmatic processes below volcanic centers.
understanding the structural geology and tectonic history Hyperspectral imaging identifies compositional variability
of an area. Folds normally present as banded features or in volcanic rocks based on diagnostic absorption features of
oval and elongated bedding planes, with clear symmetry. surface minerals. Integrated analysis of multisensory remote
Whenever there is a fold, certain bedding triangle planes sensing data enables detailed volcanic structural mapping
or monoclinal mountains exhibit symmetry along an inter- and hazard assessment (Kruse 2010).
face. When lithologic contrasts of strata composing a fold Continued advancements in sensor technologies and ana-
are obvious, micro-topography, vegetation, and banded lytical techniques will enhance the capabilities of satellite-
textures exhibit symmetric repetition in combination. The based structural geology analysis, enabling detailed and
hinge zone of a fold always shows a curved bedding plane, efficient mapping of geological structures extending from
while the occurrence of bedding triangle planes is deflected, regional fold systems to localised volcanic vents. Important
showing a U-shaped or curved or other geometric form on processing techniques for enhancing structural interpreta-
the image. Satellite image analysis techniques, including tions from remote sensing data include band ratios, principal
principal component analysis and band ratios, help discrim- component analysis, textural analysis, classification of opti-
inate folds and geologic contacts associated with folding. cal data, filtering, interferometry, and coherence analysis of
High-resolution digital elevation models reveal subtle topo- radar imagery. The techniques include adaptive shading of
graphic expressions related to folded strata, while hill shade grid data to enhance linear features, a segment-tracing algo-
visualisations model their surface morphology. Lidar-based rithm to extract line segments from the shaded grid data, a
structural mapping precisely determines the orientation of grouping of the segments by concatenating short segments,
fold axial planes and hinge lines for accurate modeling of and connecting them by proximity and co-linearity crite-
folded units (Rajesh 2004; Ruisi et al. 2011). ria to form a lineament that represents significant tectonic

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000 3989

structure (Masoud and Koike 2011). Effective structural Enhancing copper exploration with advanced
interpretation and mapping are made possible by integrated remote sensing
geographic information system (GIS) analysis that com-
bines surface outcrop patterns, subsurface contours, linea- Advances in remote sensing technologies now offer more
ments, and borehole data. precise and high-resolution characterisation of surface
expressions related to subsurface structures that control
Comparative analysis of remote sensing approaches mineralisation.These enhancements improve our under-
in different geological settings standing of the relationship between surface features and
subsurface geology, thereby informing decision-making
Copper deposits in volcanic terrain overlying sub-volcanic in resource exploration and exploitation (Kruse 2010; El-
intrusions like porphyry and IOCG systems contain more Desoky et al. 2022). The increasing availability of very
extensive hydrothermal alteration halos surrounding ore high resolution (VHR) multispectral satellite sensors allows
zones which are effectively mapped using hyperspectral for the identification of small-scale geological structures
data through the identification of specific mineral assem- including meter-scale faults and fracture networks (El-
blages (Chitalin et al. 2020; Haest et al. 2007; Khaleghi et Desoky et al. 2022). This section highlights some key areas
al. 2020). However, sedimentary rock-hosted copper depos- of advancement in remote sensing techniques for structural
its require greater reliance on high-resolution lithological geology studies. Combining remote sensing datasets with
and structural mapping discernible from multispectral and neural networks and subsurface measurements is essential
topographic data to elucidate subtle stratigraphic controls for identifying exploration targets and refining geological
(Sun et al. 2018; Jones et al. 2019; Bournas et al. 2015). Key models for copper exploration (Shirmard et al. 2022).
spectral absorption features used to identify hydrothermal
alterations through hyperspectral sensors differ based on the Satellite sensors and UAVs
background host lithologies iron oxide, chlorite, and epi-
dote assemblages predominate in volcanic terrains whereas Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and airborne hyperspec-
sodium clay species including alunite and kaolinite typify tral imaging enable the detection of hydrothermally altered
sedimentary environments (Pour et al. 2023; Shirmard et al. structural conduits hosting copper mineralisation through
2022; Rajesh 2004). This necessitates customised spectral the identification of precise alteration mineral absorption
analysis parameterisation based on regionally established signatures related to mineralising fluids (Kruse 2010).
mineralisation models. Detailed bare-earth digital elevation models derived from
Thermal infrared remote sensing enables more effec- airborne lidar surveys help enhance geological lineament
tive vegetation stress mapping highlighting concealed mapping even in vegetated or covered terrain by revealing
mineralisation zones for porphyry and IOCG-style depos- subtle topographic cues related to structures (Aslan et al.
its hosted in heat-producing volcanic environments, com- 2020). Satellite radar interferometry and multi-temporal
pared to subtler signatures over sedimentary copper settings InSAR analysis facilitate mapping millimeter to centimeter
(Van der Meer et al. 2014). Similarly, structural lineament scale surface displacements along active faults and ground
expressions discernible from radar data tend to appear more deformation over mining regions to constrain shallow sub-
intense for basement-involved fracture networks surround- surface structural kinematics (Gernhardt and Bamler 2012).
ing basement-rooted intrusion complexes (Li 2021; Son et UAVs equipped with various sensors, including optical
al. 2021). Integrated inversion of regional potential field and thermal cameras, can provide high-resolution imagery
gravity and magnetic data combined with geological con- for detailed mapping and monitoring of copper deposits and
straints provides better 3D predictive delineation of subsur- associated geological features. Entrepreneurship together
face causative plutons driving extensive alteration systems with robotic, computer vision and geomatic technologies
overlying porphyry copper deposits (Wu et al. 2023; Mccaf- has established a new paradigm of aerial remote sensing
ferty 2015; Miliaresis 2001). Comparatively, sedimentary and mapping that, for some years now, has been serving
copper systems rely more on actual drill hole lithological the needs of large-scale low-altitude imaging and geospa-
logging to constrain strata-bound deposit geometry for tial information users and developing an industry of its
resource estimation. own. UAV-based sensors have the advantages of flexibil-
ity, low operating costs, and site-specific data acquisition.
Integrated analysis of UAV images and digital elevation
models contribute significantly to structural and lithological
interpretation to delineate geological controls of mineralisa-
tion. Emerging UAV lidar and hyperspectral sensors offer

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3990 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

promising opportunities for improved detection and charac- Improved availability of regional-scale high-resolution
terisation of copper deposits (Colomina and Molina 2014; airborne gravity, magnetic, and radiometric surveys pro-
El-Desoky et al. 2023; Mccaffrey et al. 2005). vide critical subsurface constraints on concealed geological
structures, rock unit contacts, and alteration zones to com-
Topographic analysis plement surface characterisation (Liu et al. 2014). These
emerging remote sensing capabilities involving sensors,
Remote sensing data, particularly from satellite-based radar platforms, and analytical techniques will continue enabling
and optical sensors, can be used to generate high-resolution more detailed and accurate structural mapping from deposit
topographic maps. Accurate topographic information is to regional scales serving exploration programs target-
essential for geological mapping and analysis (Fang et al. ing concealed subsurface copper resources (Bahrami et al.
2023). The fusion of optical and radar remote sensing data 2021; Sabins 1999).
enables the generation of highly accurate hybrid digital ele- Several challenges remain regarding relating surface
vation models for detailed terrain analysis and geomorpho- expressions to subsurface structures controlling mineralisa-
logical mapping. Temporal analysis of elevation changes tion. Integration of GNSS/INS sensors mounted on aerial
using multi-date DEMs generated from remote sensing aids vehicles in photogrammetric applications brought the direct
identification and modeling of active geological processes georeferencing opportunity, which made a positive impact
like subsidence or uplift (Dharaiya 2022; Osmanoğlu et al. on the implementation of the survey workflow (Erol et
2015). al. 2020). Field, borehole, and geophysical data are still
Digital elevation models derived from satellite or air- required for direct validation and calibration of remote sens-
borne platforms enable analysis of topographic expres- ing structural interpretations.
sions of structures, with higher resolution DEMs from lidar
allowing identification of small fault scarps and elevation
discontinuities (Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. 2009). Structural Land cover and remote sensing
lineament patterns are enhanced through image process-
ing techniques including directional filters, principal com- Land cover patterns consisting of vegetation, soil, bedrock,
ponent analysis, and edge enhancement. Microwave radar and hydrological features cloak the earth’s surface and
datasets better penetrate vegetation and soils to map subsur- influence critical processes related to weathering, erosion,
face structural boundaries distinguished by surface rough- stability, and subsurface hydrological regimes (Mahnaz et
ness or moisture contrasts (Ruisi et al. 2011). al. 2023). These surface dynamics can impact copper gen-
Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) detects esis and localisation in underlying geological structures.
subtle ground displacements associated with active fault Characterising land cover thus offers useful clues to aid
structures. Polarimetric radar provides additional detail on copper exploration when interpreted in the context of sub-
surface structural grain and geomorphology. One of the surface conditions (Dewaele et al. 2006). Accurately assess-
principal applications of SAR technology is represented ing land degradation is crucial for ensuring environmental
by the SAR interferometry (InSAR) technique. It relies on sustainability. Hence, proper evaluation of land degradation
the measurement of the phase difference between two (or is essential to reduce the risk of desertification (Fan et al.
more) complex-valued SAR images, acquired from differ- 2023). Multispectral and hyperspectral data facilitate vege-
ent orbital positions and/or at different times (Pepe and Calò tation species mapping and discrimination of alteration sig-
2017). natures in soils indicating mineralisation footprints (Wu et
al. 2023). Radar remote sensing complements this through
Data integration its ability to sense soil and canopy moisture variability
pointing to subsurface hydrological differences. Temporal
Advanced multi-sensor data fusion algorithms and sophis- analysis of historical images enables observing land cover
ticated image processing workflows combining techniques changes that may correlate with geological processes (Sav-
like texture and spectral analysis, principal components, ini et al. 2021; Pour et al. 2013).
band ratios and filtering enhance information extraction
capabilities for lithological boundaries and associated struc- Utilising remote sensing for characterising land
tures. Three-dimensional structural modeling and visualisa- cover in copper deposits
tion using integrated analysis of DEM topography models,
seismic reflection data, and borehole logs provide new per- Remote sensing technologies and interpretation workflows
spectives on constraining complex structural geometries offer immense capabilities through various inherent strengths
influencing ore formation (Folkes 2017). including wide-area coverage, regular revisit cycles, and

