“Quantum Mechanics-I”

PHY-212

Lecture 06
“Dirac Notation and Operators”

By: Dr. Inam Ullah

Dept. of Physics
KUST Kohat
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Outlines
1. Dirac Notation
2. Properties of kets, bras, and bra-kets
3. Operators
4. Conclusion

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Dirac Notation

• The physical state of a system is represented in quantum

mechanics by elements of a Hilbert space; these elements are
called state vectors.
• To free state vectors from coordinate meaning, Dirac introduced
what was to become an invaluable notation in quantum
mechanics; it allows one to manipulate the formalism of
quantum mechanics with ease and clarity.
• He introduced the concepts of kets, bras, and bra-kets,
which will be explained below.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Dirac Notation

• A notation that proves valuable tool in the calculation is called

Dirac Notation.
• Dirac proposed a special two notation in which one is called
“Bra” and the other is called “Ket”. It is also called as dirac-
bracket notation.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Dirac Notation

Kets: elements of a vector space

• Dirac denoted the state vector Ψ by the symbol |Ψ˃, which he

called a ket vector, or simply a ket. Kets belong to the Hilbert
(vector) space H, or, in short, to the ket-space.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Dirac Notation

Bras: elements of a dual space

• We know from linear algebra that a dual space can be
associated with every vector space. Dirac denoted the elements
of a dual space by the symbol < |, which he called a bra vector,
or simply a bra; for instance, the element <Ψ| represents a bra.
• Note: For every ket |Ψ˃ there exists a unique bra <Ψ| and vice
versa.
• Again, while kets belong to the Hilbert space H, the
corresponding bras belong to its dual (Hilbert) space Hd .

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Dirac Notation

Bra-ket: Dirac notation for the scalar product

• Dirac denoted the scalar (inner) product by the symbol < I >,
which he called a bra-ket. For instance, the scalar product (φ,
Ψ) is denoted by the bra-ket <φ I Ψ> :
(φ, Ψ) → <φ I Ψ>
• The object <φ I (called a "bra vector") joins in a product form
with ("ket vector") |Ψ˃ , to form the "bra-ket," <φ I Ψ>.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Dirac Notation

Properties of kets, bras, and bra-kets

• To every ket |Ψ˃, there corresponds a unique bra |Ψ˃ and vice
versa:
|Ψ˃ ↔ <Ψ|
• There is a one-to-one correspondence between bras and kets:
a |Ψ˃ + b |ϕ˃ ↔ a* |Ψ˃ + b* |ϕ˃
• where a and b are complex numbers. The following is a
common notation:
|aΨ˃ = a |Ψ˃, |aΨ˃ = a* |Ψ˃
Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -
- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Dirac Notation

Properties of the scalar product

• In quantum mechanics, since the scalar product is a complex
number, the ordering matters a lot. We must be careful to
distinguish a scalar product from its complex conjugate.
• For example, <Ψ | ϕ˃ is not the same thing as <ϕ |Ψ˃ :

<ϕ |Ψ˃ = <Ψ | ϕ˃

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Dirac Notation

The norm is real and positive

• For any state vector | Ψ ˃ of the Hilbert space H, the norm < Ψ |
Ψ ˃ is real and positive;
• < Ψ | Ψ ˃ is equal to zero only for the case where | Ψ ˃ = 0 ,
where 0 is the zero vector.
• If the state | Ψ ˃ is normalized then < Ψ | Ψ ˃ = 1

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Dirac Notation

Orthogonal states
• Two kets, | Ψ ˃ and | ϕ ˃, are said to be orthogonal if they have
a vanishing scalar product:
<Ψ|ϕ˃=0
Orthonormal states
• Two kets, | Ψ ˃ and | ϕ ˃, are said to be orthonormal if they are
orthogonal and if each one of them has a unit norm:
< Ψ | ϕ ˃ = 0, < Ψ | Ψ ˃ = 1, < ϕ | ϕ ˃ = 1

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Variables
• Dynamical Variables are those quantities which are used or defined
to describe or explain the motion of any physical quantity.
• Dynamical Variables are those physical quantities which are varies
or change with passage of time is called dynamical variables.
• In classical mechanics the variables are considered as a function
which gives us the value of any physical quantity.
I. Position
II. Momentum
III. Energy

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operators

Definition: An operator is a rule that transforms a given

function into another function.

