Chapter 5

Inductive and/or Deductive Research

Designs

Md. Shahidul Haque

Abstract This chapter aims to introduce the readers, especially the Bangladeshi
undergraduate and postgraduate students to some fundamental considerations of
inductive and deductive research designs. The deductive approach refers to testing a
theory, where the researcher builds up a theory or hypotheses and plans a research
stratagem to examine the formulated theory. On the contrary, the inductive approach
intends to construct a theory, where the researcher begins by gathering data to estab-
lish a theory. In the beginning, a researcher must clarify which approach he/she will
follow in his/her research work. The chapter discusses basic concepts, characteris-
tics, steps and examples of inductive and deductive research designs. Here, also a
comparison between inductive and deductive research designs is shown. It concludes
with a look at how both inductive and deductive designs are used comprehensively
to constitute a clearer image of research work.

Keywords Deductive research design · Inductive research design · Hypothesis ·

Research design · Theory

Introduction

In social research, two research designs may be followed; one is inductive, and
another is deductive. Strauss and Corbin (1998) described the inductive analysis as,
“the researcher begins with an area of study and allows the theory to emerge from
the data” (p. 12). Deductive design is a form of data analysis that aims to see if the
findings are consistent with the investigator’s previous presumptions, theories, or
hypotheses (Thomas, 2006). Different kinds of qualitative data analysis, including
grounded theory, employ an inductive method (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The induc-
tive process starts with observations and proceeds to goals such as exploration and
discovery. On the contrary, in quantitative research work, a deductive method usually
begins with theories and hypotheses that can be evaluated by observations. This is a

Md. S. Haque (B)

Department of Social Work, Jagannath University, Dhaka 1100, Bangladesh
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 59
M. R. Islam et al. (eds.), Principles of Social Research Methodology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_5
60 Md. S. Haque

procedure of shifting from theory to observation that is too connected with objectives
such as linking causes to consequences. However, most of the research studies can go
through both inductive and deductive phases. These two methods of research design
have different styles in conducting research. Inductive research design is open-ended
and exploratory, whether the deductive design is narrower and is concentrated on
examining or confirming hypotheses. Both inductive and deductive research designs
are used in social research at some times. It works as a cycle that starts from theo-
ries down to observations and returns to theories again. Even in the most confined
research, the researchers may notice patterns in the data that lead them to create new
theories.

Definitions of Key Concepts

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is one of the most inevitable instruments in all types of investigation. The
term ‘hypothesis’ is a formation of two parts of words; hypo and thesis. Here ‘hypo’
stands for the tentative subject to the validation and ‘thesis’ means a narration on
the resolution of a problem. So, the word ‘hypothesis’ aims to a tentative statement
about the solution of a problem, the exactness of which remains to be examined.
Hypothesis indicates an answer to the question that is to be proved empirically and
grounded on a few rationales (Singh, 2006). According to Cambridge, a hypothesis
is a theme or clarification for something that is based on familiar data which has not
been confirmed yet.

Variable

Variable is a term frequently used in research projects. A variable is any quantity

or characteristic which may possess different numerical values or categories. For
example, gender is a variable because it has two values, female or male. Engel and
Schutt (2005) defined, “a characteristic or property that can vary (take on different
values or attributes)”.

Theory

The theory is a correlated set of ideas and propositions about empirical reality,
embodied into a deductive system to illustrate relationships of particular aspects
of the universe. The theory is a presumption or a set of ideas meant to describe
5 Inductive and/or Deductive Research Designs 61

anything, particularly one based on the common laws that are independent of the
subject of the explanation (Oxford).

Research Design

A research design is a blueprint for collecting and analysing data that is commenced
to assess a certain theoretical aspect. Burns and Grove (2003) defined it as “a plan
for performing a study with maximal control over issues that may interfere with the
findings’ validity” (p. 195).

