Undergraduate Practical Physics Manual

For 2nd Year 1st Semester Students

Edited by
Dr. Md. Sahab Uddin
Mst. AfsanaAzam
Md. Mamun-Or-Rashid
Abdulla Al Noman
SusmitaBhattacharjee
Md. Raihan Islam
Prianka Mondol

Compiled by
Head, Department of Physics

Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology, Gazipur

Gazipur-1707

October 2024

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 Undergraduate Practical Physics Manual 2022

Name of the experiments:

1. (a) Determination of the wavelength of sodium light by a spectrometer using
a plane diffraction grating.

(b) Determination of the wavelength of sodium light by a spectrometer using

a plane diffraction grating.

2. (a) Determination of the radius of curvature of a lens by Newton’s rings.

(b) Determination of the radius of curvature of a lens by Newton’s rings.

3. (a) Determination of the specific rotation of a sugar by means of a

polarimeter.
(b) Determination of the specific rotation of a sugar by means of a
polarimeter.

4. Determination of the dispersive power of the material of a prism by

spectrometer.

5. To draw the characteristicss of a PN juction (Semi-Conductor) diode.

Group No 1st Week 2nd Week 3rd Week 4th Week

1 1a 2a 3a 4
2 1b 2b 3b 5
3 2a 3a 4 1a
4 2b 3b 5 1b
5 3a 4 1a 2a
6 3b 5 1b 2b
7 4 1a 2a 3a
8 5 1b 2b 3b

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Experiment: 01(a)/(b)
DETERMINATION OF THE WAVELENGTH OF SODIUM LIGHT BY A
SPECTROMETER USING A PLANE DIFFRACTION GRATING

Theory:

If a parallel ray of monochromatic light of wavelength λ, coming out of the collimator of a

spectrometer falls normally on a plane diffraction grating placed vertically on the prism
table, a series of diffracted image of the collimator slit will be seen on both sides of the
direct image. Reckoning from the direction of the incident light (direct image), if θ be the
deviation of the light which forms the direct image and (a+b) be the grating element then
(a+b) sinθ = nλ.

Since,(a+b) = 1/N, where N is the grating constant i.e., the number of lines or rulings
per cm of the grating surface, sinθ = nNλ. Thus,
N=sinθ/nλ………………………………………………………... (1)
and λ = sinθ/Nn
….................................................................................(2)
Then from this knowledge of N, the wavelength λ of any unknown light can be found out
with the help of Eq. 2.Fig. 1 shows the spectrum obtained by diffraction ofparallel ray of
monochromatic light in a plane diffraction grating.

Incident parallel ray

Slit

Diffracted ray Diffracted ray

2nd order diffracted ray

2θ
1st order diffracted ray
Direct ray

Fig. 1: Spectrum obtained by diffraction ofparallel ray of monochromatic light in a plane

diffraction grating.

Apparatus:
1. Spectrometer,
2. Sprit level,
3. A prism,
4. Plane diffraction grating,
5. Sodium light source.

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Procedure:
1. Make all the necessary adjustments of the spectrometer (leveling of the telescope,
collimator and the prism table, alignment of the source and screen, focusing of the
cross-wire adjustment of the slit and focusing for parallel ray).
2. Determine the Vernier constants of both the Vernier’s.
3. Now place the grating centrally on the prism table so that the light incident from
the collimator falls on the grating.
4. The spectrum obtained in a grating is shown in Fig. 1.
5. Rotate the telescope to the left side of direct image and adjust the vertical cross
wire for first order spectral line.
6. Now read the two Vernier attached to the telescope. Repeat the adjustment for at
least three times and take the mean.
7. Now rotate the telescope to the right of the direct image and repeats the above
procedure for first order.
8. The difference of each Vernier (V1&V2) is twice the angle of diffraction. Half of it will
be
the angle of diffraction.

Experimental data:

Vernier constant = ……

Table 1: Data for the determination of wavelength

Reading for the angle of diffraction, θ (deg.)

θ
Order number

Left side Right side

2θ = A~B

θ (deg.)
Vernier

(deg.)
m+(d×c)

m+(d×c)
(n)

V.C. (c)

V.C. (c)
V.S.D.

