BS\4/-042

l@lhe#-e# Tribal Society

Indira Gandhi
National Open University
School of Social Work

TRIBAL IDENTITY AI\D ETHNICITY.I

T]NIT 1

Concept of Difference and Inequdity in Tlibal Context 5

T]NIT 2
Ethnic Relation, Conflict and Change 18

T]NIT 3
Tiibal Identity in the Modern World 33
T]NIT 4
Structural Conflict in Sectors of Tlibal Develop,ment 48
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. Bipin Jojo Dr Sargbnifa S.Acharya
Prof. Ramdayal Munda
Centre for Social Justice Centre for Social lvledicine
FormerMce-Chancellot
andGovemance and Community Health
Ranchi University
School ofSocialWork Jawaharlal Nehru University
ftarkiand-834008
TISS, Deonar, Mumbai400088 New Delhi-110068

Dr. Shweta Singh Dr. Marianus Kujur

Prof. Virginius Xaxa
Lady Shri Ram College Indian Social Institute
D€partment of SociologY
Delhi University Lodhi Road
Delhi School of Economics
New Delhi-110003
Delhi University
Delhi-110007

Dr Bodhi Ranee Dr. Grace Donnemching

Prof. Tiplut Nongbd
of Centre for Social Justice School ofExtensionand
Centre for the StudY
and Govemance D€velopment Studies
Social Systems
School ofSocialWork IGNOU, New Delhi-110068
School of Social Sciences
TISS, Deonar
Jawaharlal Nehru Univelsity
New Delhil 10067 Mumbai-400088

Prol Anjali Gandhi Dr Rose Nembiakkim

Dr George Plathottam
JamiaMillia lslamia Director
CBCI Centre
New Delhi-110025 School ofSocialWork
New Delhi1l0001
IGNOU. New Delhi:l 10068

Prol Sanjay Bhatt Prof, Gracious Thomas

Department of Social Work Faculty
Delhi University School ofSocial Work

Delhi110007 IGNOU, New Delhil10068

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BLOCK INTRODUCTION
The block titled 'Tribal Identity and Ethnicity-I' consists of four units. The
block highlights the concept of difference and inequaiity among the tribe's as
well as the tribal identity in the modem world among other pertinent issues.
Unit 1 is about the 'Concept of Difference and Inequalify in Tribal
Context'. It attempts to describe the concept ofinequality and difference among
the tribal groups. It also talks about the differences that become a factor in
creating inequality. It also talks about the discriminationof tribes in India while
touching on the principle of Equality at the same time.

Unit 2 is about the 'Ethnic Relation, Conflict and Change'. The concept
of ethnicity has been discussed in this unit vis-d-vis the ethnic relations in India
in the tribal context. It also throws light on the theoretical perspectives in ethnic
conflicts and the cause and effects of ffibal conflicts.

Unit 3 is about'Tfihal Identity in the Modern World'. This unit attempts

to bring forth the world view in relation to the tribal population by talking about
some important characteristics with regards to the tribal identity conceming the
modem world. It also deals with the triba1 reaction to loss of identif and change.

Unit 4 is about the ostructural Conflict in Sectors ofTribal Development''

The unit gives a brief note on the concept of development with particular
reference to the tribal group existing in India. It also attempts to provide
information about the structural constraints for development among the tribal
group while talking about the tribal experience with mainstream development.
UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF DIFFERENCE AND
INEQUALITY IN TRIBAL
CONTEXT
Structure
1.0 Objectives

1.1 lntroduction

1.2 The Principle of Equality

1 .3 Definition of Equality

1 .4 Inequality and Difference

1:5 Inequality and Difference in India- Tribal Context

1.6 Let Us Sum Up

I.7 Further Readings and Refemces

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit you should be able to:
o Understand the concept of difference of equality, inequality and difference
among tribals;

o Klow how differences become a factor in creating inequality in tribal

context; and
r Analyze how above process produces discrimination oftribes in India.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will try to understand the concepts of equality, inequality and
'
difference in relation to tribal problems and issues. Tribes in lndian are socially
and culturally different from others. Accommodating the tribal demands for
cultural recognition and continuity within the Indian nation state has been a
challenge to the government and civil society for aimost six decades. Many
unresolved issues in tribal identity and related problems can be better
understood by studying these concepts and their practice.

It is only by creatively using these concepts that tribal

issues and problems
can be understood and subsequently attempts could be made to resolve them.

1.2 THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUALITY

Equality is a foundational value of all modern societies. The principle that
everybody should be treated Iegally equal regardless of their caste, religion,
region race or language is accepted by majority of the nations. The effectiveness
of the implementation of this principle varies from nation to nation. Even those
nations that do not grant equality to certain gloups or sections of society
would claim that their interpretation of the principle of equality is different
 in their
Tribal Identity and from other interpretations and that they too adhere to the principle
Ethnicity-I o\\ n \\ ay.

It is also true that modern nation-states are characterized by a great degree

of diu"rrity. These diversities are often seen as a problematic issue' 'Equality'
means that everybody is treated in the same way (similarly)
while diversity
means that therl are considerable, definite social and cultural
differences
of.individuals and
among the population. Often treating different types
.q*lly (similarly) would result in some communities being treated
""*"i"tity
unfairly, which in tum violates the principle of equality'
principle'
It is only the modem society that valued equality, as a value and as a
order
io orguni"" societies. Traditional societies are characterized by social
baseJ on hierarchy groups and individuals are placed in superior -
subordinate
positions according to a criterion. In pre-modem India, the caste system
the
*ni"h aiuiO"d ,tte society into lower caste and higher caste was based on
pruer than
criteria of ritual purity and pollution. The upper castes were ritually
the lower caste and therefore placed above them in the social hierarchy'
Medieval Europe had the estate system-the population was divided into
three

divisions- clergy, nobility and commons'

However, it can be argued that the idea of equality existed in a limited

and
the
nascent form even in these societies. Islam and Christianity did recognize
equality of its adherents before thek one true God' Even in Hinduism'
with its
hierarc-hical caste system, scholars have identified a certain degree
of equality
for all, though other worldly, for all members regardless of their present
positions. Everybody had an equai opportunity to perform his lhet karma
which, satisfactorily performed would enable the person to get into a higher
stage in his/ her next life. Moreover, there have been a number of social
movements, llke lhe bhaki movement, in Hinduism challenging the supremacy
of the Brahmins and getting social equality for the lower castes' Similar
movements for greater equality are found in Islamic and christian history also.
But none of these movements were successful in making equaliry an organizing
principle for medieval Hindu, Christian and Islamic societies' In other words'
while equality was recognized in a metaphysical sense, it was not seen as a
pJn.lpt. to guid" rtut" poli"y and decisions. Traditional lndian society is seen
is an unusually hierarchical society. (Beteille 2004; 197)
'
Structural inequality was also the mechanism used to manage different
communities in a society. Not all traditional societies were as pluralistic as
modem societies, but there were different communities which coexisted in one
society. These communities had their place in the social structure and their
interaction with others depended on their relative positions in the hierarchy.

Furnivall describes the situation in a colonial society in the foliowing way

"Each group holds its own religion, its own culture, its own ideas and ways
they meet only in the market place different sections of the community live
side by sicle, but separately within the same unit"(Fumiva1l quoted in Oommen'
2004: 45)

Thusinequalitybetweencommunitiesanddifferentialtfeatmentforsome
co-muniiies at the cost of others did not cause a rqajor problern' as these
societies did not accept equality or democracy as a value' The role of the
state was to maintain the social order. Thus, it had a harmonic system of
stratification in which the dominant values in society and the existing siruation Concept of Differ€nce
and IneqalitY h Tribal
were congruent. Though pre-modern societies were pluralistic with many Contert
communities coexisting. Each of these communities had a particular position
in the society which determined their rights and duties, and how they interacted
with others and social inequality was accepted as value and principle in pre-
modem societies. The role of the state was to preserve the social order rather
than change it.

Equality in tle Modern Period

The idea of equality evolved in Europe with the revolutions in France, England
and United States. The French Revolution and the American War of
Independence were violent expressions ofrevolt against the traditional social
order. The French Revolution attacked and removed the privileges of the
aristocracy and the clergy. According to the new system, every individual was
treated equally and no one, regardless ofhis position in society, had special
rights and priviieges. Similarly, the American constitution after the War included
the Bill of Rights which ensured equality to its citizens. It separated the
Church (religion) and State (government) mainly to avoid the government
fron discriminating its citizens because of their religion (or denomination)
being different from the majority religion (or denomination).The French
revolution and the American Constitution heralded a new period in history
where equality was accepted as a fundamental principle. But it was only a
beginning of a long process where the idea of equality would be c1arified,
expanded and made part ofstate policy. Firstly, the idea of equality was seen
here in a limited form- legal equality and the abolition ofpriviieges to certain
privileged groups like the aristocracy. It did not say anything about existing
equaiities which were reflected in the unequal social and economic condition
ofthe people. Secondly, there were large sections of society that were excluded
from the ambit of equal treatment-women, slaves, colonized people and
outsiders. These sections had to wait for many, many more years or even
centuries to be recognized as being worthy of equal and fair treatment. Women
had to struggle till the ear$ twentieth cenhry to get voting rights and the Afro
Americans became equal to their white compatriots only after the Civil War.
Needless to say discrimination ofthese sections continues to happen on a
smaller scale in the society even after these monumental events.

