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Fire protection: Flammability and textile fibres

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Fire Protection: Flammability and textile fibres

T.Grover a, A. Khandual b & A. Luximonc
The College of Engineering & Technology, Techno campus, Ghatikia, Kalinga Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha-751003

ABSTRACT
Fire hazards being reported every day, killing lives and destroying resources. According to fire hazard statistics,
more than 12 million fires break out every year in the United States, Europe, Russia and China killing some
300,000 people and injuring several hundreds of thousands. Direct worldwide losses of life and costs are not
reported but $500 million is an estimate based on some national data by Manor and Georlette in 2005. The
Phenomenon evolved by combination of many factors, including; ignitability, ease of extinction, flammability of
the volatile products generated, rate of heat released, flame spread, smoke obstruction and smoke toxicity etc.
Therefore, in the pursuit of improved flame retarding polymers or finishes has been seeing an unprecedented
field of researches for the development of low cost polymers with better performances. Though initially, flame
resistant textiles developments started for defense personnel to protect them in various hostile environments, its
application becoming widely diversified with the modern industrialization that demands typical performances
with comfort to ensure safety not only for military but also for civilians.We are presenting series of articles to
understand basics of fire propagation, inherent properties of various textile fibres and new fibres, flame
retardants and their developments.

Introduction to fire is around 1% of the gross domestic product (Beyer, 2005)[13].

This is the driving force for scientists and safety bodies to
FIRE is being used by nearly every human being on earth develop new materials to tackle fire spread.
every day, their applications are numerous. Apart from Archaeology suggests as early as some 790,000 years ago ,
Cooking, smoking, industrial use of furnaces, welding, use of ancestors of modern humans such as Homo erectus seem to
electric arc, an internal combustion engines owner use fire in have been using controlled fire. A million years ago , the Cradle
vehicles every time they drive. Power stations running over of Humankind site located 50 km northwest of Johannesburg,
thermal combustion to provide electricity for dominant South Africa evidenced controlled fire.
proportion of humanity. Interestingly, remembering past
discoveries, much pain and efforts were put together to
generate fire for typical application and now in modern era we
still are trying to control them for safety. It is becoming a
challenging issue and a basic requirement of modern
civilizations. Today's rapid industrialization demands more
safety measures for human beings (1-11). If uncontrolled, the
self-sustaining nature of fire makes it extremely dangerous
and devastating. Fire has been described as a "living entity
consuming both oxygen and matter in order to survive" Fig. 1: Photograph showing flashover in a domestic room
(Adams, 2004)[12]. Every year about 5,000 people are killed by (a) before and (b) after, images from www.azobuild.com
fires in Europe and more than 4,000 people in USA. Direct
property loss through fire is roughly 0.2% of the gross When a fire just starts within a room containing flammable
domestic product and the total cost of fire preventive majors materials; it will generate heat. Then can gradually heat up and
leads into three stages such as: Growth period, Fully
a
Deptt. of Fashion & Apparel Engg., TIT Bhiwani Developed Fire and Decay period. The rate at which the fire
b
Deptt. of Textile Engg. Technological Inst. of Textiles & progresses speeds up as a consequence, generates more and
Science, Bhiwani, Haryana more heat and a progressive increase in the room temperature
b
Corresponding Author: [email protected] is assured. The radiant heat and temperature can rise to such an
c
Hongkong Polytechnic University, Hongkong extent that all materials in the room are ignited very easily,
resulting in an extremely high rate of fire spread. This point in
Queries and Responses: [email protected] time is called flashover (Fig. 2.2b) and leads to a fully developed

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The triangle will be collapsed when any or many of these

