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PH113: Physics (B.Tech.

Instructors: Dr. S K Mukherjee and Dr. Anupam Roy

Dept of Physics, BIT Mesra.

Drop an e-mail: royanupam [AT] bitmesra [DOT] ac [DOT] in.

Section L, O & P
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Syllabus
Module-1: Physical Optics
Polarization, Malus’ Law, Brewster’s Law, Double Refraction, Interference in thin films (Parallel films), Interference in wedge-shaped layers, Newton’s rings, Fraunhofer
diffraction by single slit, Double slit. Elementary ideas of fibre optics and application of fibre optic cables. [8]
Module-2: Electromagnetic Theory
Gradient, Divergence and Curl, Statement of Gauss theorem & Stokes theorem, Gauss’s law, Applications, Concept of electric potential, Relationship between E and V,
Polarization of dielectrics, dielectric constant, Boundary conditions for E & D, Gauss’s law in magnetostatics, Ampere’s circuital law, Boundary conditions for B & H,
Equation of continuity, Displacement current, Maxwell’s equations. [8]
Module-3: Special Theory of Relativity
Introduction, Inertial frame of reference, Galilean transformations, Postulates, Lorentz transformations and its conclusions, Length contraction, time dilation, velocity
addition, Mass change, Einstein's mass energy relation. [6]
Module-4: Quantum Mechanics
Planck's theory of black-body radiation, Compton effect, Wave particle duality, De Broglie waves, Davisson and Germer's experiment, Uncertainty principle, Brief idea of
Wave Packet, Wave Function and its physical interpretation, Schrodinger equation in one-dimension, free particle, particle in an infinite square well. [9]
Module-5: Modern Physics
Laser – Spontaneous and stimulated emission, Einstein's A and B coefficients, Population inversion, Light amplification, Basic laser action, Ruby and He-Ne lasers,
Properties and applications of laser radiation, Nuclear Physics- Binding Energy Curve, Nuclear Force, Liquid drop model, Introduction to Shell model, Applications of
Nuclear Physics, Concept of Plasma Physics, and its applications. [9]
Text books:
1: A. Ghatak, Optics, 4th Edition, Tata Mcgraw Hill, 2009
2: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press ( 2001)
3: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill
4. F. F. Chen, Introduction to Plasma Physics and controlled Fusion, Springer, Edition 2016.
Reference books: 1: Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Walker and Resnick
Dr. Anupam Roy 2
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Module – 2: Electromagnetic Theory

Gradient, Divergence and Curl, Statement of Gauss theorem & Stokes theorem, Gauss’s law, Applications,
Concept of electric potential, Relationship between E and V, Polarization of dielectrics, dielectric constant,
Boundary conditions for E & D, Gauss’s law in magnetostatics, Ampere’s circuital law, Boundary conditions
for B & H, Equation of continuity, Displacement current, Maxwell’s equations. [8]

Text Book: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press (Seventh Edition, 2018)

Reference Book: David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Pearson (Fourth Edition, 2014)

Class structure: 4 Lectures including 1 Tutorial per week. (8 hours ~ 2 weeks for this module!)
Dr. Anupam Roy 3
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Date: 26.09.2023

Lecture: 1

Dr. Anupam Roy 4

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction

- Gradient, Divergence, Curl and their applications

❑Mathematical preliminaries - Gauss theorem
- Stokes theorem

Dr. Anupam Roy 5

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Ultrashort Introduction to Calculus
❑ A fundamental question in classical physics:
❑ A car/particle/object is moving (= changing its
position with time).
❑ Can we predict where the car/particle/object
will be in some time instance in future?

▪ X-axis: time (equal intervals)

▪ Y-axis: position of the car ▪ General scenario: it covers different distance in the same time intervals.
▪ X(t) is a function. ▪ Natural guess (almost all of you): it SPEEDS UP or SLOWS DOWN at
different times..

❑Quantifiable information can be obtained!! Dr. Anupam Roy 6

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑ Ultrashort intro to Calculus
- If equal distance covered in equal
intervals of time: velocity, 𝑣= constant,
and acceleration, a = 0.

- Positive a ?
- Negative a ?

Also take a look at:

https://www.engineersedge.com/physics/ac
celeration-animation.htm

Dr. Anupam Roy 7

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑ Velocity and Acceleration
- Δ𝑥(𝑡) = distance covered in the time interval Δ𝑡.
- 𝑣(𝑡) = Δ𝑥(𝑡)/Δ𝑡 = "rate of change in position" = velocity/speed. This informs us about how fast or
slow the car is moving. 𝑣 is a function of time, 𝑣(𝑡).
- Tangent at that time.
- a(t) = Δ𝑣(𝑡)/Δ𝑡 = "rate of change in velocity" = acceleration. This informs us about how quickly the
drive is changing his/her speed. Also a is function of time, a(t).
- Tangent to the velocity profile at that time.
- In the limit Δt --> 0, a better approximation to the function is generally possible – the notion of
derivative.

- Lim Δt --> 0 : Δx/Δt --> del x(t)/ del t = v(t)

- Δx/Δt --> del v(t)/ del t = a(t) Dr. Anupam Roy 8
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Velocity and Acceleration

Dr. Anupam Roy 9

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Derivatives of some standard functions

Dr. Anupam Roy 10

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Derivatives of some standard functions

Many more functions, look 'em up …

Dr. Anupam Roy 11

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Higher Order Derivatives

Δ𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
- a(t) = = = =
Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

- a is a second order derivative of 𝑥(𝑡).

Dr. Anupam Roy 12

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Scalar and Vector Fields
❑ Consider the temperature distribution in the room: 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
❑ At each point in the room, Temperature (𝑇) is known.
❑ This is an example of a scalar field since 𝑇 is a scalar quantity.

❑ Similarly, consider the (average) flow of air particles in the room quantified by the (average)
velocity of air particles : 𝒗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
❑ At each point in the room, the velocity (𝒗) is known.
❑ This is an example of a vector field since 𝒗 is a vector quantity.

❑ To compute the derivatives/integral of a vector field, one needs to do this for each component
❑ For a function of multiple variable, we need multivariate calculus.
Dr. Anupam Roy 13
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑ Ordinary derivatives v/s Partial derivatives
- Concerns single-variable functions. - Applied to multivariable functions.
- Measures the rate of change with respect - Measures the rate of change with respect to one
to one variable. variable while holding others constant.
- Denoted as dy/dx. - Denoted as ∂f/∂x, ∂f/∂y, etc.

-The swirly-d (symbol: ∂, called "del“) is used to distinguish partial derivatives from ordinary single-variable
derivatives.

Treat the "other" variable as a "constant" !

-Total derivative of a function:

Dr. Anupam Roy 14
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Gradient (grad):
❑ Definition: The gradient is a vector operator that represents the rate of change of a scalar field.
❑ Mathematical Expression:

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝛁𝑓 = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
❑ Operates on a scalar field, produces a vector function.
❑ Interpretation: The gradient points in the direction of the steepest increase of the scalar
field. In temperature mapping, 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), the gradient of temperature indicates the direction of
maximum temperature increase.
❑ Useful in optimization/ML/AI problem: the widely used gradient descent algorithm.
Dr. Anupam Roy 15
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Gradient (grad):
❑ Consider the temperature of a room 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Variation in temperature is given by:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
❑ 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
= 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌 . 𝑑𝑥 𝒊 + 𝑑𝑦 𝒋 + 𝑑𝑧 𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

= 𝜵𝑇 . 𝑑𝒍
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Where, 𝜵𝑇 ≡ 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌 [i.e., 𝜵 ≡ 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

and the line element 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑑𝑥 𝒊 + 𝑑𝑦 𝒋 + 𝑑𝑧 𝒌.

Dr. Anupam Roy 16

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Gradient (grad):
❑ Variation in temperature 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) of a room is given by: 𝑑𝑇 = 𝜵𝑇 . 𝑑𝒍
❑ Geometrical interpretation: 𝑑𝑇 = 𝜵𝑇 . 𝑑𝒍 = 𝜵𝑇 𝑑𝒍 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
❑ If 𝑑𝒍 is fixed, then maximum variation in 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is when 𝜃 = 0 (i.e., 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1)
❑ So, 𝑑𝑇 is maximum along the direction of 𝜵𝑇.
𝑑𝑇
❑ Under this condition (i.e., 𝜃 = 0), 𝜵𝑇 =
𝑑𝒍

❑ Suppose you are on a hilltop. Look for the direction of steepest ascent. It gives the direction of
the gradient. The value of the slope along this direction gives the magnitude of the gradient.

Dr. Anupam Roy 17

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Gradient Identities:

where

Examples:
1. For 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 3𝑦 2 , ∇𝑓 = 𝒊 + 6𝑦 𝒋
2. For 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 , ∇𝑓 = cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 𝒊 + sin 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 𝒋 Dr. Anupam Roy 18
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Gradient (grad):
❑ Solve: The position of a point is given by 𝒓 = 𝑥 𝒊 + 𝑦 𝒋 + 𝑧 𝒌. Find 𝜵r.

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
❑ Note: Here 𝑟 = |𝒓| = √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) and 𝜵 ≡ 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
❑ Hence 𝜵𝑟 = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑟 𝑥 𝑥
❑ Now, = = .
𝜕𝑥 √(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 ) 𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑧
❑ Similarly, = and =
𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝒓
❑ Finally, we get 𝜵𝑟 = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌 = = 𝒓ො
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
Dr. Anupam Roy 19
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Divergence (div):
❑ Definition: The divergence is a scalar operator that measures the spread or dispersion of a
vector field from a point.
❑ Mathematical Expression:

𝜕𝐹𝑥 𝜕𝐹𝑦 𝜕𝐹𝑧

𝛁. 𝐅 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

❑ Operates (dot product) on a vector, produces a scalar function. (Dot product for Divergence! )
❑ Interpretation: Rate of outward/inward flow of the vector field (flux through a surface) at the
point where divergence is evaluated. Positive divergence indicates a source (outward flow),
while negative divergence indicates a sink (inward flow).
Dr. Anupam Roy 20
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Divergence Identities:

Examples:
1. For 𝑭(𝑥, 𝑦) = 6𝑥 2 𝒊 + 4𝑦 𝒋, 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑭) = 12𝑥 + 4
2. For 𝑭 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 𝒊 + 2𝑧 𝒋 − 𝑦 𝒌, 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑭) = 2𝑥
Dr. Anupam Roy 21
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Curl:
❑ Definition: The curl is a vector operator that measures the rotation or circulation of a vector
field at a point.
❑ Mathematical Expression:

𝜕𝐹𝑧 𝜕𝐹𝑦 𝜕𝐹𝑥 𝜕𝐹𝑧 𝜕𝐹𝑦 𝜕𝐹𝑥

𝛁 ×𝐅 = − 𝒊+ − 𝒋+ − 𝒌
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

❑ Operates on a vector field, produces a vector field. (Cross product for Curl! )
❑ Interpretation: Determines the circulation of a vector field. The curl vector points in the
direction of the axis of rotation and its magnitude represents the strength of rotation.

