North Eastern Mindanao State University

THERMODYNAMICS
Phys 2/Phys 2L

HELNER I. GOMEZ
Course Instructor
 About the Course
Course Information
COURSE CODE : Phys 2
COURSE DESCRIPTIVE TITLE : Thermodynamics
COURSE PRE-REQUISITE : Physics A and Physics 1
CREDIT UNITS : 3 Units Lecture and 1 Unit Laboratory
NO. OF HOURS : 54 hours Lecture and 54 hours Laboratory
COURSE DESCRIPTION :This course includes temperature and heat,
thermal properties of matter, and laws of thermodynamics.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
About the Course
Course References
Books
Giambattista, A. (2020). Physics (5th ed.) Mc Graw Hill.
Griffith W. T., Brosing, J. W., (2022). The Physics of the Everyday Phenomena: A
Conceptual Introduction to Physics (10th ed.). Mc Graw Hill.
Young, H. D., Freedman, R. A. (2020). University Physics (15th ed.) Pearson.
Serway, Raymond. (2018). University Physics. Cengage Publishing Pte Ltd.
E-books
Hugh D. Young, Roger A. Freedman (2020).University Physics with Modern Physics
15th Edition Instructors Solution Manual and Discussion Questions. Pearson.
https://1lib.ph/book/16369383/3002f2
Cutnell , J., Johnson, K. (2019) Physics (11th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
About the Course
Grading System
Major Exam : 40 %

Class Standing : 60 %
Quizzes/Problem Sets : 15 %
Oral Recitation : 15 %
Attendance : 10 %
Laboratory/Class Requirement : 20 %

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
 North Eastern Mindanao State University

THERMODYNAMICS
Phys 2/Phys 2L

HELNER I. GOMEZ
Course Instructor
What comes to your mind when you hear the
word “thermodynamics”?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
How do you differentiate heat and
temperature?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
What have you understood from the word
energy? How does it relate to heat?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
Give me at least one unit of temperature and
one for heat?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
How do you measure the temperature of a
person and how do you measure the heat of
an object?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
What do you think happens to the energy of a
system when it is heated or cooled?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
Differentiate endothermic to exothermic
processes

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
Give me an example that would show the
conservation of energy?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
What do you mean by heat transfer?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
Differentiate these three heat transfer
processes—conduction, convection and
radiation.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
 Thermodynamics

• Studies the concepts of heat and temperature and the

inter-conversion of heat and other forms of energy.

• The term thermodynamics was coined in 1749 by

William Thomson.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE
AND HEAT
Thermodynamics

HELNER I. GOMEZ
Course Instructor

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium

The terms “temperature” and “heat” are often used

interchangeably in everyday language.

TEMPERATURE is rooted in qualitative ideas

of “hot” and “cold” based on our sense of
touch
HEAT refers to energy transfer caused by
temperature differences
Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
TEMPERATURE is rooted in qualitative ideas of
“hot” and “cold” based on our sense of touch.

is actually vague.
Properties of matter that depend on temperature.
• the length of a metal rod;
• the steam pressure in a boiler;
• the ability of a wire to conduct an electric current; and
• the color of a very hot glowing object .

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

To use temperature as
a measure of hotness
or coldness, we need
to construct a
temperature scale.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
I. THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM.
After the thermometer settles
down to a steady value, you
read the temperature. The
system has reached an
equilibrium condition, in which
the interaction between the
thermometer and the coffee
causes no further change in
the system. However, if two systems are separated by an insulating material or insulator
such as wood, plastic foam, or fiberglass, they influence each other more slowly.

Watch this: https://youtu.be/-NYHUFT9uVo

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Important property of thermal equilibrium by
considering three systems, A, B, and C, that
initially are not in thermal equilibrium.

Systems A and B are separated with an ideal insulating wall

(the green slab), but we let system C interact with both systems
A and B. This interaction is shown in the figure by a yellow
slab representing a thermal conductor, a material that permits
thermal interactions through it.