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000 3991

continuous data acquisition for detailed land cover map- evaluating slow changes in the environment that can be
ping towards supporting copper exploration across poorly signs of subterranean activities. As Sentinel and Landsat
mapped terrains. The pattern of land use and land cover in missions extend dense time stacks back multiple decades,
the Democratic Republic of Congo is the result of socioeco- subtle land surface changes become apparent, such as selec-
nomic and natural factors that influence how people make tive vegetation viability loss suggesting emerging geother-
use of the land over time. Land cover change is a significant mal heat signatures or soil moisture changes indicating
aspect of global change, and understanding it is critical for permeability fluxes focused along lithological contacts dur-
informing decision-making around land management (Far- ing alternating climate episodes. Thus regional-scale land
ahbakhsh et al. 2020; Machireddy 2023). cover monitoring may provide low-cost clues highlighting
The analysis and modeling of land cover change is prospective domains for concealed copper enrichment (Cro-
required for the assessments of consequent changes. The use sta et al. 2003; Jung et al. 2022; Hussain et al. 2013).
of remote sensing and GIS techniques has become increas-
ingly important in describing data sets and their applica- Radar-based forest canopy density analysis
tions to estimate changes in the landscape. The regional
perspective offered by medium-resolution satellite multi- All-weather Synthetic Aperture Radar remote sensing
spectral sensors like Landsat enables reconnaissance scale penetrates dense vegetation cover obscuring lithological
vegetation and soil cover mapping across landscapes span- and structural expressions of concealed copper deposits in
ning hundreds of square kilometers relevant to early-stage tropical environments like the Central African Copper Belt
copper exploration targeting (Ganguly 2023). where persistent cloud cover limits reliable optical acqui-
Multispectral sensors facilitate the identification and sitions. Multi-parameter SAR returns including intensity,
classification of land cover categories including vegetation coherence, and polarimetry discriminate forest structure,
types as well as expanses of exposed soil, rock, and water canopy gaps, sub-canopy moisture regimes, and surface
based on their characteristic spectral response profiles using roughness variations highlighting zones of subtler subsur-
well-established techniques like supervised classification face hydrological or permeability contrast across lithologies
and vegetation indices. The spectral signatures of photo- which may focus metal-bearing solutions (Homolová et al.
synthetically and non-photosynthetically active vegetation 2013; Kulkarni et al. 2023).
showed obvious differences and could be utilised to esti- Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR): Radar sensors, espe-
mate the forage quantity and quality of grass prairie. The cially SAR, are effective for mapping topography and
growing availability of satellite multispectral imagery at detecting surface deformation associated with geologi-
medium (10–30 m) to high (0.5–4 m) spatial resolutions cal structures. SAR can penetrate cloud cover and provide
with regular revisit intervals provided by Landsat, Sentinel, information about terrain characteristics. Differential SAR
SPOT, Quickbird, IKONOS, WorldView, etc. enables ver- interferometry enables the measurement of very subtle
satile and up-to-date-land-cover monitoring capabilities tai- (mm-scale) ground displacements over copper mining
lored to user requirements (El-Desoky et al. 2023; Khaleghi regions, identifying active faults, subsidence or uplift haz-
et al. 2020; Xie et al. 2008). ards. Fusion of SAR, multispectral optical data and DEMs
enhances lithological discrimination and geological struc-
Regional land cover mapping ture identification in densely vegetated terrains covering
mineralisation (Ahmadi and Pekkan 2021; Ciampalini et al.
Medium-resolution multispectral satellite data enables effi- 2014; Dharaiya 2022; Fang et al. 2023).
cient categorical land cover classification across landscapes Automated analysis techniques including machine learn-
spanning hundreds of square kilometers through proven ing-based digital image classification algorithms (random
techniques like supervised classification algorithms and forest, support vector machine, etc.) as well as deep learn-
spectral vegetation indices. This facilitates reconnaissance ing convolutional neural networks enable efficient interpre-
of vegetation and soil discrimination, aiding early copper tation at large spatial extents through time with accuracy
exploration targeting and resource estimation where exten- similar to or higher than manual analysis for land cover
sive drilling is not yet warranted. 30-meter Landsat time classification and change regimes. With ongoing computing
series composites calibrated to field spectra observations progress, object-based image analysis (OBIA) approaches
now classify land cover with accuracy rivaling manual enable combining spectral information from remote sensing
efforts, expanding this cost-effective information layer (Wu data with spatial textural and contextual data as well as geo-
et al. 2023). metric criteria through segmentation algorithms to derive
Continuously enhanced data availability via cloud anal- meaningful land cover classification maps representative of
ysis platforms facilitates multitemporal observation for surface terrain (Machireddy 2023; Jung et al. 2022).

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3992 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