Dr. Anupam Roy 22

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Curl Identities:

Examples:
1. For 𝑭 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑦 3 𝒊 + 𝑥𝑦 𝒋 – 𝑧 𝒌, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑭 = 𝑦 − 3𝑦2 𝒌
2. For 𝑭 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 𝒊 + 𝑦 𝒋 + 𝑧 𝒌 = 𝒓, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙(𝒓) = 0
3. For 𝒗 = −𝑦 𝒊 + 𝑥 𝒋, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝒗 = 2 𝒌
4. For 𝒗 = 𝑥 𝒋, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝒗 = 𝒌
Dr. Anupam Roy 23
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Laplacian:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝛻 2 𝑓 = 𝛁 . 𝛁𝑓 = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌 . 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
= + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

❑ Identities:

❑ Operates on a scalar field, produces a scalar function.

Dr. Anupam Roy 24
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Laplacian:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
𝛻 2𝑓 = 𝛁 . 𝛁𝑓 = 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌 . 𝒊+ 𝒋+ 𝒌 = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

❑ Example: 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 , calculate ∇2 𝑓.

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
❑ Step by step: = 2𝑥, = 2𝑦, = 2𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
❑ = 2𝑥 = 2. Similarly, = =2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
❑ Therefore, 𝛻 2𝑓 == + + = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 Dr. Anupam Roy 25
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑DCG:

Curl of a radial outward/inward vector is always zero!

(will be useful in talking about conservative nature of 𝑬)

Dr. Anupam Roy 26

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Fundamental theorem of calculus:

❑Integration as area under the curve:

Dr. Anupam Roy 27

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Integration: Inverse of Derivative

Dr. Anupam Roy 28

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Vector Integration:
❑ Extends the concept of integration to vector-valued functions.
❑ Involves integrating vector quantities, such as displacement, force, or velocity.
❑ Essential in various fields, including physics, engineering, and mathematics.
❑ Notations:
▪ One dimensional integral between 𝑥0 , 𝑥1
▪ One dimensional integral over a closed loop: ∮ (integral sign with a circle)
▪ Surface or volume integrals: ∫∫ (double integral sign) or ∫ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦, or
∫∫∫ (double integral sign) or ∫ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Dr. Anupam Roy 29
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Vector Integration:
❑ Example:
1. Area of a rectangle of sides 𝑎, 𝑏:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
∫0 ∫0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 ∫0 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏 (Note: separation possible in this case, not so in general!)

2. Area of a circle: circle is defined as 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 .

Note: only one effective variable (the other depends on it), separation of variables is not possible.
Try solving it

Dr. Anupam Roy 30

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Fundamental theorem of Gradients

 Check this

Dr. Anupam Roy 31

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Gauss theorem (Divergence theorem) and its physical meaning
❑ ∫𝑉 𝜵. 𝒗 𝑑𝜏 = ∮𝑆 𝒗. 𝑑𝒂
❑ Relates volume to surface integral (bulk-boundary correspondence!)
❑ Physical Meaning:
▪ Gauss's Theorem relates the flux of a vector field 𝑣 through a closed surface S to the divergence
of 𝑣 within the enclosed volume V.
▪ It tells us that the total flux leaving or entering a closed surface is equal to the net source or sink
of the vector field inside the volume.
❑ Applications:
▪ Electric Flux: In electromagnetism, Gauss's theorem helps calculate electric flux through a
closed surface due to charges within a volume, providing insights into electric fields and charge
distributions. Dr. Anupam Roy 32
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction
❑Stokes theorem and its physical meaning

❑ ∫𝑆 𝜵 × 𝒗 . 𝑑𝒂 = ∮𝐶 𝒗. 𝑑𝒍
❑ Relates surface integrals to line integrals (bulk boundary correspondence, again!)
❑ Physical Meaning:
▪ Stokes' Theorem connects the circulation of a vector field 𝑣 around a closed curve C to the curl
of 𝑣 over the surface S that the curve bounds.
▪ It helps us understand how circulation around a curve is related to the rotation of the vector
field over the surface.
❑ Applications:
▪ Fluid Dynamics: Stokes' theorem is fundamental in fluid dynamics, where it relates the
circulation of velocity around a closed path to the vorticity within the enclosed region,
helping analyze fluid flow patterns. Dr. Anupam Roy 33
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Introduction

❑Show that
❑∇. ∇×𝒗 =0
❑ ∇ × ∇𝑓 = 0

Dr. Anupam Roy 34

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Next Class

Questions?
Dr. Anupam Roy 35
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Date: 27.09.2023

Lecture: 2

Dr. Anupam Roy 36

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Module – 2: Electromagnetic Theory

Text Book: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press (Seventh Edition, 2018)

Reference Book: David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Pearson (Fourth Edition, 2014)

Class structure: 4 Lectures including 1 Tutorial per week. (8 hours ~ 2 weeks for this module!)
Dr. Anupam Roy 37
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Coulomb’s law
❑Force on a test charge 𝑄 due to a single point charge 𝑞, that is at rest a distance r away is given
by Coulomb’s law:
1 𝑄𝑞
❑𝐹ത = rƸ [𝜖0 is the permittivity in free space]
4𝜋𝜀0 r2

❑Force is proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the separation distance.
❑Note: r is the separation vector from 𝑟′ (the location of 𝑞) to 𝑟 (the location of 𝑄): r = 𝒓 − 𝒓′
❑The force points along the line from 𝑞 to 𝑄; it is repulsive if 𝑞 and 𝑄 have the same sign, and
attractive if their signs are opposite. Dr. Anupam Roy 38
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑The Electric Field
❑Consider several point charges 𝑞1, 𝑞2, . . . , 𝑞𝑛, at distances r1, r2, …., rn
from 𝑄, the total force on 𝑄 is given by the superposition principle:
𝑄 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹ത = 𝐹ഥ1 + 𝐹2 + … … . = 𝑟ෝ1 + 𝑟ෝ2 + … . . = 𝑄𝐸ത
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12 𝑟22

1 𝑛 𝑞𝑖
Where 𝐸ത = σ𝑖=1 2 rොi (discrete charge distribution)
4𝜋𝜀0 r i

❑ 𝐸ത is called the electric field of the source charges.

❑ Note: 𝐸ത is a function of position (r), because the separation vectors
ri depend on the location of the field point. But it makes no
reference to the test charge 𝑄. Dr. Anupam Roy 39
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics

❑The Electric Field

1 𝑞𝑖
❑ Discrete charge distribution: 𝐸ത = σ𝑛𝑖=1 rොi
4𝜋𝜀0 ri2
❑ 𝐸ത is called the electric field of the source charges. It is a vector
quantity that varies from point to point and is determined by
the configuration of source charges.
❑ Physically, 𝑬(𝒓) is the force per unit charge that would be
exerted on a test charge, if you were to place one at P.

Dr. Anupam Roy 40

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑The Electric Field
❑Continuous Charge Distributions: Instead of assuming that the
source of the field is a collection of discrete point charges 𝑞𝑖 , if
the charge is distributed continuously over some region, the
1 𝑑𝑞
ഥ (ത𝒓) =
sum becomes an integral: 𝑬 ∫ r2 rƸ
4𝜋𝜀0

❑ If the charge is spread out along a line (Fig. b), then 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑙′ (𝜆 is the charge-per-unit-length and 𝑑𝑙′ is
an element of length along the line).
❑ If the charge is smeared out over a surface (Fig. c), then 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝑎′ (𝜎 is the charge-per-unit-area and
𝑑𝑎′ is an element of area on the surface).
❑ If the charge fills a volume (Fig. d), then 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝜏′ (𝜌 is the charge-per-unit-volume and 𝑑𝜏′ is an
element of volume). Dr. Anupam Roy 41
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑The Electric Field
1 𝑑𝑞
ഥ (ത𝒓) =
❑For a continuous charge distribution: 𝑬 ∫ r2 rƸ
4𝜋𝜀0

1 𝜆 𝑑𝑙 ′
ഥ (ത𝒓) =
❑The electric field of a line charge is: 𝑬 ∫ r2 rƸ
4𝜋𝜀0

1 𝜎 𝑑𝑎′
ഥ (ത𝒓) =
❑For a surface charge: 𝑬 ∫ r2 rƸ
4𝜋𝜀0

1 𝜌 𝑑𝜏′
ഥ (ത𝒓) =
❑For a volume charge: 𝑬 ∫ r2 rƸ (often referred to as the Coulomb law)
4𝜋𝜀0

Dr. Anupam Roy 42

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑The Electric Flux

❑Total flux of 𝑬 through a surface S: Φ𝐸 ≡ ∫𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂

❑This is a measure of the “number of field lines” passing normally through the surface S.
❑𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 is proportional to the number of lines passing through the infinitesimal area 𝑑𝒂. (It is
the area in the plane perpendicular to 𝑬).
❑For a closed surface, the flux through that surface is a measure of the total charge inside.
This is the essence of Gauss’s law.
❑Now let’s make it quantitative.

Dr. Anupam Roy 43

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑The Electric Flux
𝑄 𝑑𝑎 𝑄 r෠
❑The total flux due to a point charge Q: ∮ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = ∫ r2 ഥ=
[∵𝑬 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0 r2

𝑄 4𝜋 r2 [∵ r is constant for the spherical

=
4𝜋𝜀0 r2
surface and ∫ 𝑑𝑎 = 4𝜋r2 ]
𝑄
=
𝜀0

❑Note: no. of field lines passing through the spherical surface = no. of field lines passing through
𝑄
ANY surface. Hence, ∮𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = (where S is an arbitrary surface enclosing 𝑄).
𝜀0

Dr. Anupam Roy 44

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑The Electric Flux
❑Now, suppose, there is a distribution of charge instead of a single charge at the origin.
❑According to the principle of superposition, the total field is the vector sum of all the individual
1
fields: 𝑬 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑬𝑖
4𝜋𝜀0
𝑞
❑The flux through a surface that encloses them all is: ∮ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 ∮ 𝑬𝒊. 𝑑𝒂 = σ𝑛𝑖=1 ( 𝑖 )
𝜀 0

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
❑For any closed surface, then, ∮𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 =
𝜀0

❑This is the integral form of Gauss’s law or simply the Gauss’s law.