Question: If A and B are each in thermal equilibrium

with C. Then, are they in thermal equilibrium with
each other?
Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
If C is initially in thermal equilibrium with both
A and B, then A and B are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other. This result is
called the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

”If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium

with some third body, then they are also in
equilibrium with each other.”

Note: Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if and only if they

have the same temperature. Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Types of Thermometer

Watch this: https://youtu.be/4oT-ZCVzbyY

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Watch this: https://youtu.be/4oT-ZCVzbyY

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

II. Temperature Scales

Temperature scales provide a way of quantifying and
measuring how hot or cold a material is.

• There are four major temperature scales that are used

around the world – Fahrenheit and Celsius are frequently
used in everyday, around the house measurements, while
the absolute zero-based Kelvin and Rankine scales are more
commonly used in industry and the sciences.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

The Four Types of Temperature Scales

1. The Fahrenheit scale

• It is the common form of temperature measurement used in the
United States and some parts of the Caribbean.
• It was created by the German scientist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit in
the early 18th century
• Water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and boils at 212 degrees F.
• The Fahrenheit temperature scale includes negative temperatures,
below 0 degrees F.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

The Four Types of Temperature Scales

2. The Celsius scale

• Outside the United States, most of the world uses the Celsius scale
to measure temperatures.
• Two versions of the Celsius scale were created in the early 18th
century – one by Swedish scientist Anders Celsius, and another by
the French Jean Pierre Cristin.
• The Celsius scale is sometimes referred to as the centigrade scale,
because it is based on a 100 degree division between the freezing
and boiling points of water: water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius and
boils at 100 degrees C.
Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

The Four Types of Temperature Scales

3. The Kelvin scale
• The Kelvin scale was adapted from the Celsius scale in the 19th century by
the British scientist William Thompson, later Lord Kelvin.
• Kelvin was designed in order to set the zero point of the temperature scale
at absolute zero. Because of this, absolute zero is located at 0 K – Kelvin
does not use degrees in its notation. You can convert from Celsius to Kelvin
by adding 273.15 to a Celsius temperature.
• Water freezes at 273.15 K, and boils at 373.15 K.
• Because of its direct relation to absolute zero, Kelvin temperature is widely
used in scientific equations and calculations. For instance, the ideal gas law,
used to show the relationship between mass, pressure, temperature and
volume, uses Kelvin as its standard unit.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

The Four Types of Temperature Scales

4. The Rankine scale
• While not widely used – apart from some U.S. engineering fields –
the Rankine scale provides an absolute zero-based equivalent to the
Fahrenheit scale.
• Essentially, it is for the Fahrenheit scale while Kelvin is for Celsius.
• The scale was created by Scottish scientist William John Rankine in the 19th
century, shortly after the creation of the Kelvin scale.
• Temperatures can be converted from Fahrenheit to Rankine by adding
459.67. Absolute zero is thus located at 0 degrees Rankine. Water freezes at
491.67 degrees R, and boils at 671.67 degrees R.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Temperature Conversions

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

1. Convert the following numbers from degrees Fahrenheit (˚F) to degrees Celsius (˚C).

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

2. Convert the following numbers from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Quiz:

Convert the following to Fahrenheit Convert the following to Celsius

1) 10o C ________ 6) 32o F ________

2) 30o C ________ 7) 45o F ________

3) 40o C ________ 8) 70o F ________

4) 37o C ________ 9) 80o F ________

5) 0o C ________ 10) 90o F ________

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT Thermometers and Temperature Scales

Quiz:

Convert the following to Kelvin Convert the following to Fahrenheit

11) 0o C ________ 14) 200o K ________

12) -50o C ________ 15) 350o K ________

13) -20o C ________

16-20. Rank the following temperatures from highest to lowest: (i) 0.00°C; (ii) 0.00°F;
(iii) 260.00 K; (iv) 77.00 K; and (v) -180.00°C.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
 TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
III. Gas Thermometers and Kelvin Scale
a thermometer
that comes
close to the
ideal

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
IV. THERMAL EXPANSION
Most materials expand when their temperatures increase.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
LINEAR EXPANSION

When the temperature changes by ∆T, the length changes by ∆ L.