Impacts of land cover changes on subsurface landforms that are expected to be relatively homogeneous
conditions in terms of their parent material. Soil–landform maps are
therefore useful tools for identifying the areas where differ-
Mapping the extent of exposed bedrock expanses devoid of ent geomorphic processes dominate (Mulder et al. 2011).
soil or vegetation cover can indicate accelerated erosion and
weathering regimes caused by subsurface mineral leach- Case studies highlighting land cover assessments
ing or lithological fracturing, providing clues to hydrologi- using remote sensing
cally active fault zones or chemical fronts. Characterising
vegetation distribution patterns over a terrain helps discern Quantifying mining-induced shifts in land use and land
subsurface lithological and structural influences which may cover (LULC) is an ethical priority for environmental moni-
focus on runoff, determine erosion, or modify deposition toring and sustainable land management. Impacts of min-
processes affecting copper migration (Hahm et al. 2013). ing include natural resource exploitation (material removal
A comprehensive assessment in the Lubumbashi area or dislocation), biotic, and abiotic environmental degrada-
combined high-resolution aerial and satellite imagery, par- tion, and land use conflicts. Both underground activities and
ticularly Google Earth images, with geochemical analysis of extensive open pit excavation can dramatically transform
termite mounds to identify potential copper deposits (Vran- vegetation, landforms, hydrology, and soil properties across
ken et al. 2014; Mpinda et al. 2022; Zhang et al. 2017). High- expanding footprints. Systematically tracking such LULC
resolution aerial and satellite imagery effectively assess changes through temporal analysis of aerial photography
termite mound density, position, and distribution, aiding in and satellite data is therefore vital (Szilassi et al. 2014).
systematic mapping for copper deposit exploration. Field The following case studies demonstrate some of the diverse
surveys in February 2010 validated this approach, high- applications of multispectral, hyperspectral, and radar sat-
lighting that remote sensing can reduce the costs and efforts ellite data integrated with aerial photography for impact
of extensive fieldwork (Vranken et al. 2014; Ikponmwen assessments and regulatory compliance audits across some
and Oyibo 2023; Saylam et al. 2023; Wei 2020). Termite mine sites.
mounds, identified through these images, exhibit signifi-
cantly higher concentrations of copper and cobalt compared Vegetation anomaly detection for mineral exploration
to non-mineralised areas. Copper concentrations were up
to nine times higher, and cobalt reached up to 630 ppm in LULC dynamics enhance preliminary regional mineral
mounds over mineralised deposits. Chemical speciation exploration by revealing surface signatures indicating
analyses showed cobalt in a reducible form and copper in prospective subsurface deposits. Vegetation patterns and
both reducible and residual forms, underscoring termite anomalies can serve as indicators of underlying copper
mounds as valuable indicators for Cu-Co mineralisation mineralisation, with certain plant species exhibiting stress
(Mpinda et al. 2022; Gyozo and Schott 2005; Sahbeni et al. or unique spectral characteristics when growing in soils
2023). Integrating remote sensing for land cover assessment enriched with copper or other associated metals (Lin et al.
with geochemical analysis of termite mounds enhances the 2021; Haest et al. 2007). Landsat and ASTER multispectral
accuracy of identifying potential copper deposits. This com- data can be used to identify correlations between clay min-
bined strategy leverages the strengths of both methods, pro- eralogy distributions and vegetation anomalies, which may
viding a comprehensive tool for copper deposit exploration be used to detect concealed copper mineralisation in Fiji.
(Vranken et al. 2014; Mpinda et al. 2022; Ganci et al. 2012; They found distinct vegetation anomalies over known min-
Gautam and Mehta 2015; Wang et al. 2022). eralised areas, demonstrating the potential of multispectral
Analysing vegetation succession patterns as well as soil data for early-stage exploration. However, once terrains are
geochemical changes over areas affected by mining-induced disturbed by open pit development, operational monitoring
land subsidence or water table variations provides insights must shift focus to quantifying ecological impacts. Landsat
into sub-surface volumetric shifts and hydrogeological and ASTER multispectral data are useful tools for mapping
impacts related to copper-bearing geologies. Modeling the rapid expansion of bare ground and road infrastructure
relationships between surface soil formation, composition, due to copper mining at Peru’s Antamina deposit over 20
and vegetative cover with subsurface bedrock weathering years (Crosta et al. 2003; Sahbeni et al. 2023).
profiles provide indications of original host rock lithology In the Dexing Copper Mine, Jiangxi Province of China,
and alteration critical for copper genesis models. A common a comprehensive study employed on a remotely sensed
way of spatially segmenting the landscape is to divide it image in order to verify the effectiveness of the copper
into internally more or less homogeneous and mutually con- stress vegetation index (CSVI) on vegetation patterns asso-
trasting landform units. Soil–landform units are specialised ciated with copper mineralisation. The researchers used

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000 3993

data preprocessing for the Hyperion image, including band analysis of spectral reflectance data (Rowan et al. 2006). For
removal, radiometric calibration, and atmospheric correc- instance, the presence of minerals such as alunite, kaolinite,
tion. Regions with high vegetation cover were identified, and sericite, which are commonly associated with porphyry
and the Copper Stress Vegetation Index (CSVI) was cal- copper systems, can be mapped using hyperspectral sensors
culated for these areas (Zhang et al. 2019). Soil and leaf that capture data in the short-wave infrared (SWIR) region
samples showed a significant positive correlation between of the electromagnetic spectrum (Pour et al. 2023).
CSVI values and copper content, particularly near copper In the Duolong copper porphyry district, Tibet, a com-
mining regions and polluted rivers. This study demonstrates prehensive study employed ASTER Principal Component
the effectiveness of CSVI in monitoring copper stress on Analysis (PCA) and Ratio methods to identify alteration
vegetation using satellite hyperspectral images and provides minerals and zones. The researchers selected ASTER data
a comprehensive example of its application at the satellite- due to its wide spectral coverage and high spectral reso-
image scale (Zhang et al. 2019; Pour et al. 2013; Ruszkic- lution, allowing for effective differentiation of alteration
zay-Rüdiger et al. 2009). minerals and assemblages. The study mapped alteration
The vegetation mapping at the Kansanshi Hill copper zones by integrating various methods such as Ratio, Slope,
mine in Zambia identified various ecological units charac- and PCA to extract mineral anomalies. This resulted in the
terised by their unique flora and heavy metal content, fea- development of a Remote Sensing (RS)-based alteration
turing both common plant species and specialized flora that zonation model that aligns well with geological observa-
thrive in copper-rich environments (Fu et al. 2023). Remote tions in the district (Sun et al. 2018; Mahnaz et al. 2023).
sensing techniques, particularly those utilising vegetation Spectra were collected using the FieldSpec3 instrument
indices like the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index and processed using PimaView software to analyze altera-
(NDVI), can help identify subtle variations in plant health tion minerals. A total of 280 surface samples were collected
and distribution, potentially highlighting areas of interest for and analysed for their spectral characteristics. The resultant
further exploration (Ciampalini et al. 2014). Through sys- RS-based alteration zonation model effectively identified
tematic sampling and analysis, researchers documented the multiple hydrothermal centers within the Duolong ore dis-
presence of several hyperaccumulator plants, such as Chei- trict, providing a valuable tool for mineral exploration and
lanthes perlanata, Bulbostylis pseudoperennis, and Cyanotis prospecting. The study highlighted the model’s applicabil-
longifolia, which have a remarkable ability to absorb and ity to similar porphyry copper deposits and suggested future
tolerate high concentrations of copper (Leteinturier et al. integration with UAV hyperspectral imaging for enhanced
2001). The mapping process revealed distinct vegetation mineral identification (Yao et al. 2021; Khaleghi et al. 2020;
zones corresponding to different soil copper concentrations Pour et al. 2013).
and types of mining disturbances, underscoring the strong In the Kahang area, ASTER remote sensing data was
correlation between specific vegetation patterns and under- utilised to enhance the identification of land cover related
lying copper deposits. For instance, Unit 2, characterized by to copper deposits. Remote sensing techniques, including
a vertical wall with a shadowed area, showed high copper band ratioing and principal component analysis, delineated
levels and supported the growth of the hyperaccumulator phyllic, argillic, and propylitic alteration zones indicative of
fern Cheilanthes perlanata, while Unit 6, a reworked perme- a Cu-Mo porphyry deposit (Barak et al. 2017; El-Desoky
able peneplain, displayed extreme copper toxicity yet was et al. 2022; Khaleghi et al. 2020). These alteration anoma-
colonized by resilient species such as Bulbostylis pseudo- lies were concentrated around the intersections of regional
perennis. These findings highlight the importance of vegeta- fault and fracture patterns, revealing subsurface permeabil-
tion mapping in identifying and managing areas of heavy ity pathways for ascending copper-enriched hydrothermal
metal contamination and suggest potential applications of fluids. Image processing methods facilitated the recogni-
phytoremediation techniques to mitigate the environmental tion of sericite, kaolinite, and chlorite, which are critical
impacts of mining activities (Leteinturier et al. 2001; Lin et alteration minerals. Verification drilling across zones delin-
al. 2021). eated through these remote sensing techniques encoun-
tered planned targets, showing a close agreement between
Identifying hydrothermal alteration patterns for copper surface expressions and subsurface copper grades (Barak
exploration et al. 2017). Integrated analysis using fuzzy inference tech-
niques enabled the identification of areas with high poten-
One of the primary applications of remote sensing in cop- tial for copper deposits. These areas were validated using
per exploration is the identification of hydrothermal altera- borehole data, revealing a 70.6% agreement between the
tion patterns. These alteration zones, often characterised by model results and actual borehole data (Kokaly et al. 2014;
specific mineral assemblages, can be detected through the Labdaoui et al. 2023; Pour et al. 2013). This comprehensive