Dr. Anupam Roy 45

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑The Electric Flux
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
❑Integral form of Gauss’s law for any closed surface: ∮ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 =
𝜀0

❑We can easily turn it into a differential one, by applying the divergence theorem: ∮𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 =
∫𝑉 𝜵. 𝑬 𝑑𝜏

❑Rewrite 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 in terms of the charge density 𝜌, we have: 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∫𝑉 𝜌 𝑑𝜏

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝜌
❑Hence the integral form of Gauss’s law (∮ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = ) becomes: ∫𝑉 𝜵. 𝑬 𝑑𝜏 = ∫𝑉 ( ) 𝑑𝜏
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝜌
❑Since it holds for any volume, the integrands must be equal: 𝜵. 𝑬 =
𝜀0

❑This is the differential form of Gauss’s law.

Dr. Anupam Roy 46
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑The Electric Flux
❑Gauss’s Law

𝑏 𝑏
❑ ∫𝑎 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
❑These 𝑎 and 𝑏 are arbitrary
❑ ∫ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is NOT possible for ANY given a, b unless the functions are same [i.e.
unless 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)].

Dr. Anupam Roy 47

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑ Application of Gauss’s Law
❑Gauss’s Law
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
❑Integral form of Gauss’s law: ∮𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 =
𝜀0
𝜌
❑Differential form of Gauss’s law: 𝜵. 𝑬 =
𝜀0

❑When symmetry permits, Gauss’s law in integral form affords by far the quickest
and easiest way of computing electric fields.
❑Solve some of the problems as example.
❑Please go through the Assignment Dr. Anupam Roy 48
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
Application of Gauss’s Law

❑ Consider a spherical surface at radius 𝑟 > 𝑅 (This is called a Gaussian surface)

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑞
❑ Gauss’s law: ∮𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = = (In this case 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑞)
𝜀0 𝜀0

❑ Symmetry allows us to extract 𝑬 from under the integral sign: Both 𝑬 and 𝑑𝒂 points radially
outward, so we can drop the dot product: ∫𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = ∫𝑆 𝑬 𝑑𝒂
❑ The magnitude of 𝑬 is constant over the gaussian surface – so it can come outside the integral.

❑ ∫𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = ∫𝑆 𝑬 𝑑𝒂 = 𝑬 ∫𝑆 𝑑𝒂 = 𝑬 4𝜋𝑟 2
Dr. Anupam Roy 49
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
Application of Gauss’s Law

𝑞 1 𝑞
❑ Hence, 𝑬 4𝜋𝑟 = 2 ഥ=
Or, 𝑬 𝒓ො
𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

❑ Note a remarkable feature of this result: The field outside the sphere is exactly the same as it
would have been if all the charge had been concentrated at the center.

Dr. Anupam Roy 50

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
Application of Gauss’s Law

❑ Note: Gauss’s law is always true, but it is not always useful.

❑ In the previous example, 𝑬 is pointed in the same direction as 𝑑𝒂 and its magnitude is
constant over the surface. That’s why we could take |𝑬| outside the integral.
❑ Unless we assume a spherically symmetrical shape (𝜌 must be uniform), this will not be
valid. Hence, Symmetry is crucial to this application of Gauss’s law.
❑ Three kinds of symmetry that work:
1. Spherical symmetry (Gaussian surface is a concentric sphere).
2. Cylindrical symmetry (Gaussian surface is a coaxial cylinder).
3. Plane symmetry (Gaussian “pillbox” that straddles the surface). Dr. Anupam Roy 51
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
Application of Gauss’s Law

Dr. Anupam Roy 52

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
Application of Gauss’s Law

Dr. Anupam Roy 53

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
Application of Gauss’s Law

Dr. Anupam Roy 54

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Next Class

Questions?
Dr. Anupam Roy 55
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Date: 29.09.2023

Lecture: 3

Dr. Anupam Roy 56

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Module – 2: Electromagnetic Theory

Text Book: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press (Seventh Edition, 2018)

Reference Book: David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Pearson (Fourth Edition, 2014)

Class structure: 4 Lectures including 1 Tutorial per week. (8 hours ~ 2 weeks for this module!)
Dr. Anupam Roy 57
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Curl of 𝑬
1 𝑞
ഥ=
❑For a point charge at origin: 𝑬 𝒓ො
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑏
❑Let’s calculate the line integral of this field from some point a to some other point b: ∫𝑎 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍
෡ + 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜑 𝝋
❑In spherical coordinates: 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑑𝑟 𝒓ො + 𝑟𝑑𝜃 𝜽 ෝ , so

where 𝑟𝑎 is the distance from the origin to the point a and 𝑟𝑏 is the distance to b.

❑The integral around a closed path is zero (for then 𝑟𝑎 = 𝑟𝑏 ): ∮𝐶 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0

❑Now, applying Stokes’ theorem: 𝜵 × 𝑬 = 0  irrotational field or conservative fieldDr. Anupam Roy 58
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Gauss’s Law ❑Curl of 𝑬
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
❑ ∮𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = ❑ ∮𝐶 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0
𝜀0
𝜌 ❑𝜵×𝑬=0
❑ 𝜵. 𝑬 =
𝜀0

❑ ∮𝐶 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0 implies that the line integral of 𝑬 along a closed path must be zero. Physically, this means
that no net work is done in moving a charge along a closed path in an electrostatic field.
❑ Applying Stokes theorem, we get: 𝜵 × 𝑬 = 0
❑ Any vector field that satisfies these two equations is said to be conservative, or irrotational. In other
words, vectors whose line integral does not depend on the path of integration are called conservative
vector fields.
❑ Thus, an electrostatic field is a conservative field. Dr. Anupam Roy 59
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Potential
❑Remember: The electric field 𝑬 is a very special kind of vector function whose curl is zero
❑𝜵 × 𝑬 = 0  irrotational field or conservative field
𝑟𝑏
❑Any vector whose curl is zero is equal to the gradient of some scalar.

❑Because 𝜵 × 𝑬 = 0, the line integral of 𝑬 around any

Path (1)
closed loop is zero (that follows from Stokes’ theorem).
Path (2)
❑Since curl of gradient is zero, 𝑬 ∝ 𝜵𝑉

❑Because ∮𝐶 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0, the line integral of 𝑬 from point 𝑪

a to point b is the same for all paths. 𝑟𝑎
Dr. Anupam Roy 60
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑ Electric Potential
𝒓𝑏 𝒓𝑎 𝒓𝑏 𝒓𝑎 𝒓𝑏 𝒓𝑏

ර 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0 => න 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 + න 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0 => න 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = − න 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 => න 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = න 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍

𝐶
𝒓𝑎 𝒓𝑏 𝒓𝑎 𝒓𝑏 𝒓𝑎 𝒓𝒂

Path (1) Path (2)

𝑟𝑏
𝒓
❑ Hence, ∫𝒓 𝑏 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 is INDEPENDENT of chosen path.
𝑎

❑ Because the line integral is independent of path, we can define a

Path (2)
𝒓
function: 𝑉 𝒓 ≡ − ∫𝒓 𝑏 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 where 𝒓0 is the reference point. It is Path (1)
0
called the electric potential.
𝑪
❑ Note: 𝑉 depends only on the point 𝒓. 𝑟𝑎 Dr. Anupam Roy 61
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Potential
❑ The potential difference between two points a and b is
𝒓𝑏 𝒓𝑎 𝒓𝑏 𝒓0 𝒓𝑏
❑ 𝑉 𝑟𝑏 − 𝑉 𝑟𝑎 = − ∫𝒓 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 + ∫𝒓 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = − ∫𝒓 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 − ∫𝒓 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = − ∫𝒓 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍
0 0 0 𝒂 𝒂

❑ Now the fundamental theorem for gradients states that:

𝒓𝑏 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑉 𝑟𝑏 − 𝑉 𝑟𝑎 = ∫𝒓 (𝜵𝑉). 𝑑𝒍 [Remember: ∇ = 𝑥ො + 𝑦ො + 𝑧Ƹ ]
𝑎 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝒓 𝒓
❑ So, ∫𝒓 𝑏(𝜵𝑉). 𝑑𝒍 = − ∫𝒓 𝑏 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍
𝑎 𝒂

❑ Since, this is true for any points a and b, the integrands must be equal: 𝑬 = −𝜵𝑉
❑ If 𝑉 is known, one can easily get 𝑬 just by taking the gradient: 𝑬 = −𝜵𝑉.
Dr. Anupam Roy 62
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Potential
❑ If 𝑉 is known, one can easily get 𝑬 just by taking the gradient: 𝑬 = −𝜵𝑉.
❑ 𝑬 is a vector quantity (has three components), but 𝑉 is a scalar (has only one
component). How can one function possibly contain all the information that three
independent functions carry?
❑ The answer is that the three components of 𝑬 are not really as independent. They are
related via 𝜵 × 𝑬 = 0. In terms of components:

Dr. Anupam Roy 63

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Potential
❑ Potential obeys the superposition principle.
❑ The original superposition principle pertains to the force on a test charge 𝑄. It says that the
total force on 𝑄 is the vector sum of the forces attributable to the source charges individually:
𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏 + 𝑭 𝟐 + . . .
❑ Dividing through by 𝑄, we see that the electric field, too, obeys the superposition principle
(vector sum): 𝑬 = 𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬𝟐 + . . .
❑ Integrating from the common reference point to 𝑟, it follows that the potential also satisfies
such a principle (scalar sum): 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + . . .
❑ That is, the potential at any given point is the sum of the potentials due to all the source
charges separately. Dr. Anupam Roy 64
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Poisson’s Equation and Laplace’s Equation
❑Electric field can be written as the gradient of a scalar potential: 𝑬 = −𝜵𝑉.
❑ Using 𝑬 = −𝜵𝑉 we get 𝜵. 𝑬 = 𝜵. −𝜵𝑉 = −𝜵2 𝑉
❑ (apart from the minus sign) Divergence of 𝑬 is the Laplacian of 𝑉.
𝜌 𝜌 2 𝜌
❑ From the Gauss’s law: 𝜵. 𝑬 = , we get: 𝜵. −𝜵𝑉 = ⇒ 𝜵 𝑉= −
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝜀0
𝜌
❑ 𝜵2 𝑉 = − => This is known as Poisson’s equation.
𝜀0

❑ In regions where there is no charge, we have 𝜌 = 0, and Poisson’s equation reduces to

Laplace’s equation: 𝜵2 𝑉 = 0.

Dr. Anupam Roy 65

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑The Potential of a Localized Charge Distribution
❑Section 3.4, Griffith (Please go through the textbook)
1 𝜆 𝑑𝑙 ′
ഥ (ത𝒓) =
❑ The electric field of a line charge is: 𝑬 ∫ r2 rƸ
4𝜋𝜀0
❑Remember the expressions for 𝑬?
1 𝜎 𝑑𝑎′
ഥ (𝒓ത ) =
❑ For a surface charge: 𝑬 ∫ r2 rƸ
4𝜋𝜀0

1 𝜌 𝑑𝜏′
ഥ (ത𝒓) =
❑ For a volume charge: 𝑬 ∫ r2 rƸ
4𝜋𝜀0

❑Can you guess the expression for 𝑉?