Definitions of Inductive and Deductive Research

Inductive Research

Inductive research design is often used in social research. The term ‘inductive’ is
originated from the Latin word ‘inductivus’ (Oxford Dictionary, 2016a, b, c). Induc-
tive reasoning refers to the use of specific examples to come to a common consensus
on something (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2016a; b, c). In strict, the inductive
process concerned with qualitative research usually starts with observations, then
which may be used to form a theory or raise hypotheses. It is named as ‘specific-
general’ or ‘bottom-up’ method. The inductive design is also known as the theory-
building method. The inductive approach starts with particular data, which are then
used to build (induce) a common narration (a theory) to estimate the data. This
approach can be visualized using the research circle; rather than starting at the peak
of the circle with a theory, the investigator comes from the bottom with facts and
then builds the theory (Brewer & Hunter, 1989). The inductive design begins with
observations, and because of it, theories are developed in the completion of the study
(Goddard & Melville, 2004) (Fig. 5.1).
According to Neuman (2003), the inductive approach starts with comprehensive
observations of the universe and progresses to more abstract generalizations and
concepts. To put it another way, when a researcher uses an inductive design to study,
starting with a subject matter, he/she tends to generate empirical generalizations and
point out preliminary links as he/she goes along. Finally, inductive research is a
scientific study in which the researcher begins with an open mind and examines the
entire picture to determine what is happening. He/she makes a lot of observations,
discerns a trend, generalizes, and comes up with a theory. So, it is clear that inductive
research’s goal is to infer theoretical concepts and patterns from observed data.
62 Md. S. Haque

Fig. 5.1 Inductive research

design. Source Developed by
the author
Theory

Tentative
Hypothesis

Pattern

Observation

Deductive Research

The term deductive is originated from the Latin ‘deductivus’ (Oxford Dictionary,
2016a, 2016b, 2016c). Deductive means the use of logic or reason to conclude or form
an opinion on something (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2016a; b, c). In deductive
research design, the work progresses from general to specific. It’s sometimes referred
to as a “top-down” method. Deductive reasoning commences with a common state-
ment, or hypothesis, and investigates all alternatives to arrive at a definite, rational
conclusion. The purpose of deductive research is to put theory-based concepts and
patterns to the test using new empirical evidence. Theory-testing research is another
name for deductive research. To test hypotheses and theories, the scientific method
employs deduction. The purpose of theory testing is to modify, enrich, and extend a
theory, not only to test it (Fig. 5.2).
The deductive approach involves formulating a hypothesis (or hypotheses)
depending on the current theory and then devising a research procedure to test it
(Wilson, 2010). According to Beiske (2007), the deductive research design investi-
gates a familiar theory or phenomenon and examines whether it is true in a given

Fig. 5.2 Deductive research

design. Source Developed by Theory
the author

Hypothesis

Observation

Confirmation
5 Inductive and/or Deductive Research Designs 63

situation. The deductive method is the one that most nearly follows the logical path.
Starting with a theory, the logic allows for a new hypothesis. This theory is put to the
examination by having it confronted with observations that either confirm or refute
the hypothesis (Snieder & Larner, 2009). Finally, a deductive research strategy would
be used to test a theory, connection, or relationship that has been proposed, asserted,
or postulated by a certain theory. The results would either support or amend the
theory, as well as cast doubt on its assumptions. The opposite of inductive research
design is the deductive research design.

Characteristics

Characteristics of Inductive Research

Inductive research is exploratory and open-ended, beginning with particular data

that is subsequently used to construct a general interpretation or theory. An inductive
method is used in various categories of qualitative data analysis, including grounded
theory (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). Inductive arguments are neither “valid” nor
“invalid”, but rather “strong” or “weak” (a matter of degree). Not necessarily truth-
preserving and premises provide some support for the conclusion. Saunders et al.
(2007) described an inductive design should possess the following characteristics:
• The researcher attempts to understand the meanings that individuals attach to
specific events.
• A less structured approach is taken, which may lead to the discovery of alternate
explanations for the problem at hand.
• The method can offer special consideration to the circumstances where the events
occur.
• A small sample size could be preferable.
• Qualitative data are gathered by researchers.
• To collect data, researchers can utilize a variety of ways.
• The requirement to generalize findings is less important to researchers.