In the nineteenth and twentieth century there was an expansion in areas in

which the principle of equaiity was applied. It was felt that inequality in the
social and economic spheres of lives should end or at least be reduced'
Political and legal equality without social and economic equality was futile. It
was only when these important areas ofan individual life are brought into the
ambit of the principle of equality, that the ideal will be fully realized. Another
important aspect of equality was the recognition of the need for special
protection of minority groups. The genocide of Armenians in Ottoman Empire
and Jews during the World War II brought about the realization that
communities as a whole are often discriminated as they belong to a particular
religion or ethnic group. Thus, community based discrimination need to be
addressed. More recently, there are demands for equality and recognition to
be given to sexual minorities to stop discrimination.
Tribal Identify and Equality as apolicy was seen earlier as "static'in the sense that the state's
Ethnicity-I
role in merely ensuring legal equaliry changed to a 'dynamic'one in which the
state took efforls in ensuring equality in opportunity, outcome a$il conditions.
The state formulates laws, policies and programmes to ensure4[at inequality
is reduced. The emergence of welfare state is an important outcome of this
commitment. Thus, the concept of equality has,changed and broadened to
include new areas of life of individual and community. It increased the state
responsibility in ensuring that equality as a principle works in the society.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answet.

1) How has the concept ofequality changed over time?

1.3 DEFTNTTTON OF EQUALTTY

It is very difficult to define equality as a concept. Ernest Baker says that
"Equality is a protean notion; it changes its shape and assumes new forms
with a ready facility". Equality does not simply mean similar treatment to all.
Treating unequal equally will be as much injustice as treating equals unequally.
But then individuals possess different capacities and produce different outcomes.
Harold Laski says 'the purpose of society would be frustrated at the outset
if the nature of a mathematician met with identical response with that of a
bricklayer'. Hence it would be wrong to relate equality with the same treatment
for all.

Baker describes the principle ofequality in these words "Just as each person,
because he is a person, is free agent in the scheme ofthe State, so also each
person, because he is a person, as all other persons, has an equal standing,
and counts equally as a legal factor, under the scheme". Similarly ". . ...means
that what ever conditions are guaranteed to me, in the form ofrights, shall
also, and to the same measure, be guaranteed to others. and that whatever
rights to others shall also be given to me". Thus equality is only the basic
condition that is provided to all; how they make use of it is up to them. Thus
the principle ofequality gives the same starting point to all but how they finish
depends on the individuals. "Law is giver of legal capacities and of legal
capacities only. Burke's dictum that "All men have equal rights but not to
equal things" is applicable here.

The principle of legalistic equality had limited impact in societies with a history
of gross social'inequality. For example, it would be unreasonable to expect
two individuals from different social background to be treated equally- an
individual raised in privileged family with all facilities will be more meritorious
than an individual raised in family with minimal or no facilities. There should
be a certain degree of equality of opporhrnity if the principle of equality has
to be realized.
 Harold Laski gives a broader idea of equality with the following characteristics : Concept of Difference
and Ineqality in Ttibal
he i) No special privileges for any individual or group; Context
0s.
lty ii) Equal opportunity for all as it gives everybody opportunity to educate
ris and equip himself. Further, he can use his skills and talents to get the
to desired things in life;
rte
iii) Equal access to social benefiti for all and no restrictions based on any
extraneous factors; and
--'1

iv) Absence of economic and social exploitation.

According to this definition, the principle of equality should have not only
legalistic equality but also equality of opportunity and equal access to social
benefits. An even broader definition of equality then emerged. Bryan Tumer
in his work 'Equality' has given the following characteristics:

I Fundamental equality ofpersons,

ii) Equality of opportunity,

iii) Equality oi conditions where there is an attempt to make the conditions

of life equal, and
iv) Equality of outcome of results.

hat
The principle of equality includes - equality of conditions and equality of
outcomes. It is not enough that there is legal equality and equality ofopporhrnity
MS
il1. but also equality in conditions in society and equality ofoutcomes or results.
ll)'. Equality of outcomes is the achievement of a given set of positive circumstances
ES.
for a particular group or category. Thus, various communities and groups in
set a society should not experiences vast differences in.their standard of living.

fa The state should take proactive steps including progressive taxation and other
Rnt
measures to redistribute wealth.

The various dimensions of equality are : (1) Political equality (2) Economic
0n. equality (3) Legal equality, and (4) Sociai. Equality as we have seen is a
)ch
widely accep,ted idea. Yet inequality in different dimensions persists in all
09. societies. The United States ofAmerica has wide range of social inequalities
uts
in terms of income levels; Afro Americans on an- average eam less than their
all white Americans. Similarly, in France the birth place of the popular slogan
'Equality, Liberty and Fratemity" the Black, Muslim migrants and their
sic successive generatioi.rs experience discrimination. Like in USA, their average
tus income levels are much lesser than their white counterparts.
ish CheckYour Progress II
Bat
:to Note: Use the space provided for your answer.

I ) What are the dimensions of equality?

0ry
ect
an
)us
uld
has
Tribal Identity and
Ethnicity-I I.4 INEQUALITYAND DIFFERENCE
Every society is divided into different categories based on a quality or set
of qualities. Primitive communities, which were essentially large kinship groups,
had minimal differentiation based on the criteria of sex and age. Modern
communities have greater differentiation based on a number of criteria- income,
race, ownership, sexual orientation etc.

In itselfthese different categories do not reflect any hierarchy or any superior

subordination relationship. They simply show that people can be grouped
together on a common basis. They share some elements of their social and
economic lives with others and there are other people with whom they do not
share these particular elements. For example. language can be a criterion for
grouping people. People who speak Hindi can be one group and people who
speak Bengali can be another. It is only a grouping ofpeople who are diflerent
in one way or another. There is no hierarchy with one group being superior
to another. Members of one group do not attain more power, prestige or
income simply because they belong to one group and not another.

However when differences are evaluated according to a set ofqualities and

then different groups are placed in a hierarchy, these differences becomes a
basis for inequality. Consequently, there are groups that have a subordinate
or superior relationship with other groups. Again, there will be differential
rewards and obligations attached to the groups occupying low and high
positions. Groups which are placed higher than othets enjoy greater prestige,
income and power. They have easier access to things that are needed for a
good quality of life.

Not a1l social differences are valued according to qualities and set in a hierarchy.
The type and nature olquality decided for valuation depends on the nature
and type of society. For example, pre-modern societies valued aged people
for their wisdom and experience while modern societies neglect them by
attributing negative qualities oflack of energy and 1ow updation ofknowledge
etc. Many social differences are also ignored or not even seen as being
worthy ofnotice. They may later on in a different situation become socially
important. In USA dark skin (Black) was seen as ugly till the 1960s when
change in ideas ofbeauty altered and the concept of 'Black is Beautiful'
emerged. A change in social perspective had brought about a revaluation of
a quality which produced different results.

Social Inequality and Natural Inequality

Many of the criteria for judging a group's value and justifuing social inequalities
are thought to be found in nature-biological differences. It is argued that
biological differences results in biological inequalities which in turn result in
social inequalities. No one can deny that individuals are endowed with different
natural abilities and capacities. Jean Rousseau, political thinker, states of two
types of inequality:

"I oonceive that there are two kinds of inequality among the human species;
one, which I call natural or physical, because it is established by nature, and
ofthe
consists in a dilference ofage, health, bodily strength, and the qualities
mind or of the soul: and another, which may be called moral or political
inequality, because it depends on a kind ofconvention, and is established, or
l0 at least authorized by the consent of rne".
Thus according to Rousseau, the hrst type of inequality is natural and therefore Concept of Difference
is given; while the second type is socially created and therefore will benefit and Ineqality in Tribal
Context
a few over the majority.

Sociologists point out that natural and moral equality are not completely
ttnn,luted. For example, intelligence is measured by Intelligence Quotient
U0. IQ Test; in the United States have found that Whites on an average
have higher score than Blqcks. Does that mean that Whites are naturally
ruore intelligent than Blacks? Can the income gap between the
communities be explained by the higher intelligence oJ the ltrhite? But
this has been explained by the following facts (l) Intelligence is the
product of both genetic and environmental factors. The social background
of the individual influences his IQ scores. Deprived social backgrounds
will negatively influence the scores (2) Intelligent tests dre not really
objective. They are based on white middle class knowledge and skills (3)
The tests only measure only part of the mental cdpacities of the individuuls
and therefore are not universally valid.

Biological differences do not readily become social inequalities. Andre Beteille

points out "nahlral inequality is based on differences in quality, and the qualities
are notjust there, so to say in nature; they are as human beings defined them,
in different socielies, in different historical epochs." Further, he says that the
identification as well as the gradation of qualities is a cultural and not a natural
process. B6teille (1983: 8) writes, "Nature presents us only with differences
or potential differences. With human beings these differences do not become
inequalities unless and until they are selected, marked out and evaluated by
processes that are cultwal and not natural." In other words, differences become
inequalities only with the application of scaies; and the scales with which we
are concemed in talking about inequalities in a social context are not given to
us by nature, but culturally constructed by particular human beings under
particular historical conditions.

Dipankar Gupta points out that "differences in language, religion, race or sex
are differences that are in themselves and, do not contain the property of
inequality. This may not however, be the popular understanding of these
differences." (Gupta, 1996: 9). He says that 'though differences cannot be
placed in a hierarchical order they are not allowed to retain their horizontal
statuses'. "They usually tend to get hierarchised in popular consciousness.
This is where prejudice takes over. Men are deemed to be superior to women,
certain linguistic groups are held to be less civilized and cultivated than others,
and religious bigotry prevails, all because most ofus are not conditioned to
tolerate difference qua difference. " (Gupta, 2004 : 120 - 12 I).