pillars break out. They are heat, fuel, and oxygen or sometimes
referred to as air that are necessary to start a fire. Fire is a
chemical process which involves oxidation; oxygen combines
with hydrogen and carbon, rearranged to form water and
carbon dioxide. This energy causes heat generation i.e. an
exothermic reaction where carbon burns to CO2 (but if
reduces partially back to CO it is endothermic). The same
process takes place when metal rusts but the apparent lack of
heat is due to a much lengthier time involved.
In several gas fires, the actual gasification process is
preceded by pyrolysis, where the biomass or coal turns into
char, releasing methane (CH4) and tar rich in polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Other gas fires are fed with
previously pyrolysed char. Wood gas is flammable because of
Fig. 2: The course of a well-ventilated compartment fire,
the carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane content.
image from Friedman, 1975
Multiple properties of a material relate to its flammability and
out of which, the ability material to be ignited easily and the
fire. Flashover normally occurs ataround 500 °C and an rate and amount of heat that is released as a consequence is the
matter of concern. The way the flame spreads and the amount
incident heat flux at floor level of 20 kW/m2. Escape from the
room will then be virtually impossible and the spread of the and level of toxicity generated in smoke release are critical [16].
fire to other rooms is highly likely. When a fire reaches
flashover, every polymer will release roughly 20% of its weight Basis of combustion process
as carbon monoxide, resulting in excess toxic smoke. If we analyze common flammability tests, there are plenty
Consequently, it only can excuse a very few left alive. Around of definitions of combustion but all note the same
90% of fire deaths are the result of fires becoming "too big", fundamental answer that a heat producing chemical reaction
releasing too much toxic smoke that is lethal. It can burn out occurs where a fuel combines with oxygen. As stated above, a
everything within few seconds to few minutes only. fire triangle is representing the key components of
combustion but it doesn't get the adequate information of the
Fire Tetrahedron: physical and chemical processes of combustion. The reaction
of combustion requires fuel, oxygen as well as adequate heat in
the correct proportion for catalyzing the process. However,
when dealing with a compartment fire, the fuel is commonly a
solid fuel such as wood, paper or plastic. As illustrated in figure
4 when wood is first heated water vapor is driven off as the
wood dries. Subsequently heating continues, wood begins to
pyrolyse and is decomposed into its volatile components and
carbon. Pyrolysis evolves at a considerably lower temperature
(below 400 °F/204.5 °C) than that required for ignition of
volatile pyrolysis products (range lies between from 1000 °F -
1300 °F /538 to 704 °C). The Table 1 outlines the pyrolysis
effects within different temperature zone (Browne Pitts,
Johnsson, and Bryner) and ignition temperature of carbon and
common volatile components evolved from pyrolysis of
Fig. 3: Fire Tetrahedron wood.

Heat release rate

Heat release rate (HRR) is the primary factor to confer
information on fire size, fire flourish rate, available escaping
time and suppression system. The heat release determines the
rate at which a burning item releases chemical energy and is
probably the most important quantity used to predict
Previously, it was believed that the mechanism of fire is flammability hazard shown by a given material.[15] The
based upon fire triangle but further fire research found that a generation of most other undesirable fire products tends to
fourth element, a chain reaction is a necessary component of increase the flammability hazard with increasing HRR. This
fire. The concept of fire triangle is simple but important to after effect is not only the progressed release of smoke and
discuss. It comprised of three pillars on which fire stands on. toxic gases but also the further intensification of HRR. As a

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Table 1: The pyrolysis effects within different temperature zone

Pyrolysis Zones Ignition Temperatures [35]

Zone A: Up to 392° F (200° C) Fixed Carbon: 765° F - 1094° F (407°-590° C)

Wood is dried and small amounts of decomposition take place Hydrogen: 1076° - 1094° F (580 - 590° C)
Methane: 1202° - 1382° F (650° - 750° C)
Zone B: 392° - 536° F (200° - 280° C)
A large number of complex chemical compounds are generated Ethylene: 1008° - 1018° F (542° - 548° C)
through decomposition and charring begins Ethane: 968° - 1166° F (520° - 630° C)

Zone C: 536° - 932° F (280° - 500° C) Benzene: 1097° - 1364° F (740° C)

Rapid pyrolysis takes place, releasing and/or generating a wide Carbon Monoxide: 1191° - 1216° F (644° - 658° C)
range of complex chemical compounds. Secondary reactions
between these products can take place and charcoal is formed. Listed ignition temperatures are based on the range of
temperatures (low to high) listed in multiple reference sources.
Zone D: > 932° F (500° C) Ignition temperature is also influenced by the oxygen
concentration in the atmosphere.
Surface temperature of charcoal is sufficient to induces secondary
reactions such as combination of free carbon and carbon dioxide Pyrolysis of wood results in production of a far greater number of
(simple asphixiant) to produce large amounts of carbon monoxide complex chemical compounds. The materials listed are simply a
(toxic and flammable) representative sample of the more common of these substances.