Dr. Anupam Roy 66

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑The Work It Takes to Move a Charge

❑Suppose you have a stationary configuration of source charges, and you want to move a test
charge 𝑄 from point a to point b. How much work will you have to do?

❑At any point along the path, the electric force on 𝑄 is 𝑭 = 𝑄𝑬; the force you must exert, in
opposition to this electrical force, is −𝑄𝑬.

❑The work you do is therefore

❑Notice that the answer is independent of the path you take from a to b.
Dr. Anupam Roy 67
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Three fundamental quantities of electrostatics: 𝜌, 𝑬, and 𝑉.

❑We have derived all six formulas interrelating them (summarized in the figure).

Dr. Anupam Roy 68

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter
❑Matter can be broadly divided into two categories: conductors and insulators/dielectrics.
❑Conductors contain an “unlimited” supply of charges that are free to move about
through the material. Many of the electrons (one or two per atom, in a typical metal) are
not associated with any particular nucleus, but roam around at will.
❑In dielectrics, by contrast, all charges are attached (or, bound) to specific atoms or
molecules.

Dr. Anupam Roy 69

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter
❑Induced Dipole: What happens to a neutral atom when it is placed in an electric field 𝑬?
❑Positively charged core (nucleus) and negatively charged electron (𝑒 − ) surrounding it are
influenced by the field: the nucleus is pushed in the direction of 𝑬, and 𝑒 − the opposite way.
❑Consider 𝑬 is not too strong (so the atom is not ionized). The two opposing forces – 𝑬 pulling
the electrons and nucleus apart, their mutual attraction drawing them back together – reach a
balance, leaving the atom polarized.
❑The atom with separated +ve and –ve charges now has a tiny dipole moment 𝒑, which points in
the same direction as 𝑬 and is approximately proportional to 𝑬 (as long as 𝑬 is not too strong).
❑Dipole moment, 𝒑 = 𝛼𝑬. (the constant of proportionality 𝛼 is called atomic polarizability).
Dr. Anupam Roy 70
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter
❑Induced Dipole: What happens to a neutral atom when it is placed in an electric field 𝑬?
❑Neutral atom has no dipole moment to start with and 𝒑 is induced by the applied 𝑬 field.
❑Some molecules have permanent dipole moments (e.g., water molecule) – polar molecules.

❑For such molecules placed in a uniform

electric field 𝑬, the force on the positive
end, 𝐹+ = 𝑞𝑬, exactly cancels the force
on the negative end, 𝐹− = −𝑞𝑬.

Dr. Anupam Roy 71

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter
❑However, there will be a torque:

𝒅 𝒅
𝑵 = 𝒓 + × 𝑭+ + 𝒓 − × 𝑭− = × (𝑞𝑬) + − × (−𝑞𝑬) = 𝑞𝒅 × 𝑬
2 2
❑Thus, a dipole 𝒑 = 𝑞𝒅 in a uniform field 𝑬 experiences a torque 𝑵 = 𝒑 × 𝑬.
❑Notice that 𝑁 is in such a direction as to line 𝒑 up parallel to 𝑬; in a polar molecule dipole
moments get aligned along 𝑬.

Dielectric material placed in an electric field, 𝑬: tiny dipoles point along the direction of
𝑬 (material becomes polarized). We define a vector called polarization vector, 𝑷 ≡ dipole
moment per unit volume. Dr. Anupam Roy 72
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter

❑Further Reading (Not in Syllabus)

❑What happens when 𝑬 is applied to a conductor?

Dr. Anupam Roy 73

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
G
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Field of a Polarized Object
❑Suppose we have a polarized material – an object containing a lot of
microscopic dipoles lined up.
❑What is the potential at a point G?

❑First integral is over the surface S enclosing the charge distribution (r is the position vector from
a point on S to the point G). 𝜎𝑏 is the surface bound charge density and is given by 𝜎𝑏 ≡ 𝑷 . 𝒏 ෝ
(where 𝒏 ෝ is the normal unit vector).
❑Second integral is over the volume V (r is the position vector from any volume element enclosed
by S to the point G). 𝜌𝑏 is the volume bound charge density and is given by 𝝆𝒃 ≡ −𝜵 . 𝑷.
❑ For more details: Section 2, Chapter 4. Electric Fields in Matter, David J. Griffiths Dr. Anupam Roy 74
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter

❑Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectrics

❑The effect of polarization is to produce accumulations of (bound) charge, 𝜌𝑏 = −𝜵 . 𝑷 within

ෝ on the surface.
the dielectric and 𝜎𝑏 = 𝑷 . 𝒏

❑The field due to polarization of the medium is just the field of this bound charge.

❑Also, the sample consists of free charges (electrons or ions).

❑Hence, within the dielectric, the total volume charge density can be written as: 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑏 + 𝜌𝑓 .

where, 𝜌𝑏 is volume density of bound charges and 𝜌𝑓 is volume density of free charges.
Dr. Anupam Roy 75
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectrics

❑In a dielectric, the total volume charge density can be written as: 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑏 + 𝜌𝑓 .
𝜌 𝜌𝑏 +𝜌𝑓
❑Gauss’s law for 𝑬: 𝜵 .𝑬 = =
𝜀0 𝜀0

⇒ 𝜀0 𝜵 . 𝑬 = 𝜌𝑏 + 𝜌𝑓

⇒ 𝜀0 𝜵 . 𝑬 = −𝜵 . 𝑷 + 𝜌𝑓 (Since, 𝜌𝑏 = −𝜵 . 𝑷)

⇒ 𝜵 . (𝜀0 𝑬 + 𝑷) = 𝜌𝑓

We define the Electric Displacement Vector as 𝑫 = 𝜀0 𝑬 + 𝑷

Hence, 𝜵 . 𝑫 = 𝜌𝑓 (This is the differential form of Gauss’s law in matter) Dr. Anupam Roy 76
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectrics

❑In a dielectric, the total volume charge density can be written as: 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑏 + 𝜌𝑓 .

❑Differential form of Gauss’s law in matter: 𝜵 . 𝑫 = 𝜌𝑓

Where the Electric Displacement Vector, 𝑫 = 𝜀0 𝑬 + 𝑷

❑ Integral form of Gauss’s law in matter:

∫𝑉 𝜵 . 𝑫 𝑑𝜏 = ∫𝑉 𝜌𝑓 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑄𝑓, 𝑒𝑛𝑐 [𝑄𝑓 , 𝑒𝑛𝑐 is the enclosed free charge]

Dr. Anupam Roy 77

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter

❑Curl of 𝑫:

❑The Electric Displacement Vector, 𝑫 = 𝜀0 𝑬 + 𝑷

❑Hence, 𝜵 × 𝑫 = 𝜀0 𝜵 × 𝑬 + 𝜵 × 𝑷

❑But 𝜵 × 𝑬 = 0

❑So, 𝜵 × 𝑫 = 𝜵 × 𝑷

❑Note: For the conservative field: (i) 𝜵 × 𝑬 = 0 and (ii) 𝑬 = −𝜵𝑉.

Dr. Anupam Roy 78
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Linear Dielectric
❑If 𝑬 is not too strong, polarization is proportional to the field:

𝑷 = 𝛼𝑬
= 𝜀0 𝜒𝑒 𝑬 (where 𝜒𝑒 = 𝛼/𝜀0 is the electric susceptibility of the medium)

❑Materials that obey the relation 𝑷 = 𝜀0 𝜒𝑒 𝑬 are called linear dielectric materials.

❑The Electric Displacement Vector, 𝑫 = 𝜀0 𝑬 + 𝑷 = 𝜀0 𝑬 + 𝜀0 𝜒𝑒 𝑬 = 𝜀0 1 + 𝜒𝑒 𝑬 = 𝜀 𝑬

❑𝜀 is the permittivity of the material and 𝜀0 is the permittivity of vacuum (or free space).

❑So, 𝑫 is also proportional to 𝑬 and it can be written as 𝑫 = 𝜀 𝑬 [where 𝜀 = 𝜀0 1 + 𝜒𝑒 ]

❑Relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) is defined as: 𝜀𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒𝑒 = 𝜀/𝜀0 Dr. Anupam Roy 79
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Boundary Conditions for 𝑬 and 𝑫
❑What happens to the parallel and perpendicular components of 𝑬 and 𝑫 when they cross an
interface?
▪ Decompose the electric field 𝑬 vector into two orthogonal
components: 𝑬 = 𝑬⊥ + 𝑬∥ where 𝑬⊥ and 𝑬∥ are the normal and
tangential components of 𝑬 to the interface, respectively.

▪ A similar decomposition can be done for 𝑫.

1. Boundary condition for 𝑬: 2. Boundary condition for 𝑫:

a. Normal (perpendicular) component a. Normal (perpendicular) component
b. Tangential (parallel) component b. Tangential (parallel) component
Dr. Anupam Roy 80
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Boundary Conditions for 𝑬 and 𝑫

1. Boundary condition for 𝑬: (a) Normal Component:

❑We consider a cylindrical Gaussian pillbox of surface S

with a small circular cross-section ∆𝑎 and height ℎ

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝜎 𝑑𝑎
❑From the Gauss’s law: ∮𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = = ∮𝑆 𝜀
𝜀0 0

Where 𝜎 is the surface charge density and 𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space.

❑ So, ∮𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = ∮𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 + ∮𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 + ∮𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂

In the limit ℎ → 0, sides of the pillbox do not contribute, and we have ∮𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = 0. Dr. Anupam Roy 81
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Boundary Conditions for 𝑬 and 𝑫
1. Boundary condition for 𝑬: (a) Normal Component:
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝜎 𝑑𝑎
❑ ∮𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = = ∮𝑆 𝜀
𝜀0 0
𝜎 𝑑𝑎
∮𝑆 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = ∮𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 + ∮𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑬. 𝑑𝒂 = ∮𝑆 𝜀0
(1) (2) 𝜎 ∆𝑎
𝐸⊥ ∆𝑎 + 𝐸⊥ −∆𝑎 =
𝜀0
(1) (2) 𝜎
⇒ 𝐸⊥ − 𝐸⊥ = ≠0
𝜀0

Conclusion: In presence of a finite surface charge density 𝜎 ≠ 0, the normal component of 𝑬 is

𝜎
discontinuous across the interface by an amount of . (Where there is no surface charge, 𝑬⊥ is
𝜀0
continuous, as for instance at the surface of a uniformly charged solid sphere.) Dr. Anupam Roy 82
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Boundary Conditions for 𝑬 and 𝑫

1. Boundary condition for 𝑬: (b) Tangential Component: ℎ

❑ ∮𝐶 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0
(1)
❑Again, consider the height, ℎ → 0. Hence, only the longer sides 𝑬∥
contribute (shorter sides of length ℎ → 0 do not contribute) ℎ→0
(1) (2)
❑𝐸∥ (−𝑙) + 𝐸∥ 𝑙 =0 𝑙 (2)
𝑬∥
(1) (2)
❑𝐸∥ = 𝐸∥

❑Conclusion: Tangential component of 𝑬, by contrast, is always continuous across an interface.