Characteristics of Deductive Research

A top-down strategy is used in deductive reasoning. It usually starts with the selection
of a pre-existing theory on a particular area of interest. Creswell and Plano Clark
(2017) explained, “the deductive researcher works from the ‘top-down’, from a theory
to hypotheses to data to add to or contradict the theory” (p. 23). In most quantitative
studies, a deductive research approach is adopted. Deductive reasoning is utilized in
the scientific method to arrive at a logically correct conclusion. A deductive research
design, according to Saunders et al. (2007), should have the following characteristics:
64 Md. S. Haque

Observations Pattern Hypothesis Theory

Fig. 5.3 Steps of inductive research design. Source Developed by the author

• There is an attempt to describe causal relationships among variables.

• Quantitative information is gathered.
• Controls are used to ensure that the data are accurate.
• To achieve reliability, a highly organized methodology is used.
• A researcher is independent by what he or she is observing.
• The concepts are operationalized in a manner that allows for quantitative
measurement of facts.
• The size of the samples should be large enough to allow results to be generalized.

Steps of Inductive Research Design

There is no theory at the beginning of the inquiry with the inductive design, but when
research is completed, a theory may be formed. It is therefore essential to describe
the main steps involved in executing inductive research (Fig. 5.3).
Inductive research design starts with particular observations and then proceeds on
to bigger generalizations and theories depending on those observations. In a holistic
view, it includes observation, pattern, hypothesis and theory. In this design, once an
investigator has recognized trends and patterns in a set of data, he/she can form a few
hypotheses to investigate and lastly produce some common conclusions or theories.
In an elaborate discussion, the researcher has to follow some specific steps to
conduct inductive research. Some of the steps are listed below:
• Specific measurements and observations.
• Subject of interest.
• Collecting data.
• Clusters or patterns in data.
• Analysis of the data.
• Emergence of themes.
• Generalizations.
• Disseminate the results.

Steps of Deductive Research Design

When conducting research using a deductive design, the investigator develops a set
of hypotheses that must be tested. The investigation will next prove the hypotheses
to be correct or incorrect by employing the appropriate methodology. In general,
deductive research design follows five different stages: (a) inferring hypothesis from
5 Inductive and/or Deductive Research Designs 65

Theory Hypothesis Observation Confirmation/Rejection

Fig. 5.4 Steps of deductive research design. Source Developed by the author

the theory; (b) trying to formulate a hypothesis in functional terms and suggesting
relations between two particular variables; (c) applying an appropriate method to
test the hypothesis; (d) evaluating the results of the test and thereby accepting or
denying the theory, and (e) updating theory in cases where a hypothesis is not verified
(Fig. 5.4).
According to Saunders et al. (2007), deductive research proceeds through five
stages:
(1) The theory will be used to generate a hypothesis.
(2) An explanation of how the concepts will be measured will be provided, along
with a proposal for a link between two ideas or variables.
(3) The hypothesis would be proven or disproved.
(4) The investigation’s specific outcome will be evaluated.
(5) The theory will be updated if necessary, in the light of the results.

Examples

There are numerous prominent examples of inductive and deductive research designs;
the following examples will be helpful for a better understanding.

Example of Inductive Research Design

Suppose, a group of researchers has completed a study on the Involvement of old age
people in intensive labour in Dhaka city. At first, the researchers collected data from
old age people from the different parts of Dhaka city using several research tools and
then they analysed data. As a result, they developed a series of recommendations
based on their findings. The researchers also developed hypotheses for the people
who might wish to conduct further investigation of the topic. If the researchers work
on it and find the same results, it would be a theory in future. Here, inductive research
design worked from distinctive observations to larger generalizations and theories.