Some ofthe groups which are discriminated because oftheir nanral differences
are:

L Men and Women

Apart from the fact that men are generally physically stronger than women,
there is no biological evidence to show that women are incapable ofdoing the
tasks that men do. Yet it is often held that men are better suited to manage
outside work while women are better suited to do household rvork and care
for their children. ll
Tribal Identity and
Ethnicifv-I
2. Racial differences

The European justification for colonization of other people was mainly

based on the fact that the white race was more advanced and evolved
than other races and therefore had a role in civilizing them. Pseudo scientific
theories based on Darwinism was used to justify the oppressive rule of the
natives.

Culture and Inequality

Clearly, the qualities used to judge the relative position of groups vis-d-vis
other groups are defined by social and cultural processes rather than scientific
facts. It is also clear that the qualities that are selected and used to make
these judgments will be derived from the existing body ofknowledge of that
society. But knowledge production in any society depends largely on the
position of the producer in the social structure. Karl Marx and Frederick
Engels in the Communist Manifesto say the "The ruling ideas of each age have
ever been the ideas of its ruling class." According to a prominent contributor
to the Sociology of Klowledge, Karl Mannerheim-all the knowledge and
ideas, although to different degrees, are "bound to a location,' within the
social structure atd the historical process. Likewise, Oommen advocating the
need for 'a perspective from below' says that "the process ofproduction of
knowledge and advantages and disadvantages emanating one's location in the
social structure is linked". It is not.to suggest that all knowledge is partisan
in nature iather to show that knowledge is not always 'objective, and factual.

It is not only academic knowledge that is aflected by these biases and partisan
attitude. Common people's everyday experiences with members of other
communities colour and reinforce these biases and then they become established
as facts. These everyday experiences take placein common places- like in
the street, workplace, markets, educational institutions, during political
activities. People do not consciously give much importance to these interactions
but nevertheless are influenced by them. It is not often understood that it is
pre-existing biases in the observer that influenced his perception and his
conclusions has merely reinforced his bias.

1.5 INEQUALITY AND DIFFERENCE IN

INDIA- TRIBAL CONTEXT
Indian political leaders after India's independence from British rule very well
understood the challenge of creating an egalitarian social order in a deeply
hierarchical society. India's diversity in religions beliefs, value systems, customs,
and traditions made the task even more difficult. While the Westem societies
had become egalitarian over a long period of time, the Indian state had to
achieve an equitable order in a much shorter period. Dr. Ambedkar, the
architect oflndian constitution thus described the chalienge Indian democracy
. faced:

The third thing we must do is not to be content ttith mere political

democracy. tl/e must nake our political democracy a social democracy
as well. Political democraq, cannot last unless there lies at the base
of it social democracy. lI/hat does social democracy mean? It means
a way of life which recognizes liberty, equality and fraternity as tlte
 Concept of Difference
principles of life. These principles of liberty, equality and fraternity and Ineqality in TFibal
are not to be ireated as separate items in a trinity. They form a Context
union oJ trinity in the sense that to divorce one from the other is to
defeat the rery purpose of democracy... ....On the 26't' of January
1950, we are going to enter into a life of contradictions. In politics
we will have equatity and in social and economic life we will have
inequality. In politics we will be recognizing the principle ofone man
one vote and one vote ene value. In our social and economic life, we
shall, by reason of our social and economic structure, continue to
deny the principle of one man one value....

Indian States response to tribal situation

The Indian govemment recognized that the tribes are socially, culturally and
economically diverse from other categories oflndians and therefore needed
a different approach. Some ofthe policies/ approaches that reflect this concem
are as follows:

Provisions for equality

o Constitution Articles art. 14. 15 and 16; and

o Grant -in -aid specific to Scheduled Tribes.275(1).
Provisions for preventing discrimination of tribes:

o Protective Articles ofthe Indian Constitution;

r The National Commission for Schedule Tribes - a Constitutional body to

protect the rights of the Schedule tribes; and

r Protective legislations like Prevention ofAtrocities against SC/ STs.

Provisions for recognizing and preserwing differences:

o The Panchsheel or the Five point approach formulated by Verrier Elwin

and Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to tribal situation which advocated minimal
governance and autonomy, and the right to develop according to their
own way;
. Schedule V and Schedule VI of the Constitution which gave limited
autonomy to the tribes to govern themselves; and
. The Panchayat Extension Schedule Areas Amendment which gave
additional powers to the Panchayats to govem tribal mirjority and areas
and administer land use.

Indian market and civil society's response to tribal situation

Tribes are no longer isolated fiom non-tribes. Contact between the tribes and
non-tribes are increasing due to migration and forced displacement. Everyday
experiences in interacting with others are'as important as govemment legislations
ensuring equality and protection, in defining tribal perception olthemselves
and non-tribes.

Tribal and non{ribal interactions takes place in rural as well as urban area.
In rural area, a number of studies have shown that the tribal experience has
been largely negative. It has increased tribal alienation and, caused frustration t3
Tribal ldentity and
EthniciS-I and anger among them. Raja Kanti Das (Das in Pfeflfer, Georg and Deepak
Kumar Behera, 1997) str-rdied of Oraons in Midnapore showed that the Oraons
were adopting certain elements ol Hinduism from their neighbours as an
adaptive measure while striving for maintaining their identity and community
organizations. But inspite ofthese steps, the Oraons were losing theirjobs to
the new migrants to the town. P K Bhomick (Bowmick in pfeffer, Georg and
Deepak Kumar Behera, 1997pp 109-115) study ofthe 2l Lodha villages in
the Midnapore show that frustration is driving them towards crime. There
have been a number of studies that show how tribes have been brought into
the Hindu fold by incorporating tribals' Gods into the Hindu pantheon. The
assimilation, if successful, rnakes the tribe a caste within the caste system. The
study of Pattanaik (Pattnaik in Pfleffer, Georg and Deepak Kumar Behera,
1997 pp317 -329) of Sabara tribe in Orissa shows their gradual adoption of
Hindu customs and becoming an untouchable caste. Local power equations
play an important role in determining the ritual status and position ofthe caste.
Historically such tribes are placed in the lower positions in the caste hierarchy
though they have been instances oftribes being accepted as Kshatriyas.

Christian methods to convert tribes have been more direct and involve a
break frorn their earlier animistic beliefs. Both these process have often resulted
in the loss of tribal identity. While in many cases the assimilation into larger
community might have given the tribal community greater security, in many
cases it has caused violent conflicts between the tribes and non-tribes and
between tribes itself. There have been instances of forceful rejection of Hindu
and Christian beliefs and a retum to traditional beliefs.

In urban areas, the nature of contact between the tribal and non-tribal has
been different because ofthe relative anonymrty prevailing in the cifies. However
we see here too people's perception about tribal has negatively influenced
the interaction pattems. Stereotypes about tribes are found in the language,
representations and nature of interactions of every day situations.

Popular stereotypes about trihal.t :

l. Tribals especially from the North East who have Mongloid features
are not Indians. They are Chinese and therefore ca ed ,,chintq,".
Recently a Chie.f Minister of a North- Eastern State cotnplainetl that
he is questioned whether he is an Indian almost every time he comes
to Delhifor fficial work. This is a common problemfor many people,
tribals .and non-tribals, from North East India. By calling them
'Chinese' even in a lighter vein, we delegitimize the very existence
of tribals in their own country.
2. Tribal luomen are considered physically strong and sturtly. At the
same time they are seen as docile and obedient to their patrons.
These rare qualities are seen as making them suitable
for becoming
good domestic workers. This widely accepted belief has contributed
to creating a huge demand for tribal domestic workers in all major
cities leadii,tg to large scale traffcking of women from tribal areas
to urban areas. It can be argued that this is a positive quality seen
by others in tribal women and that tribal v)omen are employed
because of this stereotype. However this belief also essentialises the.
tribal women by relating them to one low prestige, low income jobs.
14
3. Women have been seen as the cultural emblems of their Concept of Difference
and Ineqality in Tlibal
community.(Chaudhuri Maitrayee in Sharma and Oommen(2000)pp
Cont€xt
118). Tribal women are seen as promiscuous. Women body is seen as
a site for cultural domination in a patriarchal society. Not surprisingly
then, men have seen the 'Other's women as being sexually
promisctrous and their own women as being virtuous and modest.

4. Popr ar representdtions infilm and plays almost always show tribes

in negative or comic roles. They are portrayed as irrational ; the
out,sider (the hero or heroine) is often captured by the trihes in the
forest and is going to be killed and very next instant becomes
sacred and holy due to completely unrelated silly occurrence which
convinces the simple minded tribes); Tribes are depicted as wearing
minimgl clothes and interested rnainly in drinking and dancing.
5. Everyday language (phrases and usages) reinforce stereory*pes. Often,
tribes and their supposed characteristics used as figures of speech to
indicate negative traits in the individuals. It is common to find in all
Indian languages phrases and trsages which compare negative traits
like foolishness, laziness, unhygienic habits and unkempt looks to
certain tribes. For example, "Why are you l.ooking dunb like a
.....(name of a tribe)? You smell like ..... name of a tribe)?

6. North eastern nxen and women are often not recruited for jobs that
have public profile- hotel flanagement; modeling and airlines are
some examples. A lack of "Indian Looks" is cited as the reason.
Dovai, Nikita(2009: 80)
The examples that are found in every day sittrations reflect the nature of
tribal and non tribal interaction in civil societv.

CheckYour Progress III

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Give an example from your observation ofeveryday life how differences
in human beings result in differential treatment and discrimination.