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3994 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

approach combining remote sensing data with ground-based These case studies highlight the immense potential of
geological and geochemical data significantly enhanced the remote sensing tools for standardised land cover monitoring
accuracy of mineral potential mapping. The study under- to balance mineral exploration priorities against ecological
scores the effectiveness of remote sensing in conjunction conservation needs. Continually improving earth observa-
with traditional geoscientific methods for mineral explora- tion datasets supports transparent sustainability planning
tion, particularly in arid regions where residual soil samples while advancing subsurface prospectivity modelling. Going
are crucial for geochemical analysis. The methodological forward, regional cumulative impact analyses should inform
framework provided a robust tool for identifying high- undiscovered deposit targeting to ensure responsible devel-
potential zones in the Kahang area, showcasing the capabil- opment according to social license conditions. Integrating
ity of remote sensing in mineral exploration (Barak et al. remote sensing with other environmental monitoring data
2017; Ciampalini et al. 2014; Lin et al. 2021; Fu et al. 2023). might provide strong audits to match commercial and eco-
logical imperatives as resource extraction expands to fulfil
Reconciling mineral prospectivity against regional global mineral demands. Synthesising remote sensing with
cumulative impacts other environmental monitoring data can provide robust
auditing to align economic and ecological imperatives as
Advancing industry sustainability requires reconciling resource extraction continues expanding to meet global
mineral prospectivity against escalating regional cumula- mineral demands.
tive impacts before further undiscovered deposits poten-
tially expand degradative footprints. Quantifying LULC
transformations is consequently imperative to constrain Multi-sensor integration for holistic
unavoidable mining impacts. Integrated analysis of aerial subsurface-surface analysis
and satellite earth observation data provides immense capa-
bility to ethically align economic and ecological priorities if Validation and calibration using geological, geochemical,
resource development is to progress responsibly according and geophysical field data remain essential to avoid superfi-
to social license conditions. Ultimately, continually improv- cial correlations and derive accurate subsurface inferences.
ing remote sensing technologies must align subsurface min- Direct subsurface measurements from outcrop observa-
eral targeting capabilities with ecological impact auditing tions, ore microscopy, borehole logging, seismic profil-
tools to support responsible resource development (Ganguly ing, and groundwater sampling guide conceptual models
2023). Transparent land cover monitoring provides immense and constrain remote sensing interpretations (Yang 2020;
capability to advance sustainability if discoveries are to Dentith et al. 2019; Rajaram et al. 2009). Deposit classifica-
expand without untenable environmental consequences. tion frameworks representing the current multidisciplinary
understanding of processes and models involved in differ-
Documenting downstream mangrove impacts ent copper ore systems provide helpful archetypes to adapt
sensor combinations and guide data integration strategies
Transparently documenting cumulative environmental deg- toward answering specific geological questions (Folkes
radation such as downstream sedimentation or coral reef 2017). A classic model of dextral simple-shear deformation
contamination is vital for maintaining responsible opera- in a strike-slip fault zone is introduced to illustrate the for-
tions. Expanses of terrain disturbed by ever-expanding mation of folds and faults under the deformation regime.
pits and waste piles now often exceed actual mining foot- As the fault zone initiates, a structural system consisting of
prints. Combined Landsat, and aerial photo analysis were conjugate strike-slip faults, folds, reverse faults, and normal
employed to assess extensive mangrove habitat degradation faults, forms (Sun et al. 2018). Appropriate remote sensing
along coastal rivers downstream of copper mine sites in data assimilation guided by suitable deposit models can thus
Papua New Guinea. This comprehensive approach evalu- provide valuable insights into elusive subsurface environ-
ated changes in mangrove extent, fragmentation, and condi- ments hosting concealed copper resources.
tion to reveal growing cumulative losses over the last few Regional airborne/satellite potential field magnetic and
decades, highlighting acid mine drainage, tailings runoff, gravity data provides critical baseline constraints on base-
and shipping traffic as potential impact factors. The calcula- ment geological domains, structural fabric, and regional
tion is more difficult in the case of forests subject to periodic alteration footprints to contextualise surface expressions
selective logging because of variations in the proportion of within broader subsurface environments (Liu et al. 2014).
the biomass in a logged-over forest that remains intact or is Assimilating such regional geophysical context enables
dead and left to decay (Jones et al. 2019). more accurate multi-scale analysis. Advances in computer
technology and computational algorithms have led to major

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000 3995

advances in computational geosciences. Medium to high- 1-meter pixel sizes coupled with improved VNIR-SWIR
resolution multispectral optical and SAR data facilitate spectral discrimination capabilities to facilitate detailed
reconnaissance geological mapping of surface materials, structural and lithological mapping (Bašić 2023; Ciam-
structures, and landforms, and offer continuous coverage palini et al. 2014; van der Werff and van der Meer 2016).
bridging field sites (Yusoff et al. 2015). Suitable processing Several simulation studies have been conducted that show
and integrative analysis reveal critical connections between the potential of Sentinel-2 for estimating biophysical and
exposed surface terrain and subsurface environments. biochemical parameters such as leaf Area Index, chloro-
Topographic data derived from photogrammetry, LiDAR phyll, and nitrogen, and spectral products such as the red
surveys, and radar digital elevation models enables quantita- edge position and NDVI time series, providing data conti-
tive landform analysis to identify subtle surface expressions nuity for several other operational sensors (Ndatuwong and
of geological structures or intrusive centers based on drain- Yadav 2014; Wei 2020). Wider availability and coverage of
age patterns, ridges, erosion levels, and textural anomalies airborne hyperspectral surveying at competitive costs prom-
(Pike 2002). Pre-processing performed on the hyperspectral ises to expand regional access, while upcoming spaceborne
dataset involved a MODTRAN (MODerate resolution atmo- hyperspectral missions expand these capabilities to global
spheric TRANsmission) model to derive surface reflectance recurrent monitoring between 2025 and 2030 as the Euro-
values. Hyperspectral data provides immense detail through pean CHIME and Indian HySIS satellites launch alongside
spectroscopic identification of surface mineral assemblages commercial SmallSat constellations (Masoud and Koike
indicative of subsurface alteration zones or lithological 2011; Yusoff et al. 2015; Pour et al. 2023).
domains that may demarcate prospective areas or vectors Evolving C-Band and L-Band synthetic aperture radar
towards concealed mineralisation fronts (van der Werff and satellite sensors like NISAR, SAOCOM, and ROSE-L can
van der Meer 2016). provide all-weather, vegetation, and night-illumination
Combining optical multispectral imagery with synthetic independent terrestrial imaging to overcome persistent
aperture radar facilitates the cross-platform enhancement cloud cover challenges through niche long wavelength
of subsurface structural detections, as radar penetrates dry penetration capacities (Calvin et al. 2015; Duz et al. 2023).
cover and canopy to complement optical lithological and Progress in image super-resolution reconstruction facilitates
textural discrimination of geologic features. Thermal infra- the enhancement of coarse multispectral data to improve
red data enables the identification of heated zones associ- readable spatial resolutions, while spectral mixture analy-
ated with hydrothermal alteration, volcanic centers, faults, sis techniques help derive sub-pixel scale information to
or shallow igneous intrusions based on temperature anoma- overcome limitations due to mixed pixel effects at narrow
lies highlighting structurally controlled heat conduits that alteration fronts or small mineralisation zones. Therefore,
may focus subsurface fluid fluxes linked to copper ore for- hyperspectral data are also widely used in the study of
mation (Ourhzif et al. 2019). mineralisation and alteration information extraction, with
Constraining spatial changes over time through joint significant progress and strong results when used in com-
analysis of multi-temporal optical imagery facilitates the bination with traditional geological prospecting (Betts et al.
detection of active erosional and depositional regimes 2003; Joyce et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2017).
induced by lithological, structural, or compositional subsur- Advanced indirect mineral mapping methodologies like
face variability that provide indirect indications of prospec- the MICA algorithm suite integrate multiple band ratios
tive copper-bearing environments. Ultimately, synergistic across the VNIR-SWIR-TIR wavelength range to iden-
integration and joint analysis must link surface sensor obser- tify characteristic alteration assemblages associated with
vations with direct subsurface measurements from geologi- subsurface copper-enriched domains, overcoming limited
cal field sampling, drill holes, and geophysical surveys to direct mineral detection capacities (Colomina and Molina
robustly calibrate, validate, and refine geological interpreta- 2014; Machireddy 2023). Hybrid integrated approaches
tions within suitable deposit model conceptual frameworks combining imaging spectroscopy outputs with geochemical,
(El-Desoky et al. 2023; Tapley et al. 2004). geophysical, and field geological datasets through statisti-
cal, machine learning and 3D inversion techniques promise
significantly improved subsurface characterisation by lever-
Emerging technologies and techniques aging multiple types of complementary data (Lewis et al.
2017; Saylam et al. 2023).
Progressively improving spatial and spectral resolutions are Expanding machine learning capabilities including con-
available through forthcoming commercial satellite sensors volutional neural networks, random forest algorithms, and
like WorldView-Legion, EnMAP, SHALOM, and the Ital- expert systems facilitate increasing automation and objectiv-
ian PRISMA which provide hyperspatial capacities below ity in multi-parametric feature extraction and classification