Dr. Anupam Roy 83
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Boundary Conditions for 𝑬 and 𝑫
(1)
𝑫⊥
2. Boundary condition for 𝑫: (a) Normal Component:

❑∮𝑆 𝑫 . 𝑑𝒂 = 𝑄𝑓 , 𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∮𝑆 𝜎𝑓 𝑑𝑎 (2)

𝑫⊥
(1) (2)
𝐷⊥ ∆𝑎 + 𝐷⊥ −∆𝑎 = 𝜎𝑓 ∆𝑎
(1) (2)
⇒ 𝐷⊥ − 𝐷⊥ = 𝜎𝑓 ≠ 0

Conclusion: In presence of a finite free surface charge density 𝜎𝑓 ≠ 0, the normal

component of 𝑫 is discontinuous across the interface by an amount of 𝜎𝑓 .
Dr. Anupam Roy 84
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
(1)
𝑪∥
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Boundary Conditions for 𝑬 and 𝑫
ℎ→0
2. Boundary condition for 𝑫: (b) Tangential Component:
𝑙 𝑪∥
(2)
❑𝑫 = 𝜀0 𝑬 + 𝑷

❑ ∮𝐶 𝑫. 𝑑𝒍 = 𝜀0 ∮𝐶 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 + ∮𝐶 𝑷. 𝑑𝒍

❑Since, ∮𝐶 𝑬. 𝑑𝒍 = 0, we have ∮𝐶 𝑫. 𝑑𝒍 = ∮𝐶 𝑷. 𝑑𝒍

❑Hence, ∮𝐶 𝑫 − 𝑷 . 𝑑𝒍 = 0

❑Rewrite this as: ∮𝐶 𝑪 . 𝑑𝒍 = 0 (where 𝑪 = 𝑫 − 𝑷)

Dr. Anupam Roy 85

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Boundary Conditions for 𝑬 and 𝑫
2. Boundary condition for 𝑫: (b) Tangential Component:
❑Again, consider the height, ℎ → 0. Hence, only the longer sides contribute (shorter sides of
length ℎ → 0 do not contribute). Similar to previous case for 𝑬, we can have
(1)
(1) (2) (1) (2) 𝑪∥
❑𝐶∥ (−𝑙) + 𝐶∥ 𝑙 =0 ⇒ 𝐶∥ = 𝐶∥
ℎ→0
(1) (1) (2) (2)
❑Hence, 𝐷∥ − 𝑃∥ = 𝐷∥ − 𝑃∥
𝑙 𝑪∥
(2)
(1) (2) (1) (2)
❑This gives, 𝐷∥ − 𝐷∥ = 𝑃∥ − 𝑃∥
❑Conclusion: Tangential component of 𝑫 is in general discontinuous across an interface unless
(1) (2)
𝑃∥ = 𝑃∥ .
Dr. Anupam Roy 86
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Electrostatics
❑Electric Fields in Matter: Boundary Conditions for 𝑬 and 𝑫

1. Boundary condition for 𝑬:

(1) (2) 𝜎
(a) Normal Component: 𝐸⊥ − 𝐸⊥ =
𝜀0

(1) (2)
(b) Tangential Component: 𝐸∥ = 𝐸∥

2. Boundary condition for 𝑫:

(1) (2)
(a) Normal Component: 𝐷⊥ − 𝐷⊥ = 𝜎𝑓
(1) (2) (1) (2)
(b) Tangential Component: 𝐷∥ − 𝐷∥ = 𝑃∥ − 𝑃∥

Dr. Anupam Roy 87

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Next Class

Questions?
Dr. Anupam Roy 88
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Date: 03.10.2023

Lecture: 4

Dr. Anupam Roy 89

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Module – 2: Electromagnetic Theory

Text Book: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press (Seventh Edition, 2018)

Reference Book: David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Pearson (Fourth Edition, 2014)

Class structure: 4 Lectures including 1 Tutorial per week. (8 hours ~ 2 weeks for this module!)
Dr. Anupam Roy 90
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Lorentz Force Law
❑ A stationary charge produces only an electric field 𝑬 in the space around it.
❑ However, a moving charge generates, in addition, a magnetic field 𝑩.

❑ In the presence of both electric and magnetic fields, the net force on a charge 𝑄 moving with a
velocity 𝒗 would be 𝑭 = 𝑄[𝑬 + (𝒗 × 𝑩)].
❑ This is known as the Lorentz force law.
❑ In absence of electric field 𝑬, we only have the magnetic force, 𝑭𝑚𝑎𝑔 = 𝑄(𝒗 × 𝑩).
Dr. Anupam Roy 91
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Lorentz Force Law
❑ In the presence of both electric (𝑬) and magnetic (𝑩) fields, the net force on a charge 𝑄 moving with a
velocity 𝒗 would be 𝑭 = 𝑄[𝑬 + (𝒗 × 𝑩)]. This is known as the Lorentz force law.
❑ In absence of electric field 𝑬, we only have the magnetic force, 𝑭𝑚𝑎𝑔 = 𝑄(𝒗 × 𝑩).

❑ Note: Magnetic forces do no work.

❑ For if 𝑄 moves an amount 𝑑𝒍 = 𝒗 𝑑𝑡, the work done is 𝑑𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑔 = 𝑭𝑚𝑎𝑔 · 𝑑𝒍
= 𝑄(𝒗 × 𝑩) · 𝒗 𝑑𝑡 = 0.
▪ Because (𝒗 × 𝑩) is perpendicular to 𝒗, so (𝒗 × 𝑩) · 𝒗 = 0.
❑ Magnetic forces may alter the direction in which a particle moves, but they cannot speed it up
or slow it down.
Dr. Anupam Roy 92
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Lorentz Force Law
❑ Current: The current in a wire is the charge per unit time passing a given point.
❑ The magnetic force on a segment of current-carrying wire is
𝑭𝑚𝑎𝑔 = ∫ 𝑑𝑞 𝒗 × 𝑩 = ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 𝒗 × 𝑩 = ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝒍 × 𝑩 (since 𝑑𝒍 = 𝒗 𝑑𝑡)

❑ Hence, 𝑭𝑚𝑎𝑔 = 𝐼 ∫(𝑑𝒍 × 𝑩). (Typically, the current is a constant in magnitude along the wire)

❑ Suppose both 𝐼 and 𝑩 are constants. Then 𝑭𝑚𝑎𝑔 = 𝐼 (∫ 𝑑𝒍 × 𝑩 = 𝐼 𝒍 × 𝑩 .

Dr. Anupam Roy 93

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Biot Savart Law
❑ The magnetic field of a steady line current is given by the Biot-Savart
𝜇0 𝑑𝒍′ × r෠
law: 𝑩 𝒓 = ∫ 𝐼 r2
4𝜋

❑ The integration is along the current path, in the direction of the flow; 𝑑𝒍′ is an element of
length along the wire, and r, as always, is the vector from the source to the point r (see figure).

❑ The constant 𝜇0 is called the permeability of free space and 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 N/A2.

Dr. Anupam Roy 94

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Biot Savart Law
❑ When charge flows over a surface, we have a surface
current density (𝑲), defined as the current per unit width
perpendicular to the flow.
❑ Consider a “ribbon” of infinitesimal width 𝑑𝒍⊥ , running
parallel to the flow (see Figure). If the current in this ribbon
𝑑𝑰
is 𝑑𝑰, the surface current density is 𝑲 = .
𝑑𝒍⊥

❑ If the (mobile) surface charge density is 𝜎 and its velocity is 𝒗, then 𝑲 = 𝜎𝒗.
𝜇0 𝑲(𝒓′ )× r෠
❑ For a surface current, Biot-Savart law becomes: 𝑩 𝒓 = ∫ 𝑑𝑎′
4𝜋 r2
Dr. Anupam Roy 95
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Biot Savart Law
❑ When the flow of charge is distributed throughout a three-
dimensional region, we describe it by the volume current density (𝑱),
defined as the current per unit area.
❑ Consider a “tube” of infinitesimal cross section 𝑑𝑎⊥ , running parallel
to the flow (see Figure). If the current in this tube is 𝑑𝑰, the volume
𝑑𝑰
current density is: 𝑱 = .
𝑑𝑎⊥

❑ If the (mobile) volume charge density is 𝜌 and the velocity is 𝑣, then 𝑱 = 𝜌𝒗.
𝜇0 𝑱(𝒓′ )× r෠
❑ For a volume current, Biot-Savart law becomes: 𝑩 𝒓 = ∫ 𝑑𝜏 ′
4𝜋 r2

Dr. Anupam Roy 96

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Continuity Equation
❑ Consider a “tube” of infinitesimal cross section 𝑑𝑎⊥ , running parallel
to the flow (see Figure). If the current in this tube is 𝑑𝑰, the volume
𝑑𝑰
current density is: 𝑱 = .
𝑑𝑎⊥

❑ Total current crossing a surface S can be written as: 𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐽 𝑑𝑎⊥ = ∫𝑆 𝑱 . 𝑑𝒂

(The dot product serves neatly to pick out the appropriate component of 𝑑𝒂.)