V.S.D.
M.S.R

M.S.R
Mean

Mean
Total

Total

Mean,
(m)

(m)

(deg.)
(A)

(B)
(d)

(d)
=

I 1

II 1

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Calculations:

For order, n = 1
Grating constant, N = …………… lines/cm
Sin
Wavelength, λ = =…………..cm
Nn

Expected value =
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ~ 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Percentage of error = × 100% =
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Results:

The calculated wavelength of sodium light =

Percentage of error =

Precautions:
1. …………………….
2. …………………….
3. …………………….

Discussion:
1. …………………….
2. …………………….
3. …………………….

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Experiment: 02(a)/(b)
DETERMINATION OF THE RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF A LENS BY NEWTON’S
RINGS
Theory:
When a Plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass sheet, an air film of
gradually increasing thickness outward is formed between the lens and the sheet. The thickness
of film at the point of contact is zero. If monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on the
lens, and the film is viewed in reflected light, alternate bright and dark concentric rings are seen
around the point of contact. These rings were first discovered by Newton, that's why these are
called Newton’s Rings.
When a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident normally on a combination of a Plano-
convex lens L and a glass plate G, as shown in Fig.1, a part of each incident ray is reflected from
the lower surface of the lens, and a part, after refraction through the air film between the lens and
the plate, is reflected back from the plate surface. These two reflected rays are coherent.
(a) (b) (c)
Reflected/
Refracted
Incident light
light

Lens

Glass sheet

Fig.1. (a) An experimental set-up for the determination of the radius of curvature of a lens by
Newton’s rings method, (b) Newton’s rings and (c) incidence of monochromatic light.
Hence, they will interfere and produce a system of alternate dark and bright rings with the point
of contact between the lens and the plate as the center. These rings are known as Newton’s ring.
For a normal incidence of monochromatic light, the path difference between the reflected rays
(Fig.1) is very nearly equal to 2µt where µ and t are the refractive index and thickness of the air-
film respectively. The fact that the wave is reflected from air to glass surface introduces a phase
shift of π. Therefore, for bright fringe
2µt=(n+l/2)λ, n = 0, 1, 2, 3
……………………………………………..(1)
and for dark fringe, 2µt = nλ, n = 0, 1, 2, 3
…………………………………...………………(2)
For n-th (bright or dark) ring (Fig. 1(b)), we also have
𝐷𝑛2
4
+ (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 = 𝑅 2 …………………………………………………...(3)
Where, Dn= the diameter of the n-th ring and R = the radius of curvature of the lower surface of
the Plano-convex lens.

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On neglecting t2, equation (3) reduces to

𝐷𝑛2 = 8𝑡𝑅…………………...…………………………………………...(4)
From equations (1) and (4), we get,
1 𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑛2 = 4 (𝑛 + 2) , for n-bright ring …………………..………………….……..(5)
µ

2 1 𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑛+𝑚 = 4 (𝑛 + 𝑚 + 2) , for (n+m)-th bright ring …………...........................(6)
µ

Similarly, from equations (2) and (4), we obtain

𝑛𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑛2 = 4 , for n-th dark ring ……………………………..……………….....(7)
µ

2 (𝑛+𝑚)𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑛+𝑚 =4 , for (n+m)-th dark ring………………………... …………..…(8)
µ

Thus for bright as well as dark rings, we obtain

2
µ(𝐷𝑛+𝑚 −𝐷𝑛2 )
𝑅= ……………………………………………...……………….…(9)
4𝑚𝜆

Since μ = 1 for air-film, equation (9) gives

2
(𝐷𝑛+𝑚 −𝐷𝑛2 )
𝜆= ……………………………………..…………………………….(10)
4𝑚𝑅

From equation (10) we can determine the wavelength of monochromatic light.

Apparatus:
1. Source of sodium light,
2. Plano-convex,
3. Optically flat glass plat and,
4. Travelling microscope.
Procedure:
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig.1.
2. Focus the microscope to view the rings as distinctly as possible and set one of the cross-
wires perpendicular to the direction along which the microscope slides.
3. Move the microscope to the furthest distinct bright ring (20th ring) on the left side of the
central dark spot and note the reading of the microscope.
4. Set the cross-wire carefully on the center of each successive bright ring (up to 6th ring)
and note down the microscope reading.
5. Go on moving the microscope in the same direction. Soon it will cross the central dark
spot and will start moving to the right side of it. As before set the cross-wire on the bright
ring(6th ring) and take readings.
6. Then do the same for successive bright ring up to 20th ring.
7. The difference between the left side and right-side readings, gives the diameter of the
ring.
8. Draw a graph with the square of the diameter as Y-axis and number of the rings as X-
2
axis. From the graph determine 𝐷𝑛+𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐷𝑛2 .