result, a high HRR endangers life and resources. Every fire The fire hazard of apparel fabrics depends to a large extent
hazard variables do not threaten life i:e could be, a product on the ease of ignition and the rate of spread of flame of the
showing easy ignitability or flame spread rates, however this fabrics. Ignition occurs when the temperature of the fabric is
does not necessarily mean that it catches fire and expected to high enough for thermal decomposition and generation of
be dangerous. Such behavior may merely suggest a flammable volatiles. A high incident flux, low thermal inertia,
predisposition to hinder the fire progression. However high and weak chemical bonds will result in faster time of ignition
HRR is intrinsically dangerous. This is because the speed with and greater flammability hazard. The fiber content , structure
which the fire develops causes high temperatures, high heat and finishing treatments of the fabric influence the ignitibility.
release rate and high heat flux environments, which may be Cellulosic fabric such as cotton, viscose and linen ignite easily
deadly to residents and the duration of burning are dependent and burn quite fast. They can also continue to smoulder
on both the characteristic of the fuel involved and ventilation (afterglow), causing fires to restart or propagate [17]. A rapid
profile as illustrated in Fig. 5. spread of flame can occur over the surface of cellulosic fabric
The secondary fire effects are also crucial factors that with pile, like fleece, flannel or terry. Thick, tight and smooth
promote the rate of flame spread by emissions of smoke and cellulosic fabrics will not ignite so easily. Generally, fabrics
toxic gases. The greatest danger to people happens when the made of animal fibers, like wool or silk, will not ignite easily.
combination of radiant heat release with lack of oxygen Man- made fibers such as polyester and polyamide melt away
occurred. The HRR of burning material is the product of from the flame as the flame touches them and they often
mass loss rate per unit of exposed surface area and its actual extinguish themselves. Whereas the synthetic fibers, are not
heat of combustion. Hence, heat release rate is not just one of prone to catch fire easily and they melt away from a heat
many variables used to describe a fire but a single most source. However, this means that they provide no fire
important variable in describing fire hazards. protection for enclosed materials, such as foams in furniture,
so that a small flame can develop into a horrible house fire.
Synthetic textiles will burn strongly if they cannot melt away
from the flame and the molten fibers can cause severe burns[17].
The demand for the degree of heat and flame protection
vary ranging from clothing for situations in which the wearer
may be subjected to occasional exposure to a moderate level of
radiant heat as part of his/her normal working day or to the
clothing for prolonged protection, where the wearer is
subjected to severe radiant and convective heat, to direct
flame, for example firefighter suits.
Fig. 5: Heat Release Rate varies with Fuel characteristics Factors affecting the flammability
and vent profile[14]
Ease of ignition, rate of burning and heat release rate are

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Table 2: Flamable properties of fibres [2]

Material/Fabric Flame Properties Smoke Ash/Residue Smell and Misc

Name Properties

NATURALS As a general rule they Most have minimal Usually leaves a soft ash that Paper, wood or leaves
ignite easily with a smoke can be blown or wiped away, smell.
steady glowing flame if any

Cotton Ignites easily, continues Little white to grey Soft white or grey ash that The smell, burning paper
to burn when removed smoke. blows away, the weave in the or wood. Cotton burns
from flame. Usually a ash can still be seen on rather slow. Has a
sputtering flame. personal tests. glow after flame is out

Hemp Very similar to cotton. White to grey Grey to white ash The smell of burning paper
smoke or wood

Linen Very similar to cotton, a Same as Cotton Same as Cotton, may be more Appearance will differ from
little harder to ignite brittle at the base of the ash cotton,. Same smell.
and slower to burn. on the fabric edge.

Silk Ignites quickly, burns Very minimal smoke Leaves a beaded or gritty dark Smells like burning hair
easy, and slower the to light. grey or black ash. but sometime too faint.
thicker it is. Harder to extinguish.

RAYON (1/2 Burns slower than Tends to have a Soft ash that can be blown Paper or wood like smell.
natural and cotton. Steady flame, darker smoke than away. Is slightly more brittle Tends to have more ash
synthetic) minimal dark grey to cotton, but can vary than Cotton ash and may be left and is not as clean of a
black smoke gritty. burn as Cotton. Has a
bright glow before flame
burns out.