❑ Charge per unit time leaving a volume V is: ∫𝑆 𝑱 . 𝑑𝒂 = ∫𝑉 𝜵 . 𝑱 𝑑𝜏

Dr. Anupam Roy 97

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Continuity Equation
❑ Consider a “tube” of infinitesimal cross section 𝑑𝒂, running parallel to the
flow. If the volume current density is 𝑱, the total current crossing a surface S
can be written as: 𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐽 𝑑𝑎⊥ = ∫𝑆 𝑱 . 𝑑𝒂 = ∫𝑉 𝜵 . 𝑱 𝑑𝜏

❑ Because charge is conserved, whatever flows out through the surface must come at the
𝑑 𝜕𝜌
expense of what remains inside: ∫𝑉 𝜵 . 𝑱 𝑑𝜏 = − ∫ 𝜌 𝑑𝜏 = − ∫𝑉 𝑑𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝑉 𝜕𝑡
(The minus sign reflects the fact that an outward flow decreases the charge left in V.)
𝜕𝜌
❑ Since this applies to any volume, we conclude that: 𝜵 . 𝑱 = −
𝜕𝑡
❑ This is the precise mathematical statement of local charge conservation and is called the
continuity equation. Dr. Anupam Roy 98
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Biot Savart Law

Homework

Section 2.2 (Magnetostatics)

from Griffith

▪ What is the magnetic field by an infinite straight current carrying wire at a distance 𝑠?
𝜇0 𝐼
▪ 𝐵= (the field is inversely proportional to the distance from the wire)
2𝜋𝑠 Dr. Anupam Roy 99
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Curl of 𝑩 𝐼
❑ The integral of 𝑩 around a circular path C of radius 𝑟, centered at the wire

❑ ∫𝑆 𝜵 × 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒂 = ∮𝑪 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒍 (using Stokes’ theorem) 𝑟

𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐶
= ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐼
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟

❑ Suppose we have a bundle of straight wires. Each wire that passes through the loop contributes
𝜇0 𝐼, and those outside contribute nothing. The line integral will then be

∮𝑪 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒍 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 (where 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 is the total current enclosed by the loop C)

❑ Note: the result is independent of 𝑟. Hence it does not have to be a circle; it is applicable to any
shape of closed loop.
Dr. Anupam Roy 100
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Curl of 𝑩
❑ The entire loop C can be represented by an infinitesimal line element
along one of the concentric circles and an infinitesimal element
perpendicular to that circle.
𝑟 𝑑𝜑 = 𝑑𝑙∥
❑ ∮𝑪 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒍 = ∮𝑪 𝐵 𝑟 𝑑𝜑 (∵ line element that
are perpendicular to concentric circles do not 𝑩
contribute to the integral). 𝑟

▪ 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑑𝒍∥ + 𝑑𝒍⊥
▪ 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒍 = 𝐵𝑑𝑙∥
Dr. Anupam Roy 101
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Curl of 𝑩
𝜇0 𝐼
❑ For any concentric circle of radius 𝑟, magnetic field produced is
2𝜋𝑟
along the direction of 𝑑𝒍∥ which lies on the circumference of that
circle.
𝑟 𝑑𝜑 = 𝑑𝑙∥
𝜇0 𝐼
❑ Hence, ∮𝑪 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒍 = ∮𝑪 𝐵 𝑟 𝑑𝜑 = ∮𝑪 2𝜋𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝜑 𝑩
𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑟
= ∮𝑪 𝑑𝜑 = (2𝜋)
2𝜋 2𝜋

❑ Hence, ∮𝑪 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒍 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐
▪ 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑑𝒍∥ + 𝑑𝒍⊥
❑ This is the integral form of Ampere’s Law. ▪ 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒍 = 𝐵𝑑𝑙∥
Dr. Anupam Roy 102
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Curl of 𝑩
❑ If the flow of charge is represented by a volume current density 𝑱, the enclosed current is
𝑑𝑰 𝑑𝑰
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ∫𝑆 𝑱 . 𝑑𝒂. [since 𝑱 = = and the integral is taken over any surface bounded
𝑑𝑎 ⊥𝑑𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
by the loop]

❑ Apply Stokes’ theorem: ∫𝑆 𝜵 × 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒂 = ∮𝑪 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒍 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝜇0 ∫𝑆 𝑱 . 𝑑𝒂

❑ Hence, ∫𝑆 𝜵 × 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒂 = 𝜇0 ∫𝑆 𝑱 . 𝑑𝒂
❑ Since S is arbitrary, we have: 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱
❑ This is the relation for the curl of 𝑩. This is also known as the differential form of Ampere’s Law.

Dr. Anupam Roy 103

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Divergence of 𝑩
❑ Since the number of field lines exiting the surface equals the number of field lines entering the
surface, we have: ∮𝑺 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒂 = 0
❑ This is because the magnetic fields always form closed loops unlike electric fields.

❑ Since, ∮𝑺 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒂 = 0, we have ∮𝑺 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒂 = ∫𝑉 𝜵 . 𝑩 𝑑𝜏 = 0
❑ Hence, 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 0

❑Curl of 𝑩 ❑Divergence of 𝑩
❑𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱, Or ❑ 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 0, Or

❑ ∮𝑪 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒍 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 ❑ ∮𝑺 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒂 = 0 Dr. Anupam Roy 104

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Derivation of 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 0
𝜇0 𝑱(𝒓′ )× r෠
❑ The Biot-Savart law for a volume current: 𝑩 𝒓 = ∫ 𝑑𝜏 ′
4𝜋 r2
❑ Note:
▪ This formula gives the magnetic field (𝑩) at a point 𝒓 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in terms of an integral
over the current distribution 𝑱(𝑥′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′).
▪ So, 𝑩 is a function of (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), 𝑱 is a function of (𝑥′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′), r = 𝑥 − 𝑥 ′ 𝒙
ෝ + 𝑦 − 𝑦′ 𝒚
ෝ+
(𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ )ො𝒛 and 𝑑𝜏′ = 𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝑧′.
▪ The integration is over the primed coordinates; the divergence and the curl of 𝑩 are
with respect to the unprimed coordinates.

Dr. Anupam Roy 105

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Derivation of 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 0
𝜇0 𝑱(𝒓′ )× r෠
❑ The Biot-Savart law for a volume current: 𝑩 𝒓 = ∫ 𝑑𝜏 ′
4𝜋 r2
𝜇0 r෠
❑ Take divergence of both sides: 𝜵 . 𝑩 = ∫𝜵 . (𝑱 × 2 ) 𝑑𝜏 ′
4𝜋 r
❑ Now use the vector calculus identity: 𝜵 . 𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝑩 . 𝜵 × 𝑨 − 𝑨 . (𝜵 × 𝑩) (prove it)
𝜇0 r෠ r෠
❑ Then we have 𝜵 . 𝑩 = ∫ . 𝜵×𝑱 −𝑱. 𝜵× 2 𝑑𝜏 ′
4𝜋 r2 r
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
❑ Now, 𝑱 ≡ 𝑱(𝑥′, 𝑦′, 𝑧′) is a function of primed coordinates. But 𝜵 ≡ 𝒙
ෝ ෝ
+𝒚 + 𝒛ො
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(unprimed coordinates)
❑ Since 𝑱 is independent of the unprimed coordinates, 𝜵 × 𝑱 = 0
Dr. Anupam Roy 106
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Derivation of 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 0
𝜇0 𝑱(𝒓′ )× r෠
❑ The Biot-Savart law for a volume current: 𝑩 𝒓 = ∫ 𝑑𝜏 ′
4𝜋 r2
𝜇0 r෠ ′ 𝜇0 r෠ r෠
❑ Take divergence: 𝜵 . 𝑩 = ∫𝜵 . 𝑱 × 2 𝑑𝜏 = ∫ 2 . 𝜵 × 𝑱 − 𝑱 . 𝜵 × 2 𝑑𝜏 ′
4𝜋 r 4𝜋 r r
❑ Use, 𝜵 × 𝑱 = 0
𝜇0 r෠
❑ Hence, 𝜵 . 𝑩 = − ∫ 𝑱. 𝜵× 2 𝑑𝜏 ′
4𝜋 r
❑ Now use another vector calculus identity: if 𝑓 is a scalar and 𝑨 is a vector, then 𝜵 × 𝑓𝑨 =
𝑓 𝜵 × 𝑨 + (𝜵𝑓) × 𝑨 (prove it)
r෠ 1 1
❑ Thus, 𝜵 × ( 2 ) = 2 𝜵 × rƸ + 𝜵( 2 ) × rƸ
r r r
Dr. Anupam Roy 107
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Derivation of 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 0
𝜇0 𝑱(𝒓′ )× r෠
❑ The Biot-Savart law for a volume current: 𝑩 𝒓 = ∫ 𝑑𝜏 ′
4𝜋 r2
𝜇0 r෠
❑ Take divergence: 𝜵 . 𝑩 = − ∫ 𝑱 . 𝜵 × 2 𝑑𝜏 ′ (Using, 𝜵 × 𝑱 = 0)
4𝜋 r
r෠ 1 1
❑ Using a vector calculus identity: 𝜵 × ( 2 ) = 2 𝜵 × rƸ + 𝜵( 2 ) × rƸ
r r r
1 1 2r 2
❑ Now, calculate 𝜵 × rƸ and 𝜵( 2 ): 𝜵 2 = − 4 = − 3 rƸ and 𝜵 × rƸ = 0
r r r r
r෠ 1 2
❑ Hence, 𝜵 × 2 = 𝜵 2 × rƸ = − 3 rƸ × rƸ = 0
r r r
❑ Therefore, 𝜵 . 𝑩 = 0 [Divergence of the magnetic field is zero]
Dr. Anupam Roy 108
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Comparison of Magnetostatics and Electrostatics

❑Divergence and Curl of Electrostatics ❑Divergence and Curl of Magnetostatics

▪ 𝜵. 𝑬 =
𝜌
(Gauss’s law) ▪ 𝜵. 𝑩 = 0 (no name)
𝜀0
▪ 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱 (Ampere’s law)
▪ 𝜵×𝑬=0 (no name)
❑ These are Maxwell’s equations for electrostatics ❑ These are Maxwell’s equations for magnetostatics

❑ There are no point sources for 𝑩, as compared to 𝑬; there exists no magnetic analog to electric charge.
❑ Hence, 𝐁 is divergenceless (𝜵. 𝑩 = 0), and there are no magnetic monopoles. It takes a moving electric
charge to produce a magnetic field, and it takes another moving electric charge to “feel” a magnetic
field. Dr. Anupam Roy 109
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑The Vector Potential
❑Recall: In Electrostatics 𝛁 × 𝑬 = 0 permitted us to introduce a scalar potential (𝑉): 𝑬 = −𝛁𝑉
❑Similarly, 𝛁 · 𝑩 = 0 invites the introduction of a vector potential 𝑨 in magnetostatics: 𝑩 = 𝛁 × 𝑨.
❑Since the divergence of a curl is always zero, the potential formulation automatically takes care of
𝛁 · 𝑩 = 0.
❑There remains the Ampere’s law: 𝛁 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱
❑𝛁 × 𝑩 = 𝛁 × (𝛁 × 𝑨) = 𝛁(𝛁 · 𝑨) − 𝜵𝟐 𝑨 (prove it)
❑Hence, 𝛁 × 𝑩 = 𝛁 × 𝛁 × 𝑨 = 𝛁 𝛁 · 𝑨 − 𝜵𝟐 𝑨 = 𝜇0 𝑱

Dr. Anupam Roy 110

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑The Vector Potential
❑There remains the Ampere’s law: 𝛁 × 𝑩 = 𝛁 × (𝛁 × 𝑨) = 𝛁(𝛁 · 𝑨) − 𝜵𝟐 𝑨 = 𝜇0 𝑱.
❑It can be shown that 𝛁 · 𝑨 = 𝟎.
❑The electric potential (𝑉) had a built-in ambiguity: one can add to 𝑉 any function whose
gradient is zero (for example, any constant), without altering 𝑬. Likewise, one can add to 𝑨 any
function whose curl vanishes (for example, gradient of any scalar), with no effect on 𝑩.
Exploiting this property, we can have, 𝛁 · 𝑨 = 𝟎
❑Hence 𝜵𝟐 𝑨 = −𝜇0 𝑱 (This is the Poisson’s equation)
𝜇0 𝑱(𝒓′ )
❑Assuming 𝑱 goes to zero at infinity, we can read off the solution: 𝑨 𝒓 = ∫ r 𝑑𝜏′
4𝜋
Dr. Anupam Roy 111
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Boundary Condition
❑Like the electrostatics, a triangular diagram can be
drawn to summarize the relations among the three
fundamental quantities of magnetostatics, relating
the current density 𝑱, the field 𝑩, and the potential
𝑨. There is one “missing link” in the diagram: the
equation for 𝑨 in terms of 𝑩. (See Probs. 52 and 53
from Griffith book, chapter: magnetostatics).