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3996 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

from remote sensing inputs for target signature recognition explorers through responsive bilateral feedback driving
across terrains (Duz et al. 2023). The development of com- well-informed science prioritisation and solution customi-
pelling discriminative features from the feature space is the sation tailored to address genuine field challenges. As the
most critical step in classifying remote sensing sequences. A supporting role of renewable copper expands exponentially
significant amount of images are captured daily by sophis- within the global energy transition and sustainable develop-
ticated satellites. Retrieving and correctly classifying these ment, critical material constraints necessitate urgently har-
images becomes a challenge (Kumari and Kaul 2023). nessing every available exploration tool through efficient
Sophisticated 3D inversions assimilating surface expres- leveraging of existing data and prudent investments into
sions extracted from geophysics, multispectral imagery, and disruptive techniques holding promise for unlocking sub-
topography models with borehole logs and geochemistry stantial concealed resources.
help validate geological concepts against physical mea-
surements from multiple datasets through thermodynami- Author contributions Matthieu Tshanga: writing original draft. Lin-
dani Ncube: Supervision. Elan van Niekerk: Supervision.
cally constrained models highlighting environments of high
mineralisation potential (Betts et al. 2003; Pepe and Calò Funding This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
2017; Wellmann and Caumon 2018). agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Open access funding provided by University of South Africa.

Conclusion Data availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the

current study.

The research highlights the substantial potential of remote

Declarations
sensing in advancing our understanding of subsurface cop-
per deposits, particularly in areas where traditional geo- Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
logical fieldwork is hampered by access issues or overlying
cover. Case studies from diverse copper deposit models— Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
including porphyry and, IOCG—demonstrate that remote Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format,
sensing can effectively illuminate concealed terrains, pro-
as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
viding critical insights where conventional methods fall source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate
short. To unlock the full transformative potential of these if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
technologies, further advancements are needed, such as article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless
indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
higher-resolution multispectral and hyperspectral imag-
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended
ing, along with sophisticated data extraction algorithms use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted
that integrate emerging machine learning and 3D inversion use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright
techniques. These enhancements are essential for improv- holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/.
ing indirect targeting of subsurface copper deposits through
surface manifestations.
.Achieving these advancements requires a concerted
effort between remote sensing researchers and exploration References
geologists. Collaborative approaches should focus on val-
Abdel-Maksoud H (2023) Combining UAV-LiDAR and UAV-pho-
idate-refine cycles, ensuring that surface observations and togrammetry for bridge assessment and infrastructure monitor-
interpretations are rigorously compared with actual below- ing Research Square Platform LLC. https://doi.org/10.21203/
surface data from drill cores and geophysical surveys to rs.3.rs-2842209/v1
Abdelouhed F, Ahmed A, Abdellah A, Yassine B, Mohammed I (2022)
enhance accuracy and build trust. In regions lacking sys-
GIS and remote sensing coupled with analytical hierarchy pro-
tematic baseline data coverage, strategic campaigns for sys- cess (AHP) for the selection of appropriate sites for landfills: a
tematic airborne geoscientific surveying facilitated through case study in the province of Ouarzazate, Morocco. J Eng Appl
coordinated industry consortiums promise immense high- Sci 69:19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s44147-021-00063-3
Ahmadi H, Pekkan E (2021) Fault-based geological lineaments extrac-
quality data gains over poorly understood copper pro-
tion using remote sensing and GIS—A review. Geosciences
spective terrains through cost sharing while upholding 11(5):183. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11050183
responsible and transparent environmental stewardship Aslan G, Foumelis M, Raucoules D, De Michele M, Bernardie S,
The ultimate realisation of remote sensing’s immense Cakir Z (2020) Landslide mapping and monitoring using Persis-
tent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) technique in the French Alps.
potential contributions boosting copper discoveries
Remote Sens 12(8):1305. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12081305
demands durable reciprocal alignments balancing technol- Bahrami Y, Hassani H, Maghsoudi A (2021) Investigating the capabili-
ogy push from researchers and authoritative user pull from ties of multispectral remote sensors data to map alteration zones