For example  be an operator and f(x) be a function on

which  can act. If  operating on f(x) returns the
same function f(x) multiplied by a constant k, that is:

A f ( x )  kf ( x )
Then f(x) is an eigen-function of  with eigen-value k.
Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -
- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operators
• Now the transition from classical mechanics to QM, we introduced
the term, which is called operators.
• Some important variables in classical mechanics and associated
operators in QM are given as:
Operators In Classical Mechanics In QM
I. Position r ( x, y , z ) rˆ( x, y, z )

II. Momentum p  mv p̂  i 
P2
E  K .E  P.E Hˆ   v( r )
2m
III. Energy 1
E  (mv 2 )  mgh 
2 2
2 Hˆ   v( r )
Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 - 2m
- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operators
• Example: let the object D denotes the operation of differentiation w.
r. t the real variable “x”
• D = d/dx then
If f(x) = x3
D f(x) = d/dx(x3) = 3x2
• Since 3x2 is itself a function of “x2”, we see that the action of D on
f(x) gives us another function of “x”.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Linear Operator: An operator  is said to be linear for any wave
function Ψ1 and Ψ2, if it obey the following properties,

I. Aˆ ( 1  2 )  Aˆ 1  Aˆ 2

II. . Aˆ (c 1 )  cAˆ 1

Where C is a complex number

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Non-Linear Operator: An operator  is said to be non-linear for any
wave function Ψ1 and Ψ2, if it obey the following properties,

I. Aˆ ( 1  2 )  Aˆ 1  Aˆ 2
II. . Aˆ (c 1 )  cAˆ 1
Where C is a complex number

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Products of operators
The product of two operators is generally not commutative:

ˆ ˆ  BA
AB ˆˆ
The product of operators is, however, associative:

ˆ ˆ ˆ  Aˆ ( BC
ABC ˆ ˆ )  ( AB
ˆ ˆ )Cˆ

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Theorem No: 1. Prove that the operator Px is a linear operator.
Solution: Consider an operator Px which acts on a function of “x”. Let
f(x), g(x) and h(x) be any three arbitrary differentiable functions of “x”
and let λ be an arbitrary number, then,
Pˆx ( f ( x)  g ( x))  Pˆx f ( x)  Pˆx g ( x)
ˆ d
Px ( f ( x)  g ( x))  i ( f ( x)  g ( x))
dx
Pˆx ( f ( x)  g ( x))  i ( f ( x)  g ( x))

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Now multiply momentum operator Px to R.H.S of w-function f(x) and
g(x) individually, d d
Pˆx f ( x)  Pˆx g ( x)  i f ( x)  i g ( x)
dx dx
Pˆx f ( x)  Pˆx g ( x)  i f ( x)  i g ( x)

Pˆx ( f ( x)  g ( x))  i ( f ( x)  g ( x))

Comparing both equations
Pˆx ( f ( x)  g ( x))  Pˆx f ( x)  Pˆx g ( x)
Which is proved that operator Px is linear operator.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Squaring Operator: An operator S is said to be squaring operator if it
operates on wave-function and creates square on its wave-function.

Sˆ ( x )   x
2

Where S represents the squaring operator and Ψx is any wave-

function.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Theorem No: 2. Prove that square operator is non-linear operator.
Solution: Consider a squaring operator S, which operate on function
“f” and “g”,
S(f + g) = Sf + Sg
Taking LHS: S(f + g) = (f + g)2
Now taking RHS: Sf + Sg = f2 + g2
By comparing above equations
S(f + g) ≠ Sf + Sg
It is clear that the first property/condition for linearity of an operator is
not satisfied by the square operator that why square operator is non-
linear operator.
Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -
- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Complex Conjugate Operator: An operator C which operates on any
wave-function and convert it into complex conjugate.
• Consider any wave-function, such as “Ψ” then,
Ĉ   *

• In above equation, Ψ* is called complex conjugate of Ψ, and operator

C is called the complex conjugate operator.
• Adjoint Operator: The operator A† is called the adjoint of operator Â,
if
ˆ  dt   Aˆ  dt
 
* * * 
A
Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -
- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Identity Operator: An operator I is said to be an identity operator, if
it operates on any wave-function and again reproduced the same
wave-function is called Identity operator.