Dr. Anupam Roy 112

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Boundary Condition
❑(Recall the boundary conditions for 𝑬 and 𝑫)
❑Just as the electric field suffers a discontinuity at a surface charge, so the magnetic field is
discontinuous at a surface current. Only this time it is the tangential component that changes.
❑Boundary condition for 𝑩: (a) Normal Component

❑We start with 𝛁 · 𝑩 = 0 ⇒ ∮𝑺 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒂 = 0 for a wafer-thin pillbox

straddling the surface
❑As the sides do not contribute (ℎ → 0), ∮𝑆 𝑩. 𝑑𝒂 = ∮𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑩. 𝑑𝒂 + ∮𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑩. 𝑑𝒂
(1) (2) (1) (2)
⇒ 𝐵⊥ ∆𝑎 + 𝐵⊥ −∆𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 𝐵⊥ − 𝐵⊥ =0
❑ Conclusion: Normal component of 𝑩 is continuous. Dr. Anupam Roy 113
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Boundary Condition
❑Boundary condition for 𝑩: (a) Tangential Component
❑For the tangential components, an Amperian loop running
perpendicular to the current yields ∮𝑪 𝑩 . 𝑑𝒍 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐

❑As, ℎ → 0, only the longer sides contribute (shorter sides of length do not contribute)
(1) 2
❑𝐵∥ −𝑙 + 𝐵∥ 𝑙 = −𝜇0 𝐾𝑙 (since ∫ 𝑲. 𝑑𝒍 = 𝐼)
(1) 2
❑𝐵∥ − 𝐵∥ = 𝜇0 𝐾 (direction of 𝑲 is into the page)
❑Thus, the component of 𝑩 that is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to the current is
discontinuous in the amount 𝜇0 𝐾. Conclusion: Tangential component of 𝑩 is discontinuous.
Dr. Anupam Roy 114
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Magnetic Fields in Matter
❑A magnetic dipole experiences a torque in a magnetic field, just
as an electric dipole does in an electric field.
❑Let’s calculate the torque on a rectangular current loop (see the
figures) in a uniform field 𝑩.

❑Consider a current carrying loop C whose plane makes an angle

𝜃 with 𝑥-𝑦 plane and the plane also passes through the origin.
A magnetic field 𝑩 is applied along the 𝑧-axis.

Dr. Anupam Roy 115

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Magnetic Fields in Matter
R
❑Force acting on QR: 𝑭𝑄𝑅 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 sin
𝜋
− 𝜃 (−ෝ
𝒙) 𝐼
2 S Q
𝜋 O 𝐼
❑Force acting on PS: 𝑭𝑃𝑆 = 𝐼 𝑎 𝐵 sin ෝ
−𝜃 𝒙
2
P
❑The forces on the two sloping sides cancel (they tend to stretch
the loop, but they don’t rotate it).

❑Force acting on PQ: 𝑭𝑃𝑄 = 𝐼 𝑏 𝐵 𝒚

ෝ 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑏𝐵

❑Force acting on RS: 𝑭𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 𝑏 𝐵 (−ෝ

𝒚)
❑The forces on the horizontal sides are likewise equal and opposite
𝐹 = 𝐼𝑏𝐵
(so the net force on the loop is zero), but they generate a torque. Dr. Anupam Roy 116
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
𝐹 = 𝐼𝑏𝐵
❑Magnetic Fields in Matter 𝒓
❑Assume loop to be perfectly rigid. Total torque produced on
𝑎
the loop: 𝑵 = 2 𝒓 × 𝑭 = 2 ෝ = 𝑎 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝒙
𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝒙 ෝ
2 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑏𝐵
❑Using 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑏𝐵, we have 𝑵 = 𝑎 𝐼𝑏𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝒙
ෝ = 𝐼 𝑎𝑏 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝒙
ෝ
❑Or, 𝑵 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝒙
ෝ (where 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 = area of the loop)
❑Define 𝑚 = 𝐼𝐴 is the magnetic dipole moment of the loop, hence, 𝑵 = 𝑚𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝒙
ෝ
❑So, we have, 𝑵 = 𝒎 × 𝑩 (This torque tends to align 𝒎 in the direction of 𝑩)
❑Notice that the relation 𝑵 = 𝒎 × 𝑩 is identical in form to the electrical analog: 𝑵 = 𝒑 × 𝑬.

Dr. Anupam Roy 117

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Magnetic Fields in Matter
❑A current carrying loop gives rise to a magnetic dipole moment, defined by the current flowing
through the loop multiplied by the area of the loop and the direction is perpendicular to the
plane of the loop.
❑Presence of external magnetic field produces a torque that tries to align the dipole moment
parallel to the field.

❑Consider an atom. The electron revolves in an orbit, which

can be viewed as a current carrying loop. Each atom
produces a dipole moment.
❑In presence of a strong enough magnetic field, the
magnetic dipoles are aligned, and the change is opposite
to the direction of the magnetic field. Dr. Anupam Roy 118
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Magnetic Fields in Matter
❑In presence of a magnetic field, matter becomes magnetized; that is, it contains many tiny
dipoles, with a net alignment along some direction.
❑The state of magnetic polarization is described by a vector quantity, 𝑴 ≡ magnetic dipole
moment per unit volume.
❑𝑴 is called the magnetization; it plays a role analogous to the polarization (𝑷) in electrostatics.
❑Just as electric field can be represented by 𝑬 = −𝜵𝑉 (∵ 𝜵 × 𝑬 = 0), magnetic field can be
represented by 𝑩 = 𝜵 × 𝑨 (∵ 𝜵. 𝑩 = 0). Here 𝑨 is the vector potential.
❑Using 𝜵 × 𝜵𝑓 = 0 = 𝜵. (𝜵 × 𝒂)
❑𝜵 × 𝜵𝑓 = 0 => 𝜵 × 𝑬 = 0 => 𝑬 = 𝜵𝑓 = −𝜵𝑉
❑𝜵. 𝜵 × 𝒂 = 0 => 𝜵. 𝑩 = 0 => 𝑩 = 𝜵 × 𝒂 = 𝜵 × 𝑨 Dr. Anupam Roy 119
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Magnetic Fields in Matter
❑Magnetic field can be represented by 𝑩 = 𝜵 × 𝑨 (∵ 𝜵. 𝑩 = 0). Here 𝑨 is the vector potential.
❑The vector potential produced at a point is the same as that produced by a bound volume
current density 𝑱𝑏 and a bound surface current density 𝑲𝑏 .
❑It can be shown that
❑𝑱𝑏 = 𝜵 × 𝑴
❑𝑲𝑏 = 𝑴 × 𝒏
ෝ

❑Since the current in any arm of a loop in the bulk gets cancelled by the current in the arm of an
adjacent loop, only the currents of the outermost loops do not cancel and give rise to 𝑲𝑏 .
Dr. Anupam Roy 120
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Magnetic Fields in Matter
❑Suppose magnetization is not constant throughout the sample. Then only partial cancellation
will take place. So, there will be a non-zero current in the bulk also. This gives rise to 𝑱𝑏 .
❑The effect of magnetization is to establish bound currents 𝑱𝑏 = 𝜵 × 𝑴 within the material and
𝑲𝑏 = 𝑴 × 𝒏 ෝ on the surface. The field due to magnetization of the medium is just the field
produced by these bound currents.
❑Hence the total current can be represented as 𝑱 = 𝑱𝑏 + 𝑱𝑓 (𝑱𝑓 is the free current, for example
in a conductor).
❑Using Ampere’s law, 𝛁 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱 = 𝜇0 (𝑱𝑏 + 𝑱𝑓 )
𝟏
=> 𝛁 × 𝑩 = 𝑱𝑏 + 𝑱𝑓 = 𝜵 × 𝑴 + 𝑱𝑓
𝜇0
Dr. Anupam Roy 121
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Magnetic Fields in Matter
𝟏
❑ 𝛁 × 𝑩 = 𝜵 × 𝑴 + 𝑱𝑓
𝜇0
𝑩
❑This can be written as: 𝜵 ×
𝑩
− 𝑴 = 𝑱𝑓 ❑Let, − 𝑴 ≡ 𝑯 is the magnetic
𝜇0 𝜇0
field strength (in A/m)
This gives, (a) 𝜵 × 𝑯 = 𝑱𝑓

❑In integral form, ∮𝑆 (𝜵 × 𝑯). 𝑑𝒂 = ∮𝑆 𝑱𝑓 . 𝑑𝒂 = 𝐼𝑓,𝑒𝑛𝑐 where 𝐼𝑓,𝑒𝑛𝑐 is the total free current
passing through the Amperian loop.
❑Therefore, ∮𝑪 𝑯 . 𝑑𝒍 = 𝐼𝑓,𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝑩
❑(b) Divergence of 𝑯 gives: 𝜵 . 𝑯 = 𝜵 . − 𝑴 = −𝜵 . 𝑴 (∵ 𝜵. 𝑩 = 0)
𝜇0

❑𝑯 plays a role in magnetostatics analogous to 𝑫 in electrostatics. Dr. Anupam Roy 122

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Boundary conditions
❑The magnetostatic boundary conditions can be given in terms of 𝑯 and the free current
(a) Recall 𝜵 . 𝑯 = −𝜵 . 𝑴 ⇒ 𝜵. 𝑯+𝑴 =0
(1) (2) (1) (1) (2) (2)
❑ 𝐻+𝑀 ⊥ = 𝐻+𝑀 ⊥ ⇒ 𝐻⊥ + 𝑀⊥ = 𝐻⊥ + 𝑀⊥
(1) 2 2 (1) 𝜵. 𝑯+ 𝑴 = 0 → 𝜵 .𝒇 = 0
❑Thus, 𝐻⊥ − 𝐻⊥ = 𝑀⊥ − 𝑀⊥ → 𝐻⊥ is discontinuous (1) (2)
This will give, 𝑓⊥ = 𝑓⊥