Example of Deductive Research Design

The domestic violence study by Sherman and Berk (1984) is a good demonstra-
tion of deductive study design. According to the deterrence theory, punishment will
66 Md. S. Haque

reduce to commit further crimes. At first, Sherman and Berk came up with a unique
hypothesis: arrest for spousal abuse decreases the possibility of recurrent offences.
The probability of recurrent offences was the dependent variable, while the arrest
was the independent variable. Sherman and Berk put their hypothesis to the test by
conducting an experiment in which police officers responded to allegations of marital
abuse in one of three ways: (a) arresting the abuser, (b) separating the couples without
making arrests, or (c) just scolding the offender. Whenever the researchers looked
at their data (police documents for the participants in the study), they discovered
that only 13% of those arrested for assaulting their spouse repeated the offence,
particularly in comparison to a 26% recidivism rate for those segregated from their
spouse by police without being arrested. As a result, the testing backed up the theory
(Engel & Schutt, 2005).

Combined Approach: Inductive and Deductive

Although inductive and deductive research procedures are distinct, in some cases,
both inductive and deductive methods of reasoning can be applied. On the other
hand, a researcher may start a project intending to use just inductive or deductive
research design, but then he/she can realize that the other approach is required to
provide better outcomes (Fig. 5.5).
When we identify unwanted patterns in the data collected for testing a hypoth-
esis, we use inductive reasoning in deductive research. Because of the nature of the
study cycle, some studies will also include both inductive and deductive research
methodologies (Engel & Schutt, 2005). Here is an example of combined research
design.

Theory
Inductive Emperical
Generalization/ Hypothesis
Hypothesis Deductive

Descriptive Observation
Research

Data/ Confirmation
Observation

Fig. 5.5 The research circle (inductive and deductive). Source Developed by author
5 Inductive and/or Deductive Research Designs 67

Example of a Combined Approach

In a study, a hundred salespersons were interviewed about their motivation in work.

After analysing the collected data, the researcher induced a common proposition on
salesperson motivation that appears to be accurate for a great number of interviewees.
The researcher might assume that this proposition has not been addressed in earlier
sales force motivation research and theory. Perhaps, a significant proportion of inter-
viewees said that having a supervisor with excellent communication skills is crucial
to their motivation. The researcher may next utilize a deductive study design to test
this proposition on a significant number of samples, possibly through a question-
naire. The results would then supply material to reflect on and modify a salesperson
motivation theory. In social research, this type of inductive–deductive study design
is fairly common (Hackley, 2003).

Importance of Inductive and Deductive Research

Scientific investigation can take one of two forms, depending on the researcher’s
skills and interests; inductive or deductive, and both are important for conducting
research.

Importance of Inductive Research

In research design
The premises of qualitative research are based on an inductive rather than deductive
approach. It comes from the observational aspects, which generate questions that the
investigator tries to explain. Qualitative research is frequently connected to inductive
research design, in which a variety of methods are employed to collect data and
investigate the problem from many angles (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002; Gray, 2004).
Developing theory/model
Researchers collect and analyse data, as well as establish theories from the ground up
in inductive research. In certain domains, theory forms slowly, concept by concept
and proposition by the proposition. Ideas and empirical generalizations build and
mature over time. Links emerge quickly, and investigators weave wisdom from
several inquiries into more abstract theories. The inductive method is known as
the creation of a theory, where researchers begin with data collection to develop a
theory—highlighted by Saunders et al. (2007). A researcher must explain whatever
approach he/she is using in his/her research study.
68 Md. S. Haque

Making scientific knowledge

In inductive research, the researcher observes the facts objectively and registers what
they see with an impartial mind. These observations then serve as the foundation for
the development of theories and laws that create scientific knowledge. Furthermore,
inductive researchers believe that observations may be reasonably generalized in
common and inclusive principles and those scientific assumptions can be verified
and validated (Godfrey et al., 2010).
The appropriate approach for social research design
In social science research, a generic inductive technique is frequently mentioned.
The inductive technique emphasizes observation and gives a conclusion through
observation, as does the majority of social research.