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000 3997

in the Abhar area, NW Iran. Geosystem Eng 24(1):18–30. https:// El-Desoky HM, Tende AW, Abdel-Rahman AM, Ene A, Awad HA,
doi.org/10.1080/12269328.2018.1557083 Fahmy W, El-Awny H, Zakaly HMH (2022) Hydrothermal altera-
Barak S, Bahroudi A, Jozanikohan G (2017) Exploration of Kahang tion mapping using landsat 8 and ASTER data and geochemical
porphyry copper deposit using advanced integration of geologi- characteristics of Precambrian rocks in the Egyptian Shield: a
cal, remote sensing, geochemical, and magnetics data. J Min case study from Abu Ghalaga, southeastern desert. Egypt Remote
Environ. https://doi.org/10.22044/jme.2017.5419.1357 Sens 14(14):3456. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14143456
Bašić T (2023) Introductory chapter: satellite altimetry – overview. In El-Desoky H, Shebl A, El-Awny H, El-Rahmany MM (2023) Detecting
IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112394 oxides mineralization utilizing remote sensing and comprehen-
Betts PG, Valenta RK, Finlay J (2003) Evolution of the Mount Woods sive mineralogical analysis: a case study around Mikbi-Zayatit
Inlier, northern Gawler Craton, Southern Australia: an integrated District, South Eastern Desert, Egypt. Geol J Iraq 56(1E):97–130.
structural and aeromagnetic analysis. Tectonophysics 366(1– https://doi.org/10.46717/igj.56.1E.8ms-2023-5-18
2):83–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-1951(03)00062-3 Erol S, Özögel E, Kuçak RA, Erol B (2020) Utilizing Airborne LiDAR
Bournas N, Clements E, Hearst R (2015) Discovery of polymetallic and UAV Photogrammetry techniques in local geoid model deter-
porphyry at the Silver queen, British Columbia using airborne EM mination and validation. ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf 9(9):528. https://
and TITAN-24 DCIP and MT surveys. Geophysics 78(4):B205– doi.org/10.3390/ijgi9090528
B215. https://doi.org/10.1190/INT-2013-0044.1 Fan J, Xu Y, Zhang Y (2023) Evaluating land restoration based on
Calvin WM, Littlefield EF, Kratt C (2015) Remote sensing of the land cover in the Horqin Sandy Land, China. Environ Sci
geothermal-related minerals for resource exploration in Pollut Res Int 30(38):88417–88430. https://doi.org/10.1007/
Nevada. Geothermics 53:517–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. s11356-023-28260-y
geothermics.2014.09.002 Fang Z, Wang Y, Van Westen CJ, Lombardo L (2023) Space–time
Cathles LM, Smith AT (1983) Thermal constraints on the formation of landslide susceptibility modeling based on data-driven methods.
Mississippi Valley-type lead-zinc deposits and their implications Math Geosci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11004-023-10105-6
for episodic basin dewatering and deposit genesis. Econ Geol Farahbakhsh E, Chandra R, Olierook HKH, Scalzo R, Clark C, Reddy
78(5):983–1002. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.78.5.983 SM, Muller RD (2020) Computer vision-based framework for
Chitalin AF, Baraboshkin EE, Sivkov DV, Fomichev EV, Mikhaylov extracting geological lineaments from optical remote sensing
AS, Chikatueva VY, Popov SS, Grishin EM (2020) Geological data. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1810.02320
analysis and machine learning for deposits prediction. Institute Folkes CB (2017) An integrative approach to investigating crustal
of Geotechnology LLC, Moscow Russia; Skoltech, Digital Petro- architecture and cover thickness in the Southern Thomson region:
leum, Moscow Russia modelling new geophysical data (Report 2017/01). Geoscience
Ciampalini A, Bardi F, Bianchini S, Frodella W, Del Ventisette C, Australia. https://doi.org/10.11636/Record.2017.001
Moretti S, Casagli N (2014) Analysis of building deformation in Fu Y, Cheng Q, Jing L, Ye B, Fu H (2023) Mineral prospectivity
landslide area using multisensor PSInSAR™ technique elsevier mapping of porphyry copper deposits based on remote sensing
BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2014.05.011 imagery and geochemical data in the Duolong ore district, Tibet.
Clark RN (1999) Chapter 1: Spectroscopy of rocks and minerals, and Remote Sens 15(2):439. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15020439
principles of spectroscopy. In: Rencz AN(ed), Manual of remote Ganci G, Vicari A, Capello A, Del Negro C (2012) An emergent strat-
sensing, Volume 3, Remote sensing for the earth sciences (pp egy for volcano hazard assessment: from thermal satellite moni-
3–58). John Wiley andSons, New York toring to lava flow modeling. Remote Sens Environ 119:197–207.
Colomina I, Molina P (2014) Unmanned aerial systems for photogram- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2011.12.021
metry and remote sensing: a review. ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Ganguly P (2023) Applications of remote sensing and GIS in mineral
Sens 92:79–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2014.02.013 exploration. Int J Res Appl Sci Eng Technol 11(IX). https://doi.
Crosta AP, de Souza Filho CR, Azevedo F, Brodie C (2003) Target- org/10.22214/ijraset.2023.56592
ing key alteration minerals in epithermal deposits in Patagonia, Gautam S, Mehta S (2015) Critical review on deep learning method-
Argentina, using ASTER imagery and principal component ologies employed for water-body segmentation through remote
analysis. Int J Remote Sens 24(21):4233–4240. https://doi. sensing images. Multimedia Tools Appl. https://doi.org/10.1007/
org/10.1080/0143116031000152291 s11042-023-15764-5
Dentith M, Enkin RJ, Morris W, Adams C, Bourne B (2019) Petro- Gernhardt S, Bamler R (2012) Deformation monitoring of single
physics and mineral exploration: a workflow for data analysis and buildings using meter-resolution SAR data in PSI. ISPRS J Pho-
a new interpretation framework. Geophys Prospect. https://doi. togramm Remote Sens 73(1):68–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
org/10.1111/1365-2478.12882 isprsjprs.2012.06.009
Dewaele S, Muchez P, Vets J, Fernandez-Alonso M, Tack L (2006) Gojiya KM, Rank HD, Chauhan PM, Patel DV, Satasiya RM, Praj-
Multiphase origin of the Cu–Co ore deposits in the western apati GV (2023) Advances in soil moisture estimation through
part of the Lufilian fold-and-thrust belt, Katanga (Democratic remote sensing and GIS: a review. Int Res J Mod Eng Technol Sci
Republic of Congo). J Afr Earth Sci 46(5):455–469. https://doi. 5(10):2669. Retrieved from https://www.irjmets.com. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2006.08.002 org/10.56726/IRJMETS45716
Dharaiya A (2022) Remote sensing: An overview with fundamentals Gyozo J, Schott B (2005) Application of wavelet analysis to the study
and applications. Prithivya 2(1). Retrieved from https://www. of spatial pattern of morphotectonic lineaments in digital terrain
researchgate.net/publication/360142003_DHARAIYA_A_ models: a case study. Remote Sens Environ 94(1):31–38. https://
Remote_sensing_Remote_sensing_An_overview_with_funda- doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2004.08.013
mentals_and_applications Haest M, Muchez P, Dewaele S, Franey N, Tyler R (2007) Structural
Draganov D, Campman X, Thorbecke J, Verdel A, Wapenaar K (2009) control on the Dikulushi Cu-Ag deposit, Katanga, Democratic
Reflection images from ambient seismic noise. Geophysics Republic of Congo. Econ Geol 102(7):1321–1333. https://doi.
74(5):A63–A67. https://doi.org/10.1190/1.3193529 org/10.2113/gsecongeo.102.7.1321
Duz B, Moreira CA, Stanfoca Casagrande MF, Portes Innocenti Hahm WJ, Riebe CS, Lukens CE, Araki S (2013) Bedrock composition
Helene L (2023) Mapping the integrity of rock mass with GPR: regulates mountain ecosystems and landscape evolution. Proc
case study in decommissioning mining. SN Appl Sci 5:231. Natl Acad Sci 111(9). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1315667111
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-023-00123-4

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
3998 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