(b) Recall ∮𝑪 𝑯 . 𝑑𝒍 = 𝐼𝑓,𝑒𝑛𝑐

(1) 2
❑𝐻∥ −𝑙 + 𝐻∥ 𝑙 = −𝐾𝑓 𝑙
(1) 2
❑𝐻∥ − 𝐻∥ = 𝐾𝑓 → 𝐻∥ is discontinuous
(1) 2
❑If 𝐾𝑓 = 0, then 𝐻∥ = 𝐻∥ . In general, both 𝐻⊥ and 𝐻∥ components are discontinuous.
Dr. Anupam Roy 123
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Boundary conditions
❑Summary
𝑩
❑𝑯 = −𝑴
𝜇0
(1) 2 2 (1)
❑𝜵 . 𝑯 = −𝜵 . 𝑴 => 𝐻⊥ − 𝐻⊥ = 𝑀⊥ − 𝑀⊥
(1) 2
❑𝜵 × 𝑯 = 𝑱𝑓 => 𝐻∥ − 𝐻∥ = 𝐾𝑓

Dr. Anupam Roy 124

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
❑Maxwell’s equations for static field [here, 𝐸 ≠ 𝐸 𝑡 , 𝐵 ≠ 𝐵(𝑡)]
❑ General ❑ Inside Matter
𝜌
▪ 𝜵. 𝑬 = ▪ 𝜵. 𝑫 = 𝜌𝑓
𝜀0
▪ 𝜵×𝑬=0 ▪ 𝜵×𝑫=𝜵×𝑷

▪ 𝜵. 𝑩 = 0 ▪ 𝜵. 𝑯 = −𝜵. 𝑴

▪ 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱 ▪ 𝜵 × 𝑯 = 𝑱𝑓

❑ Boundary conditions: General ❑ Boundary conditions: Inside Matter

(1) (2) 𝜎 (1) (2)
▪ 𝐸⊥ − 𝐸⊥ = ▪ 𝐷⊥ − 𝐷⊥ = 𝜎𝑓
𝜀0
(1) 2 (1) 2 1 2
▪ 𝐸∥ − 𝐸∥ =0 ▪ 𝐷∥ − 𝐷∥ = 𝑃∥ − 𝑃∥
(1) (2) (1) 2 2 (1)
▪ 𝐵⊥ − 𝐵⊥ =0 ▪ 𝐻⊥ − 𝐻⊥ = 𝑀⊥ − 𝑀⊥
(1) 2 (1) 2
▪ 𝐵∥ − 𝐵∥ = 𝜇0 𝐾𝑓 ▪ 𝐻∥ − 𝐻∥ = 𝐾𝑓 Dr. Anupam Roy 125
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Date: 04.10.2023

Lecture: 5

Dr. Anupam Roy 126

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Module – 2: Electromagnetic Theory

Text Book: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press (Seventh Edition, 2018)

Reference Book: David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Pearson (Fourth Edition, 2014)

Class structure: 4 Lectures including 1 Tutorial per week. (8 hours ~ 2 weeks for this module!)
Dr. Anupam Roy 127
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Faraday’s law (Experiment done by Faraday in 1831)

The loop was pulled rightward with velocity 𝒗.

Current 𝐼 flowed clockwise.

Magnet was pulled leftward with velocity 𝒗 holding

the loop still. Again, current 𝐼 flowed clockwise.

Magnetic field strength was changed (increased the

field). Current 𝐼 was anticlockwise.
Dr. Anupam Roy 128
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Faraday’s law
❑Lenz’s law: Nature hates a change in flux. The three cases in previous slide are special cases of
Lenz’s law.
❑Faraday deduced: A changing magnetic field induces an electric field.
❑Electromotive force: 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 ≡ amount of work done by a unit charge for making a complete
round of the loop.
❑𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∮ 𝒇 . 𝒅𝒍 (where, 𝒇 is the force experienced by the charge)
S R

❑Arms SR and PQ do not contribute (∵ 𝒖 × 𝑩 is perpendicular to 𝑣

𝑑𝒍 where 𝒖 is the velocity of charge)
P Q
❑Side RQ is outside the field region, so it does not contribute. We
need to consider only the side PS. Dr. Anupam Roy 129
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Faraday’s law 𝜃

❑𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∮ 𝒇 . 𝒅𝒍 (where, 𝒇 is the force experienced

𝒘×𝑩
by the charge)
𝑆 S 𝒗
❑𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∫𝑃 𝒘 × 𝑩 . 𝒅𝒍 𝜃
𝒖 𝒗
𝑩 ℎ
❑Here 𝒘 = 𝒖 + 𝒗 is the resultant velocity of the 𝜃
P
charge due to its original motion (with velocity 𝒖) and Q
the horizontal velocity (velocity 𝒗 of pulling). So,
𝒘 × 𝑩 makes an angle 𝜃 with the horizontal. 𝒗
𝑆 𝑆 𝒖
❑Hence, 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∫𝑃 𝒘 × 𝑩 . 𝒅𝒍 = ∫𝑃 𝒘 × 𝑩 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Dr. Anupam Roy 130

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Faraday’s law 𝜃
𝑆 𝑆
❑𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∫𝑃 𝒘 × 𝑩 . 𝒅𝒍 = ∫𝑃 𝒘 × 𝑩 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝒘×𝑩
𝑆
= ∫𝑃 𝑤 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 S 𝒗 𝜃
𝑆 𝒖 𝒗
= 𝐵 ∫𝑃 (𝑣 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃) 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑩 ℎ
P 𝜃
(since, from the vector triangle, 𝑣 = 𝑤 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) Q
𝑆
❑Hence, 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑣𝐵 ∫𝑃 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑣𝐵ℎ 𝒗
❑Now consider the rate of flux in the loop. Faraday 𝒖
𝑑Φ𝐵
found experimentally: 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = − (where Φ𝐵 is
𝑑𝑡
the magnetic flux through the loop). Dr. Anupam Roy 131
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Faraday’s law
❑Magnetic flux through the loop: Φ𝐵 = ∫ 𝑩 . 𝒅𝒂 = 𝐵ℎ𝑥
𝑩
❑𝑑Φ𝐵 = −𝐵ℎ 𝑑𝑥 (since, 𝑥 decreases with time)
𝑑Φ𝐵 𝑑𝑥
❑Hence, = −𝐵 ℎ = −𝐵 ℎ 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑Φ𝐵
❑Hence, 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = − = 𝐵ℎ𝑣
𝑑𝑡

❑Faraday deduced that the current was caused by an “induced” electric field.
𝑑Φ𝐵
❑If this induced field is 𝑬, then 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∮ 𝑬 . 𝒅𝒍 = −
𝑑𝑡

Dr. Anupam Roy 132

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Faraday’s law
𝑑Φ𝐵
❑If the induced electric field is 𝑬, then 𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∮ 𝑬 . 𝒅𝒍 = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝜕𝑩
❑Hence, ∮ 𝑬 . 𝒅𝒍 = − ∫ 𝑩 . 𝒅𝒂 = −∫ . 𝒅𝒂 (use Φ𝐵 = ∫ 𝑩 . 𝒅𝒂)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

❑Now, use Stokes’ theorem:

𝜕𝑩
∫ 𝛁 × 𝑬 . 𝒅𝒂 = − ∫ 𝜕𝑡 . 𝒅𝒂
𝜕𝑩 𝑩
❑By comparison, 𝛁 × 𝑬 = −
𝜕𝑡

Dr. Anupam Roy 133

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Faraday’s law
❑If there is a change in magnetic flux, we have an induced electric field is 𝑬, such that

𝑑Φ𝐵 𝜕𝑩
𝑉𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ර 𝑬 . 𝒅𝒍 = − = −න . 𝒅𝒂
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑩
❑Since, ∮ 𝑬 . 𝒅𝒍 = ∫ 𝛁 × 𝑬 . 𝒅𝒂, we have, 𝛁 × 𝑬 = − ≠0
𝜕𝑡

❑This modifies the Maxwell’s equation 𝛁 × 𝑬 = 𝟎 for static field.

❑Faraday’s law generalizes the electrostatic rule 𝛁 × 𝑬 = 0 to the time-dependent regime.

Dr. Anupam Roy 134

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Displacement Current
❑Another equation for the static field is 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱.
❑This equation also gets modified if the fields are time-dependent.
𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱
𝜵. 𝛁 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 (𝛁 . 𝑱)
Divergence of a curl is always zero. Hence, LHS of this equation is zero due to vector identity
[𝜵. 𝛁 × 𝑩 = 0]. But, there is no reason why 𝛁 . 𝑱 = 𝟎 so RHS ≠ 0 (in general)
𝝏𝝆
❑ We know from the equation of continuity: 𝛁 . 𝑱 = − (statement of conservation of charge)
𝝏𝒕
𝜌
❑ But, 𝜵. 𝑬 = ⇒ 𝜌 = 𝜀0 (𝜵. 𝑬)
𝜀0
Dr. Anupam Roy 135
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Displacement Current
𝜌
❑ 𝜵. 𝑬 = ⇒ 𝜌 = 𝜀0 (𝜵. 𝑬)
𝜀0

𝝏𝜌 𝝏 𝜕𝑬
❑ Hence from the Eqn. of continuity, 𝛁 . 𝑱 = − =− (𝜀 𝜵. 𝑬) = −𝛁 . (𝜀0 )
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 0 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑬
❑ This gives, 𝛁 . (𝑱 + 𝜀0 ) =0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑬
⇒ 𝛁 . 𝑱1 = 0 (Consider, 𝑱 + 𝜀0 = 𝑱1 )
𝜕𝑡

❑ Now, 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱1 ⇒ 𝜵. 𝛁 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝛁 . 𝑱1 = 0

(the anomaly has disappeared once 𝑱 is replaced by 𝑱1 )

Dr. Anupam Roy 136
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Displacement Current
❑ So, we have the modified form of Maxwell’s equation if the fields are not static:
𝜕𝑬
𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱 + 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑬
❑ The quantity 𝜀0 ≡ 𝑱𝑑 is called the displacement current.
𝜕𝑡

Dr. Anupam Roy 137

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2 (Electromagnetic Theory)
Magnetostatics
❑Maxwell’s Equations
❑ The final (general) form of Maxwell’s equations are:
𝜌
𝜵. 𝑬 =
𝜀0

𝜕𝑩
✓ 𝜵×𝑬= −
𝜕𝑡

𝜵. 𝑩 = 0
𝜕𝑬
✓ 𝜵 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱 + 𝜇0 𝜀0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑩 𝜕𝑩
❑ For static fields the terms and will vanish.
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Dr. Anupam Roy 138

PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Module – 2: Electromagnetic Theory

Text Book: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press (Seventh Edition, 2018)

Reference Book: David J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Pearson (Fourth Edition, 2014)

Class structure: 4 Lectures including 1 Tutorial per week. (8 hours ~ 2 weeks for this module!)
Dr. Anupam Roy 139
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Next Class

Questions?
Dr. Anupam Roy 140
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Module 2

Date: 09.10.2023