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Experiment Data:
Table 1: Data for the measurements of the diameter of the ring
Microscope readings (cm) Diameter
Rin

D2 (cm)2
Left side (R1) Right side (R2) of the ring,
g
M.S. V.S. V.S. Total D=
No. V.C. Total M.S.R V.C.
R D. D. m+(d× (R1~R2)
(n) (c) m+(d×c) . (m) (c)
(m) (d) (d) c) (cm)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6

Calculations:
Wavelength of sodium light, 𝜆 = 5890 Å
From D2 versus ngraph we get,
Square of the diameter of the n-th ring,𝐷𝑛2 =
2
Square of the diameter of the (n+m)-th ring,𝐷𝑛+𝑚 =
Ring number, m = (m+n)−n =
2
(𝐷𝑛+𝑚 −𝐷𝑛2 )
Radius of curvature of a lens,𝑅 = =
4𝑚𝜆
Standard value or expected value=
standard value ~ experimental value
Percentage of error = ˟ 100% =
standard value

Results:
Radius of curvature of the lens, R =
Percentage of error =

D2n+m D2 ~ n curve
Precautions:
D2 (cm2)

1. …………………….
2. ……………………. D2n
3. …………………….

m
n m+n
Discussion: Ring number, n
1. …………………….
2. …………………….
3. …………………….

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Experiment: 3 (a)/(b)
Name of the Experiment:
DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC ROTATION OF A SUGAR BY MEANS OF A
POLARIMETER.

Theory: The angle of rotation produced to the plane of vibration by an optically active
substance, in solution or otherwise, is proportional to (i) the thickness of the medium (solution)
(ii) the concentration of the solution or the density of the active substance in the solvent and
(iii) the nature of the substance.
Thus 𝜃∞𝐿𝑐
Or,𝜃 = 𝑠𝐿𝑐
𝜃
Or, S=𝐿𝑐
Where 𝜃 is the angle of rotation produced, l is the length (or thickness) of the substance in
decimeters, c is the concentration in gm/cm3 of the solution and s is a constant called specific
rotation and depends upon the nature of the substance.
If l=1 decimeter and c = 1 gm/cm3 then specific rotation may be defined as the rotation
produced while traversing a path of one decimeter (10 cm) length in the solution containing 1 gm
of optically active substance per cm3 of the solution (density is unity). Then,
Rotation produced by 1 decimeter length of the solution
Specific rotation = density of the solution in gm per c.c.
𝜃 10𝜃
= ÷𝑐 =
𝑙/10 𝑙𝑐
where the length lis expressed in centemeters.
The amount of rotation also depends upon (a) the temperature and (b) the wavelength of the light
used. So for a given temperature and a given wavelength
10𝜃
(𝑆𝜆𝑡 ) = 𝑙𝑐 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
The specific rotation of dextro-rotatory substance is taken as positive while that of a levo-
rotatory substance is considered as negative.
Now the angle of rotation (θ) for different values of known concentrations (c) of a solution can
be measured with the help of a polarimeter. If a graph is plotted with θ against c, then the graph
will be a straight line. The polarimeter is thus calibrated. Taking then the solution of an unknown
concentration, the rotation of the plane of polarization produced by the solution can be measured
and from the graph, its concentration can be determined.
Again using eqn. (1), the value of the specific rotation of the solution can also be determined.

Apparatus:
1. A polarimeter or saccharimeter,
2. Sodium lamp,
3. Sugar
4. Balance
5. Graduated cylinder and
6. Thermometer.
Procedure:
(i) Examine the circular scale in contact with the analyzer and find its Vernier constant.
Obtain the zero reading of the instrument.
(ii) Carefully weigh out 20 gm of sugar in a watch glass; dissolve it in about 50 or 60 cc
of distilled water. Make up the solution up to 100 cc so that you may have a 20