1.6 LET US SUM UP

Tribal communities in India are in many ways culturally and socially different
fiom others. The degree and areas in which these differences are manifested
differ from tribe to tribe and from region to region. The reason is that the
tribes are not one homogeneous contmunity as was thought of earlier. Also
they are part ofthe dynamic social and cultural process that takes places in
every society.

However these characteristics of tribes must not be seen by others as a end

of differences between tribes and non tribes. The differences are real and l5
Tribal Identity and tangible. Non-tribes people often wonder why the tribes do not join the
Ethricity-I
"mainstrearn" especially since they are given a lot ofprivileges like reservations,
special grants etc. They do not often realize that what they demand is the
assimilation of tribal population into the majority population. The ,.mainstream',
imagination of India often is narrow. According to them, the social and culflrral
criteria for an Indian is very much their own culhre and social characteristics.
In realif' they view only themselves and people like them, to be the mainstream.
Therefore they want the tribes tQ_be like themselves. This is not acceptable
to the many tribos who want to maintain their distinct culture and lifestyle.

The Constitution promises Equality of status and of opportunity(preamble of

the Indian Constitution).The goverriment has passed a number of legislations
and formulated progmmmes to move towards equality: How is it only when
social perceptions undergo a change that the goal of equality of all will be
closer. The so called mainstream Indians will have to better understand the
much quoted but not well understood words '.unity in diversity,, if they want
a better India.

Bdteille proposed a distinction between harmonic system (in which society

is divided into groups that are hierarchically placed and the ordering is
considered as appropriate) and disharmonic systems (itt which there is no
consistency between the order in which groups dre arranged and the
natural scheme of things i.e., there is a discrepancy between.the existential
and normative orders). He explained the disharmonic system in terms of
one which upholds equality as an ideal but practices inequality.

I.7 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

B6tei1le, Andre, 1969, 'Introduction', in Social Inequali{y, ed. Andre
B6teille, Penguin Books, England

B6teille, Andre, 1917, Inequality Among Men, Basic Blackwell, Oxford

B6teille, Andre, 1983, The ldea of Natural Inequality and Other Essays,
Ox lord Universiry Press. Delhi

Behera, Deepak Kumar and Pfeffer Georg(ed) (2005), Contemporary

Society: Tribal Study Volume Six Tribal Situation in India, Concept
publishing house, New Delhi

Gupta, Dipankar, 1996, Hierarchy and Difference; An Introduction in

Gupta, Dipankar (ed) Social Stratficatiott. Oxford University press,
New Delhi.

Gupta, Dipankar,2004, 'Social Stratification', in Handbook of Indian

Sociology, ed. Veena Das, Oxford University press, New Delhi '

Haralambos, M. (with R. M. Heald), 1980, Sociologg,: Themes and

Perspectives, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
'Georg
Pfeffer, and Deepak Kumar Behera (1997), Contemporary
Society; Tribal Studies, Vol. Two Development issues Transition and.
Change, Concept publications, New Delhi

16
/
ft
I Oommen, T.K. (2004), Nation, civil society and Social Movemeits,
Essays in Political Sociologt, Sage publications, Delhi.
Concept of DilTerence
and Ineqality in Tlibal
Context
a Turner, Bryan (1986)

a Equality, Tavistock, L.ondo4. Equality, Tavistock, London.

o Novai, Nikita (2009), Ortental Soliloquies in The Week, Vol 28 Nol
23 November 2009
o - Mandelbaum, David C,if SSS reprint), Society in India, Pop:ular
Prakashan, Bombay.

t'7
 UNIT 2 ETHNIC RELATION, CONFLICT
AND CHANGE
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2. The concep of Ethnicity

2.3 Ethnic Relations in India: Tribal Context

2.4 Theoretical Perspectives in Ethnic Conflicts
2.5 Tribal Conflicts in India: Causes and Effects
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.'/ Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTTVES
After studying the unit you should be able to:
o know about the concept of ethnicity;
o understand the dynamics ofethnic relations; and
o discuss the causes ofethnic conflicts in tribal areas.

2.I INTRODUCTION
The concept 'Ethnicity' is often used in relation to tribal problems and
the tribal
siftlation. Conflicts between tribes and non-tribes are explained by saying
that
they are ethnic problems. It is therefore very necessary that the meaniig of
ethnicity and its applications be understood. Then we wirl apply it to the tJbal
situation in India and draw insights from ii.
Some times the word is used in a derogatory sense_ it is as if the
tribes have
remained backward in their thinking and remained strongly attached to
their
prirnordial ties while the others have moved on ro becomeiodem Indians and
even global citizens. Thus, according to this view, the lack ofrnodem consciousness
has left the tribes backward and there lies the main cause for tribal problems.
People of the so called mainstream often shake their heads and blame
the tribes
when they hear about violence in tribal dominated area.

2.2 THE CONCEPT OF ETHNICITY

The word 'ethnic' comes liom the Greek word ,ethnos, meaning ,.nation,,. However
it does not mean a political community but people ofcorlnon descent or kinship.
Later the word entered the Latin vocabulary as ethnicus which meant outsider
and somebody who did belong to the majority cornmr-rnity. (Comell and
Harhnann-
2007; 16)
Max weber defined ethnic groups as "that entefiains a subjective belief in their
common descent because ofsirnilarities ofphysical type or of customs or both.
or because of memories of colonization and migration'r According to weber the
main characteristics of"ethnioity" ar.,e (1) ii is based on the real and assumed
l8 common descent and blood ties (2) people's belief in the common descent makes
 it irrelevant whether it is real or
false 131 The commonality of the
maybe any one of crireria- nhysical ethnic people Ethnic Relation. Conflict
and (4)the common belief produces
aprr*".;;;;;;;;',nir,on.ul experiences, 8-od Change
strong;"rd;;;;
a *e people.
.{nthony Smith describes an .,ethnic ..a
community,,as named human population
nith a myth of common ancestry,
strarea memories,
A.-ents; a link
homelana; unA u rn.ur*. ""J""i*.r
rvith a historic territory or
oi*fia*,r,,,
Ethnicity and Nationalism in India
Ethnicity and Nationalism are oft31
interchangeably used. yet they
differartly here' penguin dictionary are seen
orsociorogy dehes fruiol}ir. *
,an
ideology
:ffi l"lil::iffi ',#::ff ",fll'*nn."'-;;;h;;;*,r",11,.1u,runguug'e,
Nffi ;;ilffi;;,ffiil:;ffiT.;i;#i,:';lffJ:Hilt::*",ffi#*i
that they govem themselves. Etb]rici'
a"r.rt., rt * t *. r**""4
. voluntarily or involuntarilv the a"murra "",nir*rlri"J
with other ethnic communities within
fo, ina.p""Ol", *"h""a and co_exist
a ,ingt" ,r.lte"
lndian Nationalist even before Independence
has always insisted that the basis
our Nationalism is the Indian civilifu"" of
;;;;;hr"l'inguistic or religious
community. Ir was therefore different "",
from the'il;;#;.I
whose basis was the homoseneous of Nationalism
commrurity. The ;ivili;t;n model
would accommodate the e-normous of nation
diversityof thri"Ji""'r"uu-"ortinent.
believed that.,Indian civilization It is
h". ."ol;.1 dr";iil*r"Jug", p.oviding
network ofinstifiitions and ideologies a
which oftbr unif,, in pfr"i.ufiry
lSingi, 1f elOl.
Tribal populations are oart ofthe
diversity oflndia. But it was recognized
was veryunique and u ain i.oiffiuJil*us that
.tl',|a] :ltuati:n
thrs n?eded to deat with
rssues. As you woutd have
(
already read
1) Isolationisr and (2) Assimilatrorust.
the'ri;;;;;;i; *" approaches

The isorationist app'oarh bv

v..ri.r Elwin and others advocated that the
sho'ld be isolated from the mainstream tribes
poputation and etrorts irade
contact of tribes and the outsiders. to restrict the
rrrir #"rrap..**. iiuui io"ntrty una
way of lite. on the orher hana. m"i.
the assimilatrb;[r;;il;h;;oured
and Thak'kar Baba advocated by churye
the assimiraring
rhe mainstream.
anpvay part"i,r'.'r.iu.r'ri"
They argued that most tribes were
oflndia culnrally and socially,
3-1 9.:
advocated
should be made part of the r",ii."
that the mainstream and tribes
*"irrt *il
#uJu_au.,, Inoa*t
.un l;u',, t;; ;h other cultures,
fi :fl :tJ:1il:'*:1lY'?ii1f ;ff :':irr;;ffi;''#i"-r'"'"*"g'
'"i:-Ti:T:?."il.':il;'J:j"J,fr:i:
:t*;'l1+
j{:i"$i#'L:[ffi
approaches were non tribes
who had .-pE.i."."J,.u",ft;;ffil:';:ril:.

to
Tribal Identitv and
Ethnicity-l t1 ETHNIC RELATIONS IN INDIA: TRIBAL
CONTEXT
Milton Yinger (i997) gives a framework to understand ethnicity and its impacr
on society. He says that there are at least four major types of multiethnic societies
in the contemporary world:

o A society built out of formally equal ethnic groups.

r A society with a major national cultural group and other ethnic commuhities
separated by highly permeable borurdaries.

. Ons or more ethnic groups can be strongly oriented toward an outside

society.

o One or more ethnic groups disadvantaged within the larger society.

These models are typologies and no society can completely fit the model. But
these typologies help us to understand that ethnic relations are not only about
cultural differences but there are factors like power, outside orientation that influence
the ethnic relations.