Importance of Deductive Research Design

In research design
Deductive research is usually related to quantitative research design. Trochim (2006)
contends that the concept must be removed that quantitative research is always confir-
matory and deductive. Trochim continues by stating that much quantitative research
is exploratory and is used to corroborate highly precise deductive hypotheses.
Theory/model testing
Researchers utilize theory to facilitate the design of research and the explanation
of outcomes in a logical method. Researchers gain confidence in some aspects of a
theory as they continue to undertake an empirical study to test it. If numerous well-
conducted investigations yield negative results, researchers may change or deny some
of a theory’s assertions. According to Saunders et al. (2007), the deductive approach,
often called theory testing, entails the researcher developing a theory or hypotheses
and designing a research technique to evaluate the theory.
Making scientific knowledge
The deductive technique in building scientific knowledge in research begins with
a theory, from which a hypothesis is generated and is used for world observations.
Then the hypothesis will be accepted or rejected, showing how strong or weak the
theory is.

Differences Between Inductive and Deductive Research

Design

According to Trochim (2006), inductive and deductive designs are two main tech-
niques of reasoning. Both techniques are opposed to one another. The deductive
5 Inductive and/or Deductive Research Designs 69

research works from the ‘top-down’ technique. Using theory, the deductive research
approach permits the investigator to develop a hypothesis. The researcher gathers a
diversity of data and information to corroborate or refute the hypothesis and fix the
problem (Gill & Johnson, 2010). The inductive approach is commonly referred to
as a ‘bottom-up’ technique to learning, where the investigator applies observations
to construct an abstraction or narrate a picture of the subject under investigation
(Lodico et al., 2006). The deductive research design, which is focused on a general
idea to arrive at a particular situation, is related to the positivism paradigm. On the
other hand, the inductive research strategy is related to the interpretivism paradigm,
which is focused on a particular idea to generalize the circumstance based on the
study topic (Crowther & Lancaster, 2009). The most significant distinction between
the two approaches is how they perceive reality. Inductive and deductive research
designs have some fundamental differences. The following table illustrates these
distinctions (Table 5.1):

Table 5.1 Differences between inductive and deductive research design

SL Attribute Inductive research design Deductive research design
1 Direction Bottom-up or Top-down or
specific-general general-specific
2 Purpose Generates theory from Tests theory through
observations observations
3 Beginning Used to form hypotheses Usually begins with
hypotheses
4 Orientation Oriented to discovery, Oriented to cause and effect
exploration
5 Focus This method is used to make This method uses deduction
broad generalizations from to test hypotheses and
specific observations theories
6 Procedures Emergent design Predetermined design
7 Data collection and analysis Merges data collection and Separates data collection
analysis and analysis
8 Research design Associated with qualitative Associated with quantitative
research research
9 Flexibility A more flexible structure to A highly structured
permit changes of research approach
emphasis as the research
progresses
10 Generalization Less concern with the need The necessity to select
to generalize samples of sufficient size to
generalize conclusions
Source: Adapted from Saunders et al. (2007) & Morgan (2014)
70 Md. S. Haque

Conclusions

The terms ‘deductive’ and ‘inductive’ are frequently practised in social research
and both the research designs play an important role. In inductive research, the
objective of the researcher is to derive theoretical ideas and patterns from observed
facts. Hence, the inductive design is also called theory-building research. In deductive
design, a researcher aims to examine conceptions and patterns acquainted from theory
utilizing new experimental data. The deductive design is also known as a theory-
testing experiment (Bhattacherjee, 2012). Although there appear to be several debates
among investigators about the optimal strategy to use when conducting research and
collecting data, these two approaches are not mutually exclusive and they frequently
address the same question in various ways. In social research, the single research
approach is very familiar; researchers use either inductive or deductive design. But
in this case, the expected research outcome may not visible sometimes. That is
why nowadays, a combination of both inductive and deductive research designs is
preferable for analysing cross-cultural collaboration design patterns.

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