SYNTHETICS Tend to retreat from Usually dark and Hard, brittle, lumpy ashes, or Harsh acidic smells or little
flames and melts thick smoke melted beads to no smell. Usually
blended making hard to
identify

Acetate Melts and burns with Sometimes dark Hard dark brittle bead. Can Vinegary or treated wood
flame. Will retreat from grey to black smoke. drip while burning smell.
flame, burns quick. be careful.

Acrylic Retreats from flame. Varies Hard brittle irregular Harsh acidic smell.
Burns rapidly, melts. It Ash/beading.
will burn if flame is on
it long enough.
Sputtering flame

Nylon Melts then burns, will White smoke Hard grey, smoky or brown Vegetable or plant like
. retreat from flame. bead. smell. If ash is burned,
Burns slowly smells like plastic.

Polyester Melts and burns at the Black smoke Hard brittle cream or brown Sweet or acidic smell. Drips
same time, retreats from bead. Can turn while burning. The
flame. black if burned drippings are sometimes
excessively. on fire.

Spandex Melts, does not retreat Black or dark ash An acidic or rubber smell
from flame like a hot pencil eraser

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Table 3: Lists of the glass transition, melting, and pyrolysis temperatures

combustion temperature Tc, the
flammable volatile liquids burn in the
and LOI%[9]
presence of oxygen to produce carbon
Fibre Tg(0C) Tm (0C) Tp(0C) Tc(0C) **H *LOI* dioxide and water. When a textile is
Glass Melting pyrolysis combustion KJ/g (%) ignited, the rate of rise in temperature
Transition depends on
a) The specific heat of the fibre,
Wool - - 245 600 27 25.0 b) Its thermal conductivity[24]
Cotton - - 350 350 19 18.4 c) The latent heat of fusion (for
Viscose - - 350 420 19 18.9 melting fibres) and
Triacetate 172 290 305 540 - 18.4
d) The heat of pyrolysis.
Nylon 6 50 215 431 450 39 20.0-21.5 The burning propensity and profile of
Nylon 6.6 50 265 403 530 32 20-21 textiles is complex to be understood.
polyester 80-90 255 420-477 480 24 20-21.5 Different textiles whether natural or
Acrylic 100 >220 290 >250 32 18.2 synthetics or their constructions (yarn,
Polypropylene -20 165 469 550 44 18.6 fabric, garment) react in different way
Modacrylic <80 >240 273 690 - 29-30 under heat. Most of the natural fibers
such as cotton and silk burn relatively
PVC <80 >180 >180 450 21 37-39
easily in comparison to synthetics as they
PVDC -17 180-210 >220 532 11 60.0
have greater ability to resist ignition [18].
PTFE 126 >327 400 560 4 95.0
Synthetic fibres such as polyester,
Oxidised acrylic >640 - 55 - - - polypropylene, and polyamides shrink
Nomex 275 375 310 500 30 28.5-30 away when exposed to a flame. However,
Kevlar 340 560 590 >550 - 29 this action does not mean that the fabric
PBI >400 - >500 >500 - 40-42 is flame retardant. These melt drip can
result in severe burns and injuries [18].
* LOI - Limited of Index (%), **Heat of Combustion - Kcal/g
Additionally, though the fiber shrinks
away from the ignition source, there may
the important properties of the textile properties that governs occur a secondary ignition. Hence these concerns clearly
the extent of fire hazard. The other factors that influence the provoke the need of flame retardants on synthetics. The FRs
thermal protection level include melting and shrinking suited for synthetics often acted upon increasing the tendency
characteristics of synthetic fibers fabrics, and emission of of the fabric to melt and shrink away from the flame source.
smoke and toxic gases during burning. So while selecting and Secondly, they promote the extinction of flaming droplets.[15].
designing the flame protective clothing, following points The physical construction of textile, yarn geometry, blend
should kept in mind: percentages etc. also affect their burning behaviour. For an
l Burning behavior of textile fibres.
l Influence of fabric structure and garment shape on the
burning behavior.
l Selection of non-toxic, smoke free flame-retardant additive.
l Intensity of the ignition source.
l Oxygen supply.