There are two broad possibilities which take place when two or more ethnic
communities live in proximity.

1. Assimilation- a process of boundary reduction that can occur when members

of two or more societies, ethnic groups, or smaller groups meet. At the end
of the process if it
is successflll, ther.e is no major social and cultural
differences between the communities.

2. Dissimilation a process
whereby intra societal differences are maintained
and created around sub-cultural groups.

Assimilation and Dissimilation are continuous processes. They are reversible also.
There are rare cases of complete assimilation and complete dissimilation. Often
after assimilation there exist traces ofthe commrurity's earlier social and cultural
pracdces.

Yinger gives twenty variables that affect the extent and speed of assimilation of
an ethnic group which means that the presence or absence ofthese variables will
increase or reduce the rate of assimilation and dissimilation.

Assimilative influences Mixed or neutral Dissimilative infl uences

influence

1. Small group (relative to X Large groups

population)
to1a1

2. Residentially scatlered X Residentially concentrated

3. Long term residents X Short term residents (high
(low proportion of new proportion of new comers)
comers)

4. Retum to homeland X Retum to homeland easy and

difficult and inflequent liequent
5. Speak the majority language X Speak different language

6. Share the majority religion X Different religion

20
 Ethnic Relation. Conllict
- Same race as majoriry or X Different lace and Change
doninanr group

i Entered voluntarily X Entered by conquest or lorced

migration

9. Come fiom society culturally X Come from society culturally

similar to the present societj similar to the present society

10. Repelled by political and X Attmcted by political and

economic development in economic development here
homeland

11. Diverse in class and X Homogeneous in class and

occupation occupation

12. High average education X Low average education

13. Experience little x Experience much discrimination

discrimination

14. Targets of little prejudice X Targets of much prejudice

15. Residents in open society X Residents in closed society

16. Unequal sex ratio X Equal sex ratio

17. Live in expanding economY X Static or contracting economy

18. Strong outside theats x Weak outside threats to society

to society

19. Little shared memories of X Vivid memories ol former

former statehood - statehood
historical and./or mythical

20. Full legal and political X Limited or no status as citizens

status as citizens

Source: Milton Yinger (1997; 53-54)

These variables are useful in understanding the tribal relation with others in India.
However, some of the variables are not relevant (Point 4, i0' 1G 18 and 20).
These points are more relevant for an immigrant society like USA than India
lndian tribes are, in majority of the cases, the older, ifnot the oldest cornmunities
ofa place. Some tribes have been forcibly displaced either for forced labour or
due to developmental projects; in which case the tribes have been uprooted from
ttreir original dwelling places.

2.4 THEORETICAL PERSPECTT\,'ES IN ETHNIC

CONFLICTS
Ethnic conflicts have taken place throughout the world. Social scientists have
identified different causes for the occurrence of ethnic conflicts'

Horowitz (1998) has given us ten explanations which more or less coverc all the
theoretical perceptive on ethnic conflicts:

1. Ethnicif is due to primordial affiliation which is described as being part of

a tradition and hence being indispensable for most communities. The self
consciousness of the community members gives it unity, but at the same time 21
 Tribal Ideltity and
draws boundaries with other communities. Thus, traditional notions
Ethnicity-I of who
we are and who others are lead to conflicts.

Ancient hatreds produce conflicts. According to this explanation also, conflicts

are the result oflong standing hatred between commrurities. These
hatreds
become part of the collective memory of the community members and
shorv
itself at different situations.

3. Ethnic clash is a cultural clash. Different communities have different value

systems. whart is sacred to one ii profane to the other. These different value
systems produce conflicts. Religious conflicts can be a value cUnflict.

Modemization brings about ethnic conflict. Modem values of equality, liberty

and ffatemity are incompatible with traditional values. Traditional societies
which experience modemization are often ill equipped to deal with changes
brought by it. For example, open competition foi ..rour.", which were
earlier marked for a particular section can lead to conflict. Competition
for
the political positions can lead to conflict between different ethnic groups.

5. Ethnic conflict is caused lue to the economic competition betveen

ethnicaliy
differentiated segments ofthe working class or ethnicany differentiated
traders
and customers. The son of the soil movements which are demanding
that
locals get preference in jobs while ,outsiders' entry to jobs are regulated,
is
an example of this type ofconflict.

6. Ethnic networks are used to exchange goods and services in societies

where
there are often cheating in the exchanges. Ethnic affiliations
may prevent
individuals from cheating their own extended kinsmen. This sihration
creates
a polarized society where two or more groups restrict economic
interaction
to their own ethnic group.

l. The reduction in transaction costs make it cheaper for people

to interact with
their own kinsmen while restricting the interaction with others.
But sometimes
there is 'accident' in the processes when groups interact. This
accident leads
to conflicts befiieen communities.

8. According to some theorists, erite interests are the cause for ethnic
conflicts.
The 'elite entrepreneurs' make use oftheir ethnic affiliations
and cause ethnic
conflicts to serve their political and economic interests.

9. Theorists using rational behavior theory have given an innovative

approach
to study ethnic conflicts. They claim that conflict happens
in situations where
insecurity prevails. Each group is unsure ofhow the other group
will behave
and this feeling ofuncertainty causes conflicts. In a
sihration of limited
information and uncertainty communities have to choose the best
available
action; at times it is conflict with other commrurities.

10' Ethnic conflicts are based on the need ror suwival ofttre groups.
The soridarity
the groups develop helps the group to cooperate with other members.
it
helps the groups to survive and at times the struggle for
survival leads to
conflict. These conflicts help the better organized to suruive at the cost
of
others.

These ten principles give us a wide range ofperspective on ethnic

conflicts which
are given below: The historical explanations (No.l and No.2),
Sociological
22 explanations Qrlo.3 and No.4), the economic and rationality based
explanaiions
(1.io.5, No.6 and No.7), elite based explanations (No.8), Rational choice theory Ethnic Relation, Confl ict
erplanation (No.9) and evolutionary based explanation QlIo.10) and Change

\'lichael Brown (1997) reviews the various causes identified for ethnic conflicts.
t I ) Systemic explanations which identifies close proximiqr, weak regional, national
and international authorities and the lack ofsecurity as major reasors. Communities
are often caught in a 'lsecurity dilemma" when they resort to mobilization and
conflict (2) Domestic explanations which identifies the causes as lack ofeffectiveness
of the state in addressing the demands of the communities, the impact ofnationalism
on inter-ethnic relations, and the impact of democratization, and (3) Perpehral
explanations that focus on false history that communities have about themselves
and others.

CheckYour Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1 ) Describe any one ofthe explanations for ethnic conflict.

2.5 TRIBAL CONFLICTS IN INDIA: CAUSES

AND EFFECTS
According to Sahni, tribal conflicts are ofthree types:

1. Tribal conflicts with other tribal communities,

2. Tribal conflicts with non-tribes, and

3. Tribal conflicts with state agencies including police and mtlitary.

However this is not a clear classification, as the situation on the ground is complex.
Often the conflicting parties involve an overl or covert alliance between two or
more parties against others. The alliances are between tribes and non tribes or
between tribes. It is also alleged that state agencies are also covertly aiding one
group against others. ln other situations it is the actions ofthe non-fibal commrmity
that have pushed tribes into conflict.

A. The major issues of tribal and non tribal conflict have treen
i) Land issues

Tribes in India have come in contact with odtsiders tkoughout history However
it was during the colonial period that the contact became common resulting in
several conflicts Tribal land has been often communally owned rather than
individually owned. However under the colonial law land had to be owned
indMdually. Tribal land was alienated and unforhrnately the process has continued
even after lndia became independent. 23
Tribal Identity and
Ethnicitv-I
ii) Settling of Outsiders on Tribal Land

Outsiders (Non tribes) have increasingly settled in tribal areas. The main reasons
for this are the following (i) tribal land is rich in natural resources (ii) Mining and
development activities have increased j ob opportunities (iii) increase population
and pressure on land, and (iv) the perception that tribes are gullible and can be
exploited.

In many states like Jharkhand and Tripura the tribes have become a minority
because ofthe influx of migrants. Outsiders have gained enough political and
social power to marginalize the tribes. This has built up resentment and hatred in
the tribes towards the outsiders. The Outsiders called the dr'hzs in the local dialect
is seen by the tribes as the main cause for their impoverishment and their
problems. Myron Weiner in Sons of the Soil, Migration and Ethnic Conflict
in India gives us an idea of tribal perception of the tribal themselves on the
outsiders. They feel that the outsiders are not part of their community and are
exploiting them.

There have been numerous attempts to deal with the problem ofoutsiders. One
of the major demands of the Assam movement was to identify the foreigners and
prevent them from becoming citizens illegally. However these measures have not
been successful because of the problems in identifling foreigners (Frontline
November 6 1992).

iii) Forced Migration of Tribes for Labour

The colonial govemment allowed plantation owners to forcibly move tribal

communities from their native lands to different parts of country where cheap
labour was needed. The British left 60 years ago but the tribal communities have
remained. The "local population continues to be indifferent ifnot hostile to these
communities. Politically these communities are rnarginalized and remained outsiders".
"The 'tea tribes'ofAssam is an example of tribal communitibs marginalized after
being forced to migrate fiom central India.

iv) Development Projects and Special Economic Zones

It is estimated that millions ofpeople have been displaced due to development

projects after lndependence. Tle Planning Commission in one of its reports put
the number of displaced people at 21.3 million among which 8.54 million which
is about 40 percent were tribals. Only 2.1 million have been reported to be
rehabilitated and the remaining 6.4 million are still to be rehabilitated.