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percent solution. During dissolving do not apply any heat; just pour the solution from
one vessel to another so that the solution has a uniform concentration.
(iii) Carefully measure the length of the tube. Clean the tube as well as the glass plates
used to close its ends. Filter some distilled water so that it becomes free from dust
and fill the tube with it. Take care so that no air bubble is introduced. Close the tube.
(iv) Place the tube with its contents horizontally on two V supports between the analyzer
and the polarizer so that it is co-axial with the telescope. Focus the eye-piece of the
telescope so that on the field of view of the polarizer any line dividing it may be seen
clearly. Rotate the analyzer so that the field of view is completely and uniformly dark
i.e. both halves are equally dark. Read the position of the analyzer on the circular
scale. Use the Vernier. Repeat the operations for at least three times and take the
mean of these readings. Call this reading P.
(v) Remove the tube, empty it and rinse it with a little of the prepared solution. Carefully
fill the tube completely with the solution. Take care not to have any air bubble inside
the tube. Clean the ends, replace the tube in position and allow it to stand there for
sometimes so that the temperature becomes uniform all throughout the solution. Note
the temperature by placing a thermometer by its side. See through the telescope. The
two halves are no longer completely and equally dark. Rotate the analyzer till the two
halves get equally and completely dark as before. Take the reading. Repeat the
operation for at least three times and take the mean of these three readings. Call it Q.
(Q~P) is the angle through which the plane of polarization has been rotated. Calculate
the specific rotation.
(vi) Next repeat the operation in (v) with a 10 percent sugar solution. The solution can be
made exactly as before. But this time 10 gm of sugar should be used instead of 20.
You can also make a 10 percent solution by taking a certain volume say 25 cc of the
20 percent solution and adding it to an equal volume (25 c.c) of water and mixing the
two volumes thoroughly. Find out (Q~P) in this case. Then repeat the experiment for
5 percent, 2.5 percent and 1 percent solution. Find out (Q~P) in each case. Always
take care that the temperature remains constant since the specific rotation depends on
temperature. Calculate the specific rotation in each case.
(vii) Repeat the entire experiment with different tubes having different lengths.
(viii) Draw a graph between the percentages (strengths) of the solution and the
corresponding angle of rotations. This should be a straight line.
Taking a point P on the graph well away from the origin. Find the values of θ and c
corresponding to this point. Calculate the specific rotation of the solution using eqn. (1)
The unknown strength of a solution can also be determined from the graph by noting the angle of
rotation produced by the unknown solution.
To find the molecular rotation of a substance multiply the specific rotation by the molecular
weight of the substance.

Result:

Weight of empty glass, m1 = ……. gm

Weight of empty glass, m2 = ……. gm
Weight of sugar= (m2 - m1)= ……. gm
Length of the tube =………….. cm.
V.C. of the circular scale: Determine the Vernier constant.

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Table: Data for angular rotation

Strength of No of obs. First Second Angular Mean Sp.

sugar reading reading rotation angular Rotation
solution with water with soln. (Q~P) rotation (s)
(P) (Q)
30 1
20 2
10 3
etc

Graph:

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Calculation:

Length (l) of the tube =………….. cm

Concentration = mass/ cc =…………
10𝜃 10𝜃×100 1000𝜃
So for a 20% solution, specific rotation (s) = 𝑙𝑐 = 𝑙×20 = 20𝑙 = ………
Calculate in a similar manner the specific rotation from θ and corresponding to point P of the
graph.

Precautions:
1. …………………….
2. …………………….
3. …………………….

Discussion:
1. …………………….
2. …………………….
3. …………………….

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Experiment No-4

Name of the Expt.:

DETERMINAION OF THE DISPERSIVE POWER OF THE MATERIAL OF A PRISM
BY SPECTROMETER.

Theory: Let a ray of white light (AB) be incident on the one face (PQ) of a prism PQR as shown
in Fig. 1. On emergence through the other refracting face PR it will be found that the ray is not
only deviated but alsosplit into a band of seven colors which are violet, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange and red. This band of colour is called spectrum and the phenomenon of splitting
up of white light in this manner is called dispersion of light.

Fig.1: Dispersion of white light throughprism and deviation of red and violet light.
It is seen that of the seven colors, the red is the least refraingible and the violet ray is the most
refraingible. The deviations for these two coloursare found by extending these rays path
backward to meet direct ray. Then the difference of deviation between these two rays is called
dispersion between these two rays.
The dispersive power of the material of the prism is defined as,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
Dispersive power, ω = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
or, ω = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝑚𝑣− 𝑚𝑟 (𝑣 −𝑟 )𝐴 (𝑣 −𝑟 )
or, ω = = = ................................................................(1)
 (−1)𝐴 (−1)

Let mv and mr are the minimum deviations of violet and red colours. is the mean of these.
Here, v and r are the refractive indices of violet and red colours.
v and r and  can be calculated by using the following relations,
𝐴+ 𝑚𝑣
Sin( )
v = 2
𝐴 ..............................................................................................(2)
𝑆𝑖𝑛
2
𝐴+ 𝑚𝑟
Sin( )
r = 2
𝐴 ..............................................................................................(3)
𝑆𝑖𝑛
2

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(𝑣 +𝑟 )
= ................................................................................................(4)
2
Calculating v, r and  the value of dispersive power, ω can be determined from equation (1).