∆L Change in Length

L0 Initial Length
𝛼 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (Proportionality Constant

∆T Change in Temperature Thermodynamics (Phys 2)

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
LINEAR EXPANSION
When the temperature changes by ∆T, the length changes by ∆ L.

The figure show how the length of a rod changes with a change
in temperature. (Length changes are exaggerated for clarity.) Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
LINEAR EXPANSION
When the temperature changes by ∆T, the length changes by ∆ L.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
LINEAR EXPANSION

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
LINEAR EXPANSION
Sample Problem.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
LINEAR EXPANSION

Quiz:

1. The Humber Bridge in England has the world’s longest single span, 1410 m.
Calculate the change in length of the steel deck of the span when the
temperature increases from -5.0°C to 18.0°C.

2. If a solid object has a hole in it, what happens to the size of the hole when the
temperature of the object increases?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
LINEAR EXPANSION
Quiz:

2. If a solid object has a hole in it, what happens to the size of

the hole when the temperature of the object increases?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
VOLUME EXPANSION
Increasing temperature usually causes increases in
volume for both solid and liquid materials.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
VOLUME EXPANSION

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
VOLUME EXPANSION
Sample Problem.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
VOLUME EXPANSION
Sample Problem.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
VOLUME EXPANSION
Quiz:

17.15 . The outer diameter of a glass jar and the inner diameter of its iron lid are
both 725 mm at room temperature (20.0°C). What will be the size of the difference
in these diameters if the lid is briefly held under hot water until its temperature
rises to 50.0°C, without changing the temperature of the glass?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

ASSIGNMENT:

Study the thermal expansion of water and thermal stress.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Show videos on thermal expansion

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Thermal Expansion Sample Problems:

1. Most bridges contain interlocking steel grates (α steel = 1.2 x 10 - 5 ºC -1) that allow the bridge to expand and
contract with the changes in temperature. The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisc o is about 1350 meters long.
The seasonal temperature variation in San Francisco ranges from about 0ºC to 30ºC. How much will the
bridge expand between these two extremes?

2. Selena has a fire in her fireplace to warm her 20ºC apartment. She realizes that she has accidentally left the
iron poker (α iron = 1.2 x 10 - 5 ºC -1) in the fire. How hot is the fire if the 0.60-meter poker lengthens 0.30
cm?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
V. THERMAL STRESS
It occurs when a material is subjected to changes in
temperature, causing it to expand or contract. If the
material is constrained from moving freely during this
expansion or contraction, stress develops within it.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
V. THERMAL STRESS and STRAIN
Stress is a measure of the internal force per unit area within a
material. It is caused by external forces acting on the material.
The unit of stress is typically Pascals (Pa).

Strain is a measure of the deformation or change in shape or

size of a material in response to applied stress. It is expressed
as the ratio of the change in length or volume to the original
length or volume. Strain has no units, as it is a dimensionless
∆𝐿 ∆𝑉
quantity. ( or )
𝐿0 𝑉0

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
V. THERMAL STRESS

σ = -E α ΔT
Source: University Physics 14th Edition

σ - thermal stress (Pa) or pressure in the system (F/A)

E /Y - Young's modulus (elasticity) of the material (Pa)
Α - coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the material (1/°C)
ΔT - change in temperature (°C)

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
V. THERMAL STRESS

σ = -E α ΔT
Source: University Physics 14th Edition

• If the Δ T is negative, F and F/A are positive. That means that

tensile force and stress is needed to maintain the length.
• If the Δ T is positive, F and F/A are negative, the required
force and stress needed are compressive.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
V. THERMAL STRESS
A steel rod has a length of 1 meter at 20°C. It is heated to 100°C. If the
Young's modulus of steel is 200 GPa and the coefficient of linear thermal
expansion is 12 × 10^-6 /°C, what is the thermal stress developed in the rod?