The development projects might have helped the nation to progress, but it has
been at the cost of the tribes. The tribal populations were asked to move from
the native lands for greater common good but they never benefitted.

Tribes are increasingly being negatively affected by the govemments to initiate

Special Economic Zones which it claims will boost the economic growth of the
country. Here again, farmer lands and tribal lands are being taken away using the
Land Acquisition laws.

Amita Baviskar (1995) asserts that the conflict between the state and.the tribes
are not only a right to livelihood but is also a clash of cultures. A culture which
sees land and environment as assets to be exploited for development and the
hibal culture that has leamt to live with nature harmoniouslv.
24
 \.) The Rise of Modern Nation States of India, pakistan and Bangladesh Ethnic Relation, Conflict
and Change
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are three nation states bom ofBritish
India. The
division ofcolonial India into two countries was based on the criterion ofreligion-
rhe Muslim majority regions became pakistan. In 1971, pakistan
itself was divided
and a new nation emerged - Bangladesh.

The boundaries ofthese nations have divided many ettxric communities and placed
them'nder different nation states. Members ofthese communities feel strongly
that all their members should live together under one nation state. For
example
the Nagas are forurd in rndia and Buma. one of the demands of Naga
separatists
is that all Nagas unite'nder one state. Similar demands have been
made bv other
separatists groups also.

vi) States Reorganization and Federalism in India

A Federal system of govemance is a way of managing India, a vast country
with
its diversities. It is also a strategy to manage regional aspirations some
which in
the early days after independence had separatisi tendencies. The main principie
for awarding statehood is the linguistic basis- common language. The
Govemment
of India, reorganized Assam and created Nagaland ( 1963), Meghala ya (1g:l2),
Mizoram (J.T. in 1972 and full-fledged statehood in f OSl ana Illanrpur
iUZZj.
But often many areas in these regions are inhabited by more than one group
which
causes problems. The tribal areas are even more pluralistic with
a number of
communities' co-habiting in the same area. It is impossible to divide regions
ac.cording to one community and grant statehood. For example,
in Manipri, the
hills are dominated by the Nagas and the plains by Meiteis. The Nagas want
to
integrate their areas to the state of Nagaland. But the division of the
Manipur will
anger the people of the plains and some smaller non-Naga communities
of the
hills. Similarly, the Santals are divided between the states olorissa. Madhva
Pradesh, B-engal and Chattisgarh. In such situation the state official
language and
medium ofinstuction in schools are in non-tibal ranguage leading to
alienaiion of
hibes.

The complex situation cannot be solved easy as granting of statehood

to
the dominant often creates more problems than it addresses. The example
of
division ofthe State ofAssam into smaller states did not solve all problems
ofthat
region.

vii) Administrative Arrangements, Inefficiency and Insensitivity

Tribal communities during the British rule were given considerable fieedom
to
manage their own affairs. The autonomy given to these areas allowed
the British
to claim these areas as,being their contror without using their administrative
and military resources. 'nder

Separatists in North-East often justify their demand for a separate nation

state by
claiming that the accession ofihe tribal areas was not legai and properly
done.
The consent ofthe people was not taken when it was determined
whether these
areas shouldjoin rhe Indian unjon.

Administrative inefficiency and insensitivity have contrib'ted to the alienation

of
the tribal people. The use of armed forces to quell militancy has resulted
in the
25
 Tribal ld€ntity and
complaints of human rights violations (fiontline March 25 April 7, j995).The
Ethnicity-I
Special Forces Act which gives the security forces unlimited powers to search
houses and anest suspects is particularly unpopular in the North_East.

viii) Lack of Economic Development

The hibal areas have been exploited as they are rich in natural resources. However,
the tribal people and the regions remain backward. According to the planning
Commission over 80 percent of the total workers, both rural and urban, are
engaged in primary sector, ofwhom 45 percent are cultivators and 37 percent
are agricultural labourers. The corresponding figures for all workers are 31.65
percent cultivators and 45 percent agriculhual labourers. This indicates that STs
are essentially dependent on agriculture. They have not largely benefited from the
gro$'th ofthe service secror especially the banking and IT sectors.

Similarly the incidence of poverty in STs is 45.3 percent in rural areas and 24.1
percent in urban areas compared to the figres of25.4 percent and 13.7 percent
for total population (Tribal Committee Upon, 2014). The Human Development
Index for STs is estimated at 0.270 which is lower than HDI of SCs and general
population. Similarly the Hutran Poverty Index is estimated at 47.79 which are
higher than the SCs and general population (UNDp, India, 2007).

ix) Plurality of Militant Groups

Many militant groups claiming to represent these two communities were

fighting among themselves for a long time. The major overt objective of these
groups is to gain territory exclusively for their community by driving out the
'outsiders'' covertly some ofthese groups are engaged in llregal activities like
extortion, kidnapping, smuggling and gun running. These activities are major
sowce ofrevenue for these.groups. They fund the political activities ofthe group
which helps it gain legitimacy. Given that there is a lot of money to be obtained
from these activities it is not uncommon to find conflicts between groups that
represent the same community. The plurality ofthe groups is itself a cause of
major troubles.

Government negotiations with one group are often seen as betrayal by the
other groups and often the agreements are not accepted. Often clashes
befween groups takes place which costs lives. Various factions of NSCN
fought over NSCN (IM) peace talks with the govemment (Frontline Jtty 30,
r993).

However, the plurality of militant groups has not prevented many of them from
cooperating with each other on common issues (Frontline September 9 1994).
Tripura All Tripura Tiger Force (ATTF) is an example of the same.

x) Tribal and Forest Rights

Another major issue that creates problems is the issue oftribal access to forests.
Tribal dependence on forest and food is still very high. Forests are largely under
the control of the Forest department which restricts access to the forest under the
guise ofprotecting the forests. According to Forest Suwey oflndia, 2011, almost
60 percent ofthe forest over ofthe counfry in found in tribal areas namely, in the
188 tribal districts of the country. About 4.3 million people mostly tribes continue
26 to inhabit in the forest areas designated as National parks and protected areas.
xi) Covert Support from External Agencies and Government Ethnic Relation, Confl ict
and Change
\4any groups receive fi.mding and training from neighbouring countries and their
secret services. It is alleged that China used to aid the NSCN and the Pakistani
secret services the ISI helps militant groups (Frontline, February 11, 1994).
Bangladesh has been either indifferent or unable to control the use of its land as
safe sanctuaries for various militant groups. The support ofthese countries has
ensured the sustainability ofthe militant groups especially when Indian secr.uity
forces have acted against them.

xii) The Role of the Ruling Parties in Centre and National Level Politics

The National parties in the Centre have not been free from blame. Often the
govemments in the Centre have used their power to further their parfy interests
at the cost of creating instability in the States. Elected goverffnents are destabilized
and puppet leaders installed (Frontline, March 22, 1996).It is not uncommon
to find that the leaders of tribal dominated parties switching sides after a change
of power in the Centre. These unpopular changes have made the central
govemment lose legitimacy in tribal dominated states.

xiii) Shortsighted Decisions and Policies

Govemments both at the state and central level have made shortsighted policy
decisions that have hurt the people ofthese states especially the tribes. Since
tribal voices are not adequately represented in the decision making bodies many
ofthese decisions have affected them adversely.

For instance in Orissa-The decision to grant permission to set up industries in

tribal dominated areas without proper consultation has been the major cause for
tribal unrest. Tribal population accounts for 22.21percent oftotal population.
73 percent of the tribes are estimated to be below the povefy line. Yet tdbal
peopie have resisted moves by the govemment and private entrepreneurs to set
up industries as their experience shows that they do not benefit at all while
losing their lands. One ofthe recent incidents happened in Jaipur Disirict where
the govemment is setting up an industrial complex. (Frontli.ne Vol 23, NO 2
January 28 - February 10 2006).

In Kerala - Large scale migrations have taken place from mainly central Kerala
to the districts of Waynad and Idukki. Many of the migrants have settled down
illegally on forest land. The number ofsuch migrants has now become large and
has become a powerful pressure group. Their major demand is that they be
given land rights. All major political parties support these demands. This has led
to clashes between the tribes and the settlers, who are backed by the police.
In 2003, the govemment decided to grant land rights to the seftlers in Wa1,nad.
It led to clashes between the tribes and the settlers and subsequently between
the tribes and police which left many dead.

ln 1975, the Kerala Legislature had unanimously enacted the Kerala Scheduled
Tribes (Restriction of Transfer of Lands and Restoration of Alienated Lands)
Act. The Legislations primary purpose is to restore alienated land to the tribes.
However, it was not notified till 1982 and tribes could not benefit from the
legislation. In 1982 the various ru1es under the Act was formulated and notified.
However the law was not implemented on the ground. A public litigation was
filed in the Kerala High Court in 1988. Again only three of the 8088 cases
t]
Tribal Identitv and were fina1ly restored and only 1201 case orders were passed. The High Coun
Ethnicitv-I
in 1993 ordered the govemment to dispose all pending cases within six months.
Again the govemment was not willing to act. The tribal land issue remains
unresolved.