Apparatus:
Spectromrter, Prism, Spirit level, Sodium lamp, White light source andMagnifying glass

Procedures:
1. The usual adjustments of the spectrometer are made and the Prismangle is found.
2. The spectrometer is adjusted to observe the refracted ray for sodium lamp and placed at the
position of minimum deviation is determined.
3. A white light is put and the prism is mounted on the prism table The position of prism is
adjusted to observe the violet and red line spectrum of the white light.
4. Observing the violet and redlinesin the spectrum through the telescope, the prism is placed
and adjusted for minimum deviation positions.
5. Working with the tangent screw of the telescope, the position of the prism is adjusted so
that the violet and red linesare just one point of refracting its path after coming to the point
of intersection of the cross wires.
6. The readings of the telescope for the minimum deviations of violet and red linesare noted.
7. The telescope is brought in line with the collimator and removing the prism, the direct
readings on both the verniers are noted.
8. The dispersive power of the prism can be calculated by equation 1 with the help of
equations 2-4.

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Experimental data:
Table 1: Measurement of angle of minimum deviation for different colours
Reading for the Reading for the Angle of Mean,m

Vernier Position
direct ray minimum deviation minimum (degree

Observations
Light Colour

deviation,

VSR (VC)

VSR (VC)
MSR (M)
m
MSR(M)

(M+VC)

(M+VC)
Mean

Mean
Total

Total
(degree)

2
I

3
Red

II 2

3
1

2
I
Violet

3
1

II 2

Calculations:
Results:
Percentage of error:
Precautions and Discussion:

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Experiment No-5

Name of the Experiment:

TO DRAW THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PN JUNCTION (SEMI-CONDUCTOR)
DIODE.

Theory:
At the junction of a PN diode, there is a region, called the depletion region, where there are
neither holes nor conduction electrons. When the diode is forward biased. ie., a positive voltage
is applied at the P-end and negative at the N-end, there will be a free flow of charges and,
therefore, a current through the circuit. If, however, the negative voltage is applied to the P-end
and positive to the N-end i,e., the diode is reverse biased, the depletion region widens and no
current will flow in the circuit due to majority charge carriers. However, the flow of minority
carriers across the junction will constitute a small reverse current flow. To predict the
performance of a junction diode in a circuit, the characteristics of the diode must first be
determined. This involves application of different voltages across the junction and measurement
of the corresponding currents both for forward and reverse bias conditions.

Figure 1: Diode representation

Figure 2: Circuit Diagram for calculating the characteristics of a PN junction diode

Apparatus:A p-n junction diode, Power supply, High resistance (1 KΩ), Voltmeter,
Ammeter, and connecting wires.

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Procedure:
FORWARD BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Vary the applied voltage V in steps of 0.1V.
3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings IF.
4. Plot a graph between VFand IF.

REVERSE BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Vary the applied voltage VR in steps of 0.1V.
3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings IR.
4. Plot a graph between VR and IR

Experimental Data:

No. of Forward Bias Reverse Bias

observations
Voltage Current Voltage Current
(in volts) (in mA) (in volts) (in mA)

0.1 0.1

0.2 0.2

0.3 0.3

0.4 0.4

0.5 0.5

0.6 0.6

0.7 0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

2.0

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Calculations:
Calculate the values of the static and dynamic resistance of diode in the manner shown in Fig. 2.

Figure 2: VI characteristics curve

From the graph,

V
Static forward Resistance = I F Ω
F
ΔV
Dynamic forward resistance = ΔI FΩ
F
ΔVr
Dynamic Reverse resistance = Ω
ΔIr
Vr
Static Reverse resistance = Ω
Ir

Result:
Thus the VI characteristics of PN junction diode is verified. and it is found that:
1. Static forward resistance = .......Ω
2. Dynamic forward resistance = .......Ω
3. Dynamic Reverse resistance = .......Ω
4. Static Reverse resistance =.......Ω

Precautions:
1. ……………………….
2. ……………………….
3. ……………………….
Discussion:
N.B.: Precautions and Discussion may be three or more. Answer all the following questions.

Department of Physics, DUET 18