Thermal behavior of fibers

Heat to textile material causes both physical and chemical
changes [1,9,22,23]. For thermoplastic fibres, the physical changes
occur at the second order transition (Tg), and melting
temperature (Tm), while the chemical changes occur at
pyrolysis temperatures (Tp) at which thermal degradation
occurs. The complex textile combustion process involves
heating, decomposition leading to gasification (fuel
generation), ignition and flame propagation. A fuel source and
a means of gasifying the fuel are essentially needed for a self-
sustaining flame. When a fibre is subjected to heat, it pyrolyses
at Tp and volatile liquids and gases thus produced are
combustible, act as the fuels for further combustion. In
pyrolysis, if the temperature is equal to or greater than Fig. 7: Melting point comparative chart for Non-textiles[19]

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example a tighter spun yarn can resist ignition more than a flame retardant. The heat of combustion (HC) is important
loosely spun yarn or the same way for fabric [18]. The density major that shows how quickly a fire will spread .
and structure of a fabric are also critical; a dense fabric
composed of several layers or of high GSM is less likely to Flame-retardant, heat protective textiles[20]
burn than a low density fabric with an open structure[15]. The There exists a significant difference between civilian and
Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) is often used to indicate the military fire events. The majority of civilian fires are accidental
burning tendency of a material. Any fiber with a LOI value of events, whereas the majority of military fires are deliberately
21% or lower will effortlessly ignite and burn in the presence planned and professionally executed that specifically intended
of air. LOI values of 26-28 are indicative of fibers which are to destroy equipment and installations and to maim and kill

Fig. 8: Burning behavior of textile fibers

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life. Military textile materials are often the
first materials to ignite and they Table 4: Melting points of some thermoplastic textile fibers [20]
propagate small fires that may rapidly Fibre type Trade names Melting point (Tm°C)
lead to large conflagrations. The use of
flame-retardant textiles for many defense Polyester Terylene, Dacron, Trevira,
applications can specifically include: Thermastat, Coolmax, Patagonia 255
l Protective clothing - for firefighters, Polypropylene Meraklon, Leolene, Ulstron 150
bomb disposal (explosive ordnance
disposal, EOD) crews, nuclear, Polyamide Nylon 6, Nylon 6-6, Tactel 250
biological and chemical (NBC) Poly Vinylidene Chloride Damart Thermolactyl, Rhovyl Shrinks 95
protection, AFV tank crews, naval
forces aboard ships and submarines, Modacrylic SEF, Velicren, Teklan, 175
aircrew, and special forces such as SAS Spandex (Elastic Fibres) Lycra, Vyrene 250
(Special Air Service), SBS (Special
Boat Service), and US navy seals.
than 35% polyester is suggested because it can cause skin
l Equipment - such as tents, shelters, vehicle covers, and burns.
bedding. The melt hazard issue is still a cause for much debate,
especially in its inferences for infantry and marines operating in
Military flame and heat threats cold climates. Some nations ignore this potential problem,
The threats to humans and equipment can be sorted as : whilst others, including the UK, observe the risk in certain
1. open flames from burning textiles, wood, vegetation, special situations for all aircrew, tank crew, and all naval action
furnishings and fuels clothing. The UK has recently relaxed the restrictions on the
2. radiant weapon flash - whether conventional or nuclear use of thermoplastic textiles in certain cold weather
weapons operations[20]
3. exploding penetrating munitions, especially incendiary
devices
4. conducted or convected heat, including contact with hot Conclusion
objects The fiber inherent characteristic, structure and finishing
5. toxic fumes generated in confined spaces treatments of the fabric influence the ignitibility and burning
6. smoke which hinders escape in confined spaces, and can propensity. The demand for the degree of heat and flame
damage other equipment protection vary widely ranging from clothing for normal
7. molten, dripping polymers, which can injure clothed situations to various hostile environments where the wearer
humans and spread fires in furnishings and interior fittings may be subjected to high risk of fire hazards. Design of
suitable fire and heat protection clothing can save lives and
Thermoplastic melt hazard[20] resources. Further research work on flame protective textiles
are going on to develop new fibres and finishes with improved
In many a situations, forces can experience the detrimental performances with reasonable handle and comfort properties.
effects of molten fibre polymer sticking to their skin. They The new generation development are also motivated on their
may cause severe injuries. Table 3 shows that thermoplastic biodegradability and eco-friendly processing routes.
fibres have melting points as low as 105°C and if used in
underwear can shrink onto the skin prior to melting. The
commonly used synthetic fibres such as polyester (Tm = 255 References
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