σ = -Y α ΔT

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
V. THERMAL STRESS
A concrete beam is 10 meters long at 25°C. If the temperature drops to
-15°C, what is the thermal stress developed in the beam? Assume the
Young's modulus of concrete is 30 GPa and the coefficient of linear
thermal expansion is 10 × 10^-6 /°C.

σ = -Y α ΔT

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
V. THERMAL STRESS

−
A = 20 cm2 = 20 x 10-4 m2, Y = 7 x 1010 Pa, 𝛼 = 2.4 𝑥 10 − 5 𝐾
1

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
VI. QUANTITY OF HEAT
It refers to the amount of thermal energy transferred between a
system and its surroundings. It is typically measured in joules (J).

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
VI. QUANTITY OF HEAT
It refers to the amount of thermal energy transferred between a
system and its surroundings. It is typically measured in joules (J).

unit of quantity of heat

• The calorie (abbreviated cal) is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.
• The kilocalorie (kcal), equal to 1000 cal, is also used; a food-value calorie is actually a
kilocalorie
• A corresponding unit of heat using Fahrenheit degrees and British units is the British
thermal unit, or Btu. One Btu is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
pound (weight) of water 1 F° from 63°F to 64°F.
Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

unit of quantity of heat

• The calorie is not a fundamental SI unit.

• The International Committee on Weights and Measures
recommends using the joule as the basic unit of energy in all
forms, including heat.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Specific Heat Capacity

• Definition: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of one unit of mass of a substance by one degree Celsius.
• Units: J/kg°C or J/g°C

where c is a quantity, different for different materials, called the specific heat of the material.

When they are positive, heat enters the body and its temperature increases;
when they are negative, heat leaves the body and its temperature decreases.
Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Specific Heat Capacity

1. An 80-kg man ran a fever of 39.0°C (102.2°F) from the normal body
temperature of 37.0°C (198.6°F) Assuming that the human body is
mostly water, how much heat is required to raise his temperature by that
amount?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Molar Heat Capacity

• Definition: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of one mole of a substance by one degree Celsius.
• Units: J/mol°C
M= m/n (Molar Mass
m= nM
The molar mass of any
Replacing the mass m in the specific heat equation by the product nM, we find
substance, denoted by
Q = nMc ∆T
M, is the mass per mole.
The product Mc is called the molar heat capacity (or molar specific heat) and is
denoted by C (capitalized).

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Molar Heat Capacity

Water has a much higher specific heat than

the glass or metals used to make cookware.
This helps explain why it takes several
minutes to boil water on a stove, even
though the pot or kettle reaches a high
temperature very quickly.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Approximate Specific Heats and Molar Heat Capacities (Constant Pressure)

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
VII. CALORIMETRY AND PHASE CHANGE
• Heat is also involved in phase changes, such as the melting of ice or boiling of water.
• Once we understand these additional heat relationships, we can analyze a variety of
problems involving quantity of heat.

Calorimetry means “measuring heat.”

Phase Change is a transition from one phase to another.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Types of Phase Changes:

1. Melting (Solid to Liquid): The energy required to change a solid into a liquid is
called the heat of fusion.
2. Freezing (Liquid to Solid): The energy released when a liquid becomes a solid is
also the heat of fusion but with energy leaving the system.
3. Vaporization (Liquid to Gas): The heat required to change a liquid into a gas is
called the heat of vaporization.
4. Condensation (Gas to Liquid): The heat released when a gas becomes a liquid is
also called the heat of vaporization, but with energy being released.
5. Sublimation (Solid to Gas): The heat required to change a solid directly into a gas.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Example:

What do you think

would happen to the
ice if you slowly add
more heat?