Hewson RD, Cudahy TJ, Mizuhiko S, Ueda K, Mauger AJ (2005) Lasheen ESR, Mohamed WH, Elyaseer MH, Rashwan MA, Azer
Seamless geological map generation using ASTER in the Bro- MK (2023) Geochemical and remote sensing integrated with
ken Hill-Curnamona province of Australia. Remote Sens Environ satellite gravity data of Darhib and Atshan talc deposits, South
99(1–2):159–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2005.05.010 Eastern Desert, Egypt. Sci Rep 13:9108. https://doi.org/10.1038/
Homolová L, Malenovský Z, Clevers JGPW, García-Santos G, Schaep- s41598-023-59101-z
man ME (2013) Review of optical-based remote sensing for plant Leteinturier B, Baker AJM, Bock L, Matera J, Malaisse F, Malaise
trait mapping. Ecol Complex 15:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. F (2001) Copper and vegetation at the Kansanshi Hill (Zambia)
ecocom.2013.06.003 copper mine. Belg J Bot 134(1):41–50. https://www.jstor.org/
Hussain M, Chen D, Cheng A, Wei H (2013) Change detection from stable/20794476
remotely sensed images: from pixel-based to object-based Lewis A, Oliver S, Lymburner L, Evans B, Wyborn L, Mueller N, Rae-
approaches. ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Sens 80:91–106. vksi G, Hooke J, Woodcock R, Sixsmith J, Wu W, Tan P, Li F,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2013.03.006 Killough B, Minchin S, Roberts D, Ayers D, Bala B, Dwyer J,
Ikponmwen MO, Oyibo CC (2023) Remote sensing application in soil Wang L-W (2017) The Australian Geoscience Data cube — foun-
moisture content estimation. J Energy Technol Environ. https:// dations and lessons learned. Remote Sens Environ 202:276–292.
doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8321372 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.03.015
Jones DOB, Durden JM, Murphy K, Gjerde KM, Gebicka A, Colaço A, Li W (2021) Metallogenic prediction of metal minerals based on
Morato T, Cuvelier D, Billett DSM (2019) Existing environmental remote sensing technology. J Phys Conf Ser 1852(2):022075.
management approaches relevant to deep-sea mining. Mar Policy https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1852/2/022075
103:172–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.01.006 Lin S, Chen N, He Z (2021) Automatic landform recognition from the
Joyce KE, Belliss SE, Samsonov SV, McNeill J, Glassey PJ perspective of watershed spatial structure based on digital eleva-
(2014) A review of the status of satellite remote sensing and tion models. Remote Sens 13(19):3926. https://doi.org/10.3390/
image processing techniques for mapping natural hazards rs13193926
and disasters. Prog Phys Geogr 33(2):183–207. https://doi. Liu LM, Sun T, Zhou RC (2014) Epigenetic genesis and magmatic
org/10.1177/0309133309105003 intrusion’s control on the Dongguashan stratabound Cu–Au
Jung S, Lee K, Lee WH (2022) Object-based high-rise building detec- deposit, Tongling, China: evidence from field geology and
tion using morphological building index and digital map. Remote numerical modeling. J Geochem Explor 144:97–114. https://doi.
Sens 14(2):330. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14020330 org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2014.03.008
Kamangar M, Minaei M (2023) Spatial analysis of soil salin- Liu C, Qiu C, Wang L, Feng J, Wu S, Wang Y (2023) Application
ity anomaly in Fars Province due to heavy spring rains. Water of ASTER Remote Sensing Data to Porphyry Copper Explora-
Soil Manage Model 3(2):36–49. https://doi.org/10.22098/ tion in the Gondwana Region. Minerals 13(4):501. https://doi.
mmws.2022.11226.1108 org/10.3390/min13040501
Khaleghi M, Ranjbar H, Abedini A, Calagari AA (2020) Synergetic Machireddy SR (2023) Mapping and change detection analysis of land
use of the Sentinel-2, ASTER, and Landsat-8 data for hydrother- use / land cover by using geospatial technologies. SN Appl Sci
mal alteration and iron oxide minerals mapping in a mine scale. 11(8):758–765
Acta Geodyn Geomater 17(3):311–328. https://doi.org/10.13168/ Mahnaz A, Ziaii M, Timkin T, Beiranvand Pour A (2023) Machine
AGG.2020.0018 learning (ML)-based copper mineralization prospectivity map-
Kokaly RF, Clark RN, Swayze GA, Livo KE, Hoefen TM, Pearson ping (MPM) using mining geochemistry method and remote
NC, Wise RA, Benzel W, Lowers HA, Driscoll RL, Klein AJ sensing satellite data. Remote Sens 15(15):3708. https://doi.
(2014) USGS Spectral Library Version 7. Data Ser 1035. https:// org/10.3390/rs15153708
doi.org/10.3133/ds1035 Masoud AA, Koike K (2011) Auto-detection and integration of tec-
Kokaly RF, Clark RN, Swayze GA, Livo KE, Hoefen TM, Pearson tonically significant lineaments from SRTM DEM and remotely-
NC, Wise RA, Benzel WM, Lowers HA, Driscoll RL, Klein AJ sensed geophysical data. ISPRS J Photogramm Remote Sens
(2017) USGS Spectral Library Version 7. U.S. Geological Survey 66(6):818–832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2011.08.003
Data Series, 1035. https://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/1035/ds1035.pdf Mbianya G, Ngnotue T, Takodjou Wambo JD, Ganno S (2021) Remote
Kresic N (1995) Remote sensing of tectonic fabric controlling ground- sensing satellite-based structural/alteration mapping for gold
water flow in Dinaric karst. Remote Sens Environ 53(2):85–90. exploration in the Ketté goldfield, Eastern Cameroon. J Afr Earth
https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(95)00042-Y Sci 184:104386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2021.104386
Kruse F (2010) Mineral mapping using spectroscopy: from field mea- McCafferty AE (2015) Shallow to deep crustal controls on localization
surements to airborne and satellite-based imaging spectrometry. of mesoproterozoic iron oxide copper-gold-rare earth element
Environmental Science, Geology, Physics, p 34743541 deposits in southeast Missouri (USA): evidence from gravity
Kulkarni SB, Che X (2019) Intelligent software tools for recruiting. J and magnetic interpretations. Gondwana Res 28(4):1313–1328.
Int Technol Inf Manag 28:1. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2014.12.006
jitim/vol28/iss2/1 McCaffrey KJW, Jones RR, Holdsworth RE, Wilson RW, Clegg P, Imber
Kulkarni NN, Raisi K, Valente NA, Benoit J (2023) Deep learning J, Holliman N, Trinks I (2005) Unlocking the spatial dimension:
augmented infrared thermography for unmanned aerial vehi- digital technologies and the future of geoscience fieldwork. J Geol
cles structural health monitoring of roadways. Autom Constr Soc 162:927–938. https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-764905-017
148(1):104784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2023.104784 Miliaresis GC (2001) Geomorphometric mapping of Zagros Ranges
Kumari M, Kaul A (2023) Deep learning techniques for remote sens- at regional scale. Comput Geosci 27(7):775–786. https://doi.
ing image scene classification: a comprehensive review, current org/10.1016/S0098-3004(00)00168-0
challenges, and future directions. Concurr Comput Pract Exp. Mohamed MA (2020) Classification of landforms for digital soil map-
https://doi.org/10.1002/cpe.7733 ping in urban areas using LiDAR data derived terrain attributes:
Labdaoui B, Benali H, Boughacha A, Khadidja M (2023) Mapping a case study from Berlin, Germany. Land 9(9):319. https://doi.
hydrothermal alterations and lineaments associated with epith- org/10.3390/land9090319
ermal and massive sulphides deposits of Tifraouine (northwest Mpinda MT, Mujinya BB, Mees F, Kasangij PK, Van Ranst E (2022)
Algerian coast): use of Landsat 8 OLI data and remote sensing. J Patterns and forms of copper and cobalt in Macrotermes falciger
Geol Soc Spain 36(1):3–15. https://doi.org/10.55407/rsge.96703

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000 3999

mounds of the Lubumbashi area, DR Congo. J Geochem Explor quaternary records of sea level changes. Water 13(4):566. https://
238:107002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2022.107002 doi.org/10.3390/w13040566
Mulder VL, de Bruin S, Schaepman ME, Mayr TR (2011) The use of Saylam K, Briseno A, Averett AR, Andrews JR (2023) Analysis of
remote sensing in soil and terrain mapping — a review. Geoderma depths derived by airborne lidar and satellite imaging to sup-
162(1–2):1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.12.018 port bathymetric mapping efforts with varying environmental
Navalgund R, Jayaraman V, Roy PS (2007) Remote sensing applica- conditions: lower Laguna Madre, Gulf of Mexico. Remote Sens
tions: an overview. Curr Sci 93(2) 15(24):5754. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15245754
Ndatuwong LG, Yadav GS (2014) Integration of hydrogeological fac- Shirmard H, Farahbakhsh E, Müller RD, Chandra R (2022) A review
tors for identification of groundwater potential zones using remote of machine learning in processing remote sensing data for min-
sensing and GIS techniques. J Geosci Geomat 2(1). https://doi. eral exploration. Remote Sens Environ 268:112750. https://doi.
org/10.12691/jgg-2-1-2 org/10.1016/j.rse.2021.112750
Osmanoğlu B, Sunar F, Wdowinski S, Cabral-Cano E (2015) Time Son Y-S, You B-W, Bang E-S, Cho S-J, Kim K-E, Baik H, Nam H-T
series analysis of InSAR data: methods and trends. ISPRS J Pho- (2021) Mapping alteration mineralogy in Eastern Tsogttsetsii,
togramm Remote Sens 115:90–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Mongolia, based on the WorldView-3 and field shortwave-infra-
isprsjprs.2015.10.003 red spectroscopy analyses. Remote Sens 13(5):914. https://doi.
Ourhzif Z, Algouti A, Algouti A, Hadach F (2019) Lithological map- org/10.3390/rs13050914
ping using landsat 8 OLI and ASTER multispectral data in Sun T, Xu Y, Yu X, Liu W, Li R, Hu Z, Wang Y (2018) Structural
Imini-Ounilla district South High Atlas of Marrakech. Int Arch controls on copper mineralisation in the Tongling Ore District,
Photogramm Remote Sens Spat Inform Sci 42:1255–1262. Eastern China: evidence from spatial analysis. Minerals 8(6):254.
https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W13-1255-2019 https://doi.org/10.3390/min8060254
Pepe A, Calò F (2017) A review of interferometric synthetic aperture Szilassi P, Abdelaal A, Jordan G (2014) Environmental modeling and
RADAR (InSAR) multi-track approaches for the retrieval of spatial landscape analysis for the contamination risk assessment
Earth’s surface displacements. Appl Sci 7(12):1264. https://doi. of sensitive areas. In: Unger J, Pál-Molnár E (eds) Geospheres
org/10.3390/app7121264 2014: results of the Doctoral School of Earth Sciences and Envi-
Pike (2002) A bibliography of geomorphometry, the quantitative rep- ronmental Sciences (Environmental Geography program) at the
resentation of topography; supplement 3.0 US Geological Survey. University of Szeged. Geolitera, Department of Physical Geogra-
https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr99140 phy and Geology, University of Szeged, Szeged, pp 9–38
Pour AB, Pour MG, Pour SM (2013) Detection of hydrothermal altera- Tapley BD, Bettadpur S, Watkins M, Reigber C (2004) The grav-
tion zones in a tropical region using satellite remote sensing data: ity recovery and climate experiment: Mission overview and
Bau Goldfield, Sarawak, Malaysia. Ore Geol Rev 54:181–196. early results. Geophys Res Lett 31(L09607). https://doi.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.03.010 org/10.1029/2004GL019920
Pour B, Guha A, Crispini L, Chatterjee S (2023) Editorial for the spe- van der Meer FD, van der Werff H, van Ruitenbeek FJA (2014) Poten-
cial issue entitled hyperspectral remote sensing from spaceborne tial of ESA’s Sentinel-2 for geological applications. Remote Sens
and low-altitude aerial/drone-based platforms—differences in Environ 148:124–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2014.03.022
approaches, data processing methods, and applications. Remote van der Werff, van der Meer (2016) Sentinel-2A MSI and landsat 8
Sens 15(21):5119. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15215119 OLI provide data continuity for geological remote sensing. MDPI
Rajaram M, Anand SP, Hemant K, Purucker ME (2009) Curie iso- AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8110883
therm map of Indian subcontinent from satellite and aeromag- Voorhies CV, Sabaka TJ, Purucker M (2002) On magnetic spectra
netic data. Earth Planet Sci Lett 281(3–4):147–158. https://doi. of Earth and Mars. J Geophys Res Planets 107(E6). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.epsl.2009.02.013. Curie isotherm map of Indian org/10.1029/2001JE001534
subcontinent from satellite and aeromagnetic data Vranken I, Adam M, Mujinya BB, Munyemba FK, Baert G, Van Ranst
Rajesh HM (2004) Application of remote sensing and GIS in mineral E, Visser M, Bogaert J (2014) Termite mound identification
resource mapping - an overview. J Mineral Petrol Sci 99(3):83– through aerial photographic interpretation in Lubumbashi, Dem-
103. https://doi.org/10.2465/jmps.99.83 ocratic Republic of the Congo: methodology evaluation. Trop
Rowan LC, Schmidt RG, Mars JC (2006) Distribution of hydrother- Conserv Sci 7(4):733–746. https://tropicalconservationscience.
mally altered rocks in the Reko Diq, Pakistan mineralized area mongabay.com/content/v7/TCS-2014_Vol_7(4)_733-746_Vran-
based on spectral analysis of ASTER data. Remote Sens Environ ken.pdf
104(1):74–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2006.05.014 Wang H, Yang R, Zhao L, Tian F, Yu S (2022) The application
Ruisi Z, Min Z, Jianping C (2011) Study on geological structural effect of remote sensing technology in hydrogeological inves-
interpretation based on Worldview-2 remote sensing image and tigation under big data environment. J Sens 8:1–12. https://doi.
its implementation. Procedia Environ Sci 10:653–659. Retrieved org/10.1155/2022/5162864
from https://www.sciencedirect.com Wellmann, Caumon (2018) 3-D structural geological models:
Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger Z, Fodor L, Horvath E, Telbisz T (2009) Discrim- Concepts, methods, and uncertainties Elsevier. https://doi.
ination of fluvial, eolian and neotectonic features in a low hilly org/10.1016/bs.agph.2018.09.001
landscape: a DEM-based morphotectonic analysis in the Central Wu C, Dai J, Zhou A, He L, Tian B, Lin W, Zhao T, Bai L (2023) Map-
Pannonian Basin, Hungary. Geomorphology 104(3–4):203–217. ping alteration zones in the Southern section of Yulong copper
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.08.016 belt, Tibet using multi-source remote sensing data. Front Earth
Sabins (1999) Remote sensing for mineral exploration. Ore Geol Rev Sci 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2023.1164131
14(3):157–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1368(99)00007-4 Xie Y, Sha Z, Yu M (2008) Remote sensing imagery in vegetation map-
Sahbeni G, Ngabire M, Musyimi PK, Székely B (2023) Challenges ping: a review. J Plant Ecol 1(1):9–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/
and opportunities in remote sensing for soil salinisation mapping jpe/rtm005
and monitoring: a review. Remote Sens 15(10):2540. https://doi. Yang W (2020) Application of Remote Sensing Technology in Geo-
org/10.3390/rs15102540 logical Surveying and Mapping. Remote Sens 9(2):34. https://
Savini A, Bracchi VA, Cammarosano A, Pennetta M, Russo F (2021) doi.org/10.18282/rs.v9i2.1370
Terraced landforms onshore and offshore the Cilento Promon- Yao F, Xu X, Yang J, Geng X (2021) A remote-sensing-based alter-
tory (South-Eastern Tyrrhenian Margin) and their significance as ation zonation model of the Duolong porphyry copper ore