In Manipur - The Central govemment has a ceasefire agreement with the

NSCN (IM). The NSCN (lM) demanded that the ceasefire be extended to
Naga inlabiting areas in Manipur also. The Center ordered the cease agreement
to be applicablc in Manipur also. This rnove by the Cenfral govemment enraged
tbe Manipr.rr Meiteis who saw it as a move to appease the Nagas at their costs.
Massive protests and violence followed. The assembly hall was bumed down
and houses of ministers attacked. The violence folced the Central govemment
to rethink. This time the Nagas v,rere angry that the Ceirtral govemment had
reneged on their decision. They enfbrced a blockade on the Valley and did not
allow the movement ofgoods. Though the blockade was eventually lifted it had
an adverse effect on the already strained relationship between the Meiteis and
the Nagas.

In.Chhattisgarh - Naxal groups inspired by Maoist thoughts are fighting the

govemment and the landed class. The main element in their strategy is the use
of violent rneans to attain their objectives. They are particularly active in the
states of Jharlihand, Chattisgarh, Orissa, Maharastra and Andhra Pradesh.
Increasingly the Naxal groups are recruiting ffom tribal communities who have
suffered land alienation and lack of development.

The State govemments in these states have had limited success in combating
the naxal problem. In Chhattisgarh, an organization called Salwa Judum has
been formed by a Member of Legislative Assembly (MLA) with the support of
the State govemment. It consists of volunteers (often paid as Special
Police Offrcers) mainly from tribal communities who are trained in guerrilla
warfare and then used against the Maoist. The strategy of using armed
civilians against Maoists has been criticized as delegating state responsibility to
private organization. More importantly, from the tribal community point of
view the Salwa Judum has divided communities and even families. Often
membem of the same comrnunities are pitted against each other. The resultant
violence has left many dead and many more displaced. Independent
observers have stated that the violence has had a negative impact on the
commrmities.

xiv) Cultural Hegemony of the so called N{ainstream

It is notjust the material deprivation that has caused conflicts between the tribal
and non-tribes. Often the mainstream culture identifies the national culhue with
their own culture values and liflestyles. Other cultures are sidelined or even
discriminated. In the national level the twice-bom Hindus inhabiting the Indo-
Gangetic plain, the mainstream, look upon the emergence ofperipheral cultural
nationalism with disapproval and disdain. (Oommen, T.K. 1986)

At the State level too, there are deliberate attempts to sideline the culture ofthe
minoriq/ linguistic groups. It often finds expression in the language policy and the
education policy of the State. Education and Langtage policy are emotional
issues and people are easily provoked. The division ofAssam into the smaller
states was in response to the demanJs that the culture of the non Assamese
28
Tribal communities was under threat.
Cultural Insensitivity is also seen when tribes are expected to move away fiom Ethnic Relation, Confl ict
their traditional lands for often inadequate compensation and even more andChange
importantly without understanding the role of the natre and their surrounding in
their culture. Amita Baviskar (1995) points out that for the tribal community the
land was central to their cultrue and it was difficult to imagine their lives without
the landscape.

xv) Tribal Religion and Conversion

Tribal religion was often anirnist and nature worship. But many have converted
to Christianity and many have been Hinduised. Some tribes have converted
to Islam. These new identities have often changed the tribal perception of
themselves and others. Conversion to Christianity has enabled greater access
to education and greater awareness about their situation. For example, the
many founders of Jharkhand movement were Christians. Their education and
exposure gave them the ability to articulate the demands of their communities
effectively.

However, in other times the identitiesexacerbated the conflict between

communities. In Orissa (2008) and in Gujarat (2002) religious identity played
an important role in qausing riots and conflicts.

xvi) Separatist and Secessionist Movements

The cultural alienation and lack of development in tribal areas has produced
numerous separatist and secessionist movements. Demands for a separate
Statehood and sometimes, a separate Nation, have been made by various tribal
groups. Nagaland , Meghayala, Maoram, Tripura, Arunchal Pradesh in the North
East, Jharkhand and Chattisgarh are states which have been formed to address
the demands of tribal movements.

The longest separatist movement is the Naga movement. In 1926, the Naga
Club submitted a memorandum to British demanding sovereignty. Nagaland
National Council QIINC) under the leadership ofAngami Zapn Phizo staned an
insurgency and demanded a sovereign Naga state. The Council held a
'referendum' in which it claimed that 99 per cent of the Naga people supported
independence for Nagaland. Phizo created an underground govemment called
the Naga Federal Govemment (NFG) and a Naga Federal Army (NFA). After
Phizo, the NSCN has split on tribal line into many factions- NSCN (Isaac-
Muviah) and NSCN (Khaplang). Negotiations with the Indian government are
held periodically to resolve the problems.

Check Your Progress III

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.

l) What are some of the causes for tribal conflicts in India?

29
'Iribal ldenti\' and
l.lthnicity-I
B. Tribal Conflicts - An Overview
Tribes have engaged in major conflicts that have taken place between the tribes
and non tribes and between tribal communities themselves.

Some of the ethnic conflicts that have taken place in the North-East are:

1. Bodo non Bodo conflict in Assarn,

2. Anti outsider movement in most states in Nofth-East and particularly in
Meghalaya and Assam,

3. Naga-Kuki clashes,

4. Kuki-Paitc Clashes. and

5. Tripura- Bengali clashes.

C. Naga Kuki Clashes

The two tribes Nagas and Kukis share common territory mainly in parts of
Manipur and Nagaland. A long struggle has taken place behveen the groups for
the control of these areas. The Kuki groups are demanding that the Kuki
dominated areas of Churachandpur, Senapati, Chandel and Tamenglong to be
recognized as Kuki land. This demand has been opposed by the major Naga
militant group, The National Socialist Council of Nagaland NSCN (lM). The
Kukis militant groups include the Kuki National Army (KNA). The conflict
escalated in 1992 when Kril<i militants asked the Nagas to leave Moreh, a town
near the Indo-Myanmar boundary. Moreh is a known center for smuggling and
distribution of heroin which comes in from Myanmar. Kuki militant groups control
the trade and have made major profits. The NSCN demanded .taxes' which
the Kuki group refused. They then demanded that Kuki leave these areas. The
clashes between the Naga-Kuki left numerous dead and many more displaced
(Frontlitn . Jnrttrurl l. 1993.1

D. Bodo - Non Bodo Clashes

Bodos are one of the largest tribes living in the plains of Assam. They dominate
the Kokrajhar and Bongaigoan districts. The Bodos are demanding a state for
themselves which will be craved out of Assam. The All Bodo Student Union
(ABSW) and later the National Democratic Front of Bodoland lead the agitation.
The agitation for Bodoland was starled in 1987 and became increasingly virulent
in 1988 and 1989. An accord known as the 'Bodo Accord' was signed in
February 1993, and the Bodo Volunteer Force (BVF), the armed wing of the
ABSU, laid down arms, paving the way for the establishment of the Bodoland
Autonomous Council (BAC). However, one section of the BVF rejected the
Accord and formed the Bodo Liberation Tiger Force (BLIF) (now known as
Bodo Liberation Tigers (BLI)) in 1996. This organisation remained active in the
disficts of Kokrijhar, Bongaigaon, Nalbari, Barpeta, Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang
and Dhemaji until its cease-fire agreement with the lndian govemment on March
29,2000. But even the accord could not be implemented. The territory under
the BAC could not be demarcated and its powers clearly defined (Frontline
January 26, 1996).
30
 Ethnic Relation, Conllict
Tripura Bengali Clashes and Assamese Bengali Clashes
and Change

,ligration liom North India and Bengal was constantly taking place. But after
he creation of Bangladesh the problem became very acute. Bangladesh has
after it became a separate nation. Economic
'een facing numerous cases
problems, frequent disasters and ethnic conflicts have made life difficult for the
people. There are large scale n-tigrations from the border areas ofBangladesh
to the North-East especially Assam and Tripura.

ln Tripura, the tribal population dropped from 64 percent in1874 to 29 percent

in 1971. The Bengali population became 68 percent of the population. Large
tracts of land were transferred from tribal hands to the migrants. Relations
between the communities deteriorated and a violent clash occurred in Mandia
leading to loss of lives and property (Singh B.P; 1987).

2.6 LET US SUM UP

Tribal issues and tribal conflicts are issues that are related to a wide variety of
social, political and cultural issues. Looking at these issues from a narrow
perspective- as a purely adminishative problem or a 1aw and order issue is
likely to confuse rather than clariff the dynamics of the problem. The problem
is related to the issues of Indian nationhood and distributive justice.

Modem India is rightly proud ofthe economic and technology progress it has
made after lndependence and especially in the last two decades' However the
condition of tribes is a blot on the record oflndia. Seeing the problem of tribes
as being purely an economic or administrative one is missing the point and
solutions from this point of view are not likely to succeed. The problem has
culhual and social dimensions. The govemment of India has acknowledged the
problem and is working out different ways to address the issues.

2.7 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Baviskar, Amita (1995), In the Belly of the River, oxford university press, Delhi.

Brown, Michael (1997) in Guiberman, Montsenat and John Rex, The Ethnicity
Reader, Nationalism, Multiculflralism and Migration. Polity press, Cambridge.

Comell, Stephen Ellicott and Douglas Hartmann (2007), Ethnicity and race:
making identities in a changing world, Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of Sage
Publication, Newbury Park.

Deb, Bimal(ed) (2006) Ethnic issues, secularism and conflict resolution in North
East, concept publishing house, New Delhi.

Horowitz, Donald L (1998). Structure and Strategy in Ethnic Conflict. Papet

prepared for the Annual World Bank Conference on Development Economics,
Washinglon, D.C., April 20-2I, 1998.