The surrounding air is at room temperature.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Phase Changes

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Phase Changes

For any given material at any given pressure,

the freezing temperature is the same as the
melting temperature. At this unique temperature
the liquid and solid phases (liquid water and
ice, for example) can coexist in a condition
called phase equilibrium.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Latent Heat
The energy required for a phase change is called latent
heat. The amount of heat Q required to change the phase
of a substance is calculated by:

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Latent Heat of Fusion

• Definition: The latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy
required to change a substance from a solid phase to a liquid phase at its
melting point, without changing its temperature.
• Process: It involves breaking the bonds between particles in a solid to
allow them to move freely as a liquid. This energy only affects the
phase transition, not the kinetic energy (temperature) of the particles.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Latent Heat of Vaporization (Evaporation)

• Definition: The latent heat of evaporation (or vaporization) is the amount
of heat energy required to change a substance from a liquid phase to a gas
phase at its boiling point, without changing its temperature.
• Process: This energy breaks the intermolecular forces in the liquid,
allowing the particles to escape and become gas. It also involves
overcoming atmospheric pressure.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Heats of Fusion and Vaporization

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

VIII. MECHANISM OF HEAT TRANSFER

• Conduction occurs within a body or between two bodies in contact.
• Convection depends on motion of mass from one region of space to
another.
• Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation, such as
sunshine, with no need for matter to be present in the space between
bodies.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Conduction
• On the atomic level, the atoms in the hotter regions have more
kinetic energy, on the average, than their cooler neighbors. They
jostle their neighbors, giving them some of their energy.
• The neighbors jostle their neighbors, and so on through the material.
The atoms themselves do not move from one region of material to
another, but their energy does.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Heat transfer occurs only between regions that are at
different temperatures, and the direction of heat flow is
always from higher to lower temperature.

When the quantity of heat energy (Q) transferred per unit

time (t), we call this as the Heat Current (H).

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Heat Current (H)

The formula to calculate heat current is given by: H

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Heat Current (H)

The formula to calculate heat current is given by:

H
Temperature Gradient

• The temperature gradient refers to the rate of change of temperature with respect to
distance in a material. It describes how temperature varies over a distance and is
crucial in determining the direction and rate of heat flow.
• A higher temperature gradient means a steeper difference in temperature, leading to
faster heat flow (higher heat current), assuming the same thermal conductivity.
Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Thermal Conductivities (k)
• Thermal conductivity (k) is a measure of a material's ability to
conduct heat. It quantifies how easily heat can flow through a
material.
• Materials with high thermal conductivity, like metals, allow heat to
pass through them quickly, while materials with low thermal
conductivity, like wood or foam, act as insulators.

• High Thermal Conductivity: Metals (like copper, aluminum) are good conductors of heat
because they have free electrons that facilitate heat transfer.
• Low Thermal Conductivity: Insulating materials (like rubber, wood) have low thermal
conductivity because their atomic structure resists the flow of heat.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Thermal Conductivities (k)

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Thermal Resistance (R)
• Thermal resistance (R) is a measure of a material's resistance to heat
flow. It is the opposite of thermal conductivity.

• L is the thickness or length of the material,

• k is the thermal conductivity of the material, and
• A is the cross-sectional area. Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Convection
• If the fluid is circulated by a blower or pump, the process is called forced
convection; if the flow is caused by differences in density due to thermal
expansion, such as hot air rising, the process is called natural convection
or free convection.
• Free convection in the atmosphere plays a dominant role in determining the daily
weather, and convection in the oceans is an important global heat-transfer
mechanism.
• The most important mechanism for heat transfer within the human body (needed
to maintain nearly constant temperature in various environments) is forced
convection of blood, with the heart serving as the pump.

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Radiation
• The rate of energy radiation (heat current) from a surface is
proportional to the surface area A and to the fourth power of the
absolute (Kelvin) temperature T.
• The rate also depends on the nature of the surface; this dependence is
described by a quantity e called the emissivity (is a measure of how
effectively a surface emits thermal radiation )

• where 𝜎 is a fundamental physical constant called the

Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
Thermodynamics (Phys 2)
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Assignment
1. How does free convection in the atmosphere plays a dominant
role in determining the daily weather, and how does the
convection in the oceans play an important global heat-transfer
mechanism?
2. Discuss the how radiation affects climate and climate change?

Thermodynamics (Phys 2)