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
4000 Earth Science Informatics (2024) 17:3979–4000

district, Tibet. Remote Sens 13(5073). https://doi.org/10.3390/ Zhang AR, Moreira CA, Paes SRA, Kerbauy Veloso DI (2017)
rs13245073 Joint interpretation of geological, magnetic, AMT, and ERT
Yousefifar S, Gharagozlou A, Asadi Harooni H (2009) May extraction data for mineral exploration in the northeast of inner mongolia,
of hydrothermal alteration from ASTER data by SAM method China Springer Science and Business Media LLC. https://doi.
in Dali Cu-Au porphyry deposit, central Iran. Paper presented at org/10.1007/s00024-017-1733-5
Geomatics 94 Conference, Tehran, NCC.ousefifar (2009). Extrac- Zhang C, Ren H, Huang Z, Li J (2019) Assessment of the application
tion of hydrothermal alteration from aster data by SAM method in of copper stress vegetation index on Hyperion image in Dexing
dali cu-au porphyry deposit, central iran Copper Mine, China. J Appl Remote Sens 13(1):1. https://doi.
Yusoff S, Pradhan B, Abd Manap M, Shafri H (2015) Regional gold org/10.1117/1.JRS.13.014511
potential mapping in Kelantan (Malaysia) using probabilistic
based models and GIS. Open Geosci 20157:149–161. https://doi. Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to juris-
org/10.1515/geo-2015-0012 dictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

13
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Terms and Conditions
Springer Nature journal content, brought to you courtesy of Springer Nature Customer Service Center GmbH (“Springer Nature”).
Springer Nature supports a reasonable amount of sharing of research papers by authors, subscribers and authorised users (“Users”), for small-
scale personal, non-commercial use provided that all copyright, trade and service marks and other proprietary notices are maintained. By
accessing, sharing, receiving or otherwise using the Springer Nature journal content you agree to these terms of use (“Terms”). For these
purposes, Springer Nature considers academic use (by researchers and students) to be non-commercial.
These Terms are supplementary and will apply in addition to any applicable website terms and conditions, a relevant site licence or a personal
subscription. These Terms will prevail over any conflict or ambiguity with regards to the relevant terms, a site licence or a personal subscription
(to the extent of the conflict or ambiguity only). For Creative Commons-licensed articles, the terms of the Creative Commons license used will
apply.
We collect and use personal data to provide access to the Springer Nature journal content. We may also use these personal data internally within
ResearchGate and Springer Nature and as agreed share it, in an anonymised way, for purposes of tracking, analysis and reporting. We will not
otherwise disclose your personal data outside the ResearchGate or the Springer Nature group of companies unless we have your permission as
detailed in the Privacy Policy.
While Users may use the Springer Nature journal content for small scale, personal non-commercial use, it is important to note that Users may
not:

1. use such content for the purpose of providing other users with access on a regular or large scale basis or as a means to circumvent access
control;
2. use such content where to do so would be considered a criminal or statutory offence in any jurisdiction, or gives rise to civil liability, or is
otherwise unlawful;
3. falsely or misleadingly imply or suggest endorsement, approval , sponsorship, or association unless explicitly agreed to by Springer Nature in
writing;
4. use bots or other automated methods to access the content or redirect messages
5. override any security feature or exclusionary protocol; or
6. share the content in order to create substitute for Springer Nature products or services or a systematic database of Springer Nature journal
content.
In line with the restriction against commercial use, Springer Nature does not permit the creation of a product or service that creates revenue,
royalties, rent or income from our content or its inclusion as part of a paid for service or for other commercial gain. Springer Nature journal
content cannot be used for inter-library loans and librarians may not upload Springer Nature journal content on a large scale into their, or any
other, institutional repository.
These terms of use are reviewed regularly and may be amended at any time. Springer Nature is not obligated to publish any information or
content on this website and may remove it or features or functionality at our sole discretion, at any time with or without notice. Springer Nature
may revoke this licence to you at any time and remove access to any copies of the Springer Nature journal content which have been saved.
To the fullest extent permitted by law, Springer Nature makes no warranties, representations or guarantees to Users, either express or implied
with respect to the Springer nature journal content and all parties disclaim and waive any implied warranties or warranties imposed by law,
including merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose.
Please note that these rights do not automatically extend to content, data or other material published by Springer Nature that may be licensed
from third parties.
If you would like to use or distribute our Springer Nature journal content to a wider audience or on a regular basis or in any other manner not
expressly permitted by these Terms, please contact Springer Nature at

[email protected]