Consider any wave-function, then

Iˆ  

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Eigen-values and Eigen-vectors of an Operator
Having studied the properties of operators and states, we
are now ready to discuss how to find the eigen-values and
eigenvectors of an operator.
A state vector |Ψ˃ is said to be an eigenvector (also called
an eigen-ket or eigen-state) of an operator  if the
application of  to |Ψ˃ gives:

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Hermitian Operator: Any physical operator whose expectation value
is real is known as Hermitian operator.
• Any operator which satisfies the following equation is known as HO.
ˆ * ˆ
    
* *
A dt A . dt
• An operator  is called Hermitian operator if the self adjoint of
operator  is equal to the same operator Â.
ˆ ˆ
A A 

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operators

• Hermitian operators have two properties that form the basis

of quantum mechanics.
• First, the eigen-values of a Hermitian operator are real (as
opposed to imaginary or complex).
• Second, the eigen-functions of Hermitian operators are
orthogonal to each other or can be made orthogonal by
taking linear combinations of them.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operators

• Hamiltonian Operator is actually the total energy of the

system. It includes the K.E and P.E of the system.
• Hamiltonian is the energy Operator, which we operate on the
wave function of any quantum particle and we get the total
energy of the particle.
• It is represented by
Ĥ

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator

Ĥ  E
Here Ĥ is the Hamiltonian operator of which Ψ is an eigen-function,
and E is the eigen-value of Ψ and corresponds to the total energy of
the system.
Â  a

The function φ is called the eigen-function of an operator Â

corresponding to the eigen-value a.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Orthogonal Function: The two wave-function Ψx and ϕx are said to
be orthogonal if their inner product or dot product is equal to zero.

     0
In QM the inner product of two wave-function are:

       ( x ) ( x ) dx  0
2



The orthogonality condition is important in probability density.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
But if The inner product:

Then x x 1


  ( x ) dx  1

( x)


It is called normalize function

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
If the inner product of two different wave-function is equal to zero,
then the two wave-functions are said to be orthogonal to each other
and these are linearly independent to each other.
The two wave-functions Ψ(x) and ϕ(x) are said to be linearly
independent if, a  b  0 x x

Multiplying ϕ*(x) both sides, and taking integration:

a  x x  b x x  0
* *

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator

ax  b x  0
a  x * x  b  x * x  0

a  b  x *
0
b  x x  0
x
*
If a = 0 then, Dividing by “b”

  0
*
x x

 x x  0

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
If two wave-function are linearly independent, then their inner product
or dot product will be equal to zero.

Simultaneous Eigen Function: The eigen function Ψ is said to be

Simultaneous Eigen Function of operator A and B, If

Aˆ  
Bˆ  

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Degenerate Eigen Value: When an operator operates on several
linearly independent wave-function and its gives the same value “λ” is
called degenerate eigen value.
Consider an operator “P” which operates on any wave-function, then
Pˆ (    ..... ) 1 2 3 n

 
1 1  2 2  3 3  .....n n

If 1  2  3  n is called degenerate eigen value.

And if 1  2  3  n is called non-degenerate eigen value.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Parity Operator: An operator is said to be parity operator if it
operates on any wave-function and change its coordinate axis. The
function under parity operator may or may not be changed.
Parity operator is denoted by “π” and its eigen value is,
 x    x
Or
 r    r
Or  ( x , y , z )   (  x , y , z )
Or
  x   x
Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -
- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Operator
Odd Parity: The operator operating on a wave-function Ψx which
brings changes in the coordinate of the wave-function and satisfy the
following equation.
 x    x
Odd Parity: The operator operating on a wave-function Ψx which
brings changes in the coordinate of the wave-function and satisfy the
following equation.
 x    x

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Conclusion
• Dirac proposed to chop the bracket notation <ϕ |Ψ˃ for the
inner product, into two pieces, which he called bra <ϕ |, and ket
|Ψ˃.
• The latter is a vector, but what exactly is the former? It’s a linear
function of vectors, in the sense that when it hits a vector (to its
right) it yields a (complex) number—the inner product.
• When an operator hits a vector, it delivers another vector; when
a bra hits a vector, it delivers a number.

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]
Topic: Dirac Notation and Operators

Course: Quantum Mechanics-I, Course Code: PHY212 -

- Instructor: Dr. Inam Ullah, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Physics, KUST --
Email: [email protected]