Intemet sites

Muni, S.D., Ethnic conflict, federalism, and democracy in India, http://

wwwunu.edu/r.rnupress/unupbooks/uu12ee/uu12eeOj.hhn#s.d.%20muni accesses
31
on 01/09/10
 Tribal Identity and
Oommen, T. K., (1986), Insiders and Outsiders; primordial Collectivism and
Ethnicity-I
Cultural Pluralism in Nafion-Building, Intemational Sociology; l; 53

Priyadanhini susmita(2006),Ethnicity, Ethnic conflict and conflict resolution in

North East, Deb in Bimal (ed) (2006) Ethaic issues, secularism and conflict
resolution in North East, concept publishing house, New Delhi.

Singh, B.P.(1987), Northeast India; Demography , Culture and Identity crisis.

Modem Asian Studies, Vo1.2l No.2

Sahni, Ajai, Survey of Conflicts & Resolution in India's Northeast htto:/.

accesses on
01/09t10

vR.Krishna,Date:1710612003uw:http://www.thehindu.com/2003106117/stoies/
2003061700061000.hfin

Weiner, Myron, 1978. Sons of the Soil, Migrations and Ethnic Conflict in India
Princeton, Princeton University Press.

Yinger, Milton (1997), Ethnicity; Source of strength? Source of Conflict?

Rawat Publication, New Delhi.

http:iiwww.telegra.phindia.com/ t 0606 27 /asplopnion/story_640201 1 .asp

Journals and magazines

Frontline January 26, 1996

Frontline Dec 15, 1995

Frontline January 28- February 10 2006.

32
UII{IT 3 TRIBAL IDENTITY IN THE
MODERN WORLD
Structure
3.0 Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Identity and Identities - Some Important Characteristics

3 ,3 Tribal Identity Crises and the Modern World

3.4 Tribal Reaction to Loss of Identity and Change
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit you should be able to:
o know what are identities and its relevance;
o know the difference between identity formation in the modem world and
traditional world;
o know the issues important for tribal identity; and
r understand the consequences of tribal identity,

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In simple words, identity is how we see ourselves and the social environment
around us. It determines how we look at important events in our life, how we
attach meaning to them and how we react to then.

The loss of identity is considered as a major problem confronting the tribal

communities and for that rnatter all indigenous communities in the modern
world. The loss is seen as a shattering of the tribal world view without any
modern world view to replace it. Along with the rapid alienation from their
natural resources, the loss of community identity is seen as the main cause of
tribal problems. It is also being recognized that the tribal world view is not
backward and it need not evolve naturally into a modern world.

In this unit, we attempt to understand the concept of identity, tribal identity

and the reasons why there is an erosion of traditional tribal identity in the
modem world and its consequences.

3.2 IDENTITYAND IDENTITIES _ SOME

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC S

"Identity" is a concept which occurs in a number of different academic

disciplines including, particularly, psychology, social anthropology, sociology
and political science. (Rex in Goulbourne (ed.);2001:232). Identity can be
J-)
Tribal Identity and seen at different levels-individual identity, group identity, comnuniry identitv.
Ethnicitv-I
Secondly there can be types of identities political identities, social identities
and professional identities.

I) Levels of ldentity
A. Individual Identity
Individual identity emerges out ofthe unique experiences that the individual
has in her life and her response to it. Individual identity is the product ofboth.
how an individual views himself and how he is viewed by others. Individual
experiences are unique and consequently individual identity is also unique.
That is why social workers remind themselves often that every client is rurique.
Ilowever, human beings are social by nature. They live in groups and
communities and not in isolation from each other. This condition requires that
individuals cooperate and share with one another. The level ofdependence of
the human beings especially at their young age is very high. They are taught
to be members of communities and this lifeJong process is called socialization.
Hence, both these aspects are important for the individual ideniity; the unique
aspects ofthe person and those aspects that are common with others in the
community. Thus, individual identity differentiates an individual from others as
well as integrates to others.
Eriksson, the psychoanalyst who made seminal contribution towards
understanding the concept described identity as "a subjective sense as well as
an observable quality of personal sameness and continuity, paired with some
belief in the sameness and continuity of some shared world image". Eriksson
saw childhood and adolescence as period which is crucial to the formation of
the individual's identity. It is during this period that the identity foms through
incorporation ofspecific objects ofidentification and subsequent mastering of
tasks in later life (Rex, ibid). Thus, the basic world view is formed in the early
stage of an individual's life, after which the individual that seeks further
understanding of the world through that world view.

As mentioned earlier, an individual identity is fonned and expressed socially;

in relation to others in society. Typicatly an individual interacts most of the
time with his family, and then later on with his peer groups, school mates and
ltiends. These interactions have a significant influence on his identiry Sociologist
GH. Mead differentiated 'the significant others' and the 'generalized others'
in tlre process ofthe energence ofthe individual's identity. The significant
others are the child's parents while the generalized others are the community
at large. Sirnilarly the'looking glass sell ofC.H. Cooley describes the evolution
of an individual's personality as 'bcing as product of his perception, the
perception of others and his perceptior.r of the others perception.

B. Community identity
Individual identity and group identity are int'luer.rced by their community identity.
Corrmunity values and culture play an important role ir.r detennining group's
values and belief. It is the community at higher level (nation or ethnic group)
that deterrnine upto a large extent the value orientation of the family.

At the community level, history has an important role to play in the formation
of identities. It is a form of collective memory. Collective memory is the
34 foundation of self identity. In pre-modern societies, history was recorded irr
 Tribal Identity irl the
fie form of m1ths, folklore and songs which were ffansmitted from generation ModernWorld
ro generation through the word of mouth. Modern societies have written
histories and often claimed that to be scientific and objective. Nevertheless
history writing, in al1 forms, is to vary degrees, an exercise in selective and
partisan understanding of the past. It is very much what and how people or
the elite want to remember about themselves and what they want to forget.

IL Some Salient Features of Identities

i) Stable and Changing
While social identities are important because they are fairly stable, it is also
rrue that they change over time. No identity remains fixed when there are
major changes happening inside the individual, community and in the wider
society.

Bhargava (1999; 5) says that "to have an identiry is to recognize the presence
of something stable in the midst of change and diversity. It is to be located
somewhere, to possess a tangible sense of being at home in the world. More
unportantly, this sense of being anchored obtains from identifoing with something
else that, on the face of it, appears different, but is as same as me".

ii) Identities are Products of Imposition as well as Self-created

Many identities are often given- ascribed. The individual or community has no
choice in determining these types of identities and is bound to it for ever.
Often such identities are psychologicaliy and socially oppressive in nature.
There is social and state coercion in maintaining status quo in these identities.
The power matrix of the society compels communities and individuals to
retain their identity even against their wiil. The dalit identity in traditional
India is an example.

However in other situations when historical and social conditions a11ow,

identities change. Thus, in these conditions, identities are not simply given -
they are made by the conscious efforts of the people. State Action, social
movements and reform movements are some of the means used to change
social identities.

iii) Voluntary Change in IdentitY

Communities and individuals can change their identities on their own volition.
Often these decisions are made after evaluating the pros and cons of the
existing conditions. For example, individuals and families may clunge their
religion through conversion to another religion. Families may migrate to another
country get its citizenship and thereby change their nationality.
iv) Involuntary Change in Identity

Sometimes, tlese changes may be involuntary or even be forced' A community

is cor,rquered and made slaves. When slavery was practiced it was common
for conquered people to make captives and sold them in slave markets'
Similarly during ethnic cleansing people are driven out of their homelands and
become refugees in other country

Even seemingly permanent identity may change when other identity is adopted
or forced to other community. Caste membership is by birth but there have
been numerous instances where castes Sanslritized fot upward mobility At
times these attempts were successfui. 35
 Tribal ldentity and
Ethnicify-I Similarly there has been fusion and fission taking place
in the caste systerr
leading to caste groups attaining new statues. Maiielbaum (
1998; 500_516)
gives numerous instances where separate
"o_i
"urr", usuallyiakes
subsequently are seen as one caste. The fusion ofcastes
,";;**;
place
in democratic societies to increase caste membership
and improve bargaining
power with the state.

v) Multiple Identities
Another importa t aspect of identity is that every individual
has multiple
identities. The reason is that an individual is a member
of many communities
each of which describe in one particular way. Sometimes
multipli memberships
can create tension in the person if the value orientations
of the communities
are contradictory. For example. belonging to an
atheistic political party and
having religious beliels may cause tension in the individuai.
It may not be so,
if he is a marginal member in both or one of these comrnunities.
There are latent and manifest identities. Manifest identities
are open and the
individual is conscious about those ide'tities. Latent identities
are unknown to
the individual or may not be given much significa:rce.
In some situations, these
latent identities emerge. For example, Indians who go
abroad suddenly have
an intense feeling of,Indianess, which they felt in
Ind]a. Hence, the
and significance of identities are situationai. "n,..g.n..
vi) Identifiers and Markers
Identity tends to crystallize around symbols or cues (Horowi
tz; 1975; 120).
They can be external and/or internal markers. Markers
are symbols and
values which distinguish communities from one other
They can be extemal
and tangible; body, dress, language, worship systems.
It can be intemal and
intangible. beliefs. values, erc.

vii) Identity Crises and Loss of Identity

The change in conditions within the community or
outside it may lead to an
identity crises and loss of identify. Social identitie, ,/osl,. ,.....to
cun b" lose
one identity is to be disposed ofone,s bearing and
the ability to see where
ole stands, to be unhinged, detached and to feel insecure. It
is to fail to
choose or discover something that is one,s own, to
be unabie to find sarneness
with anything". This can happen when there is assimilation
and integration of
diverse conmurities into one homogenous community,
something people camot
relate to-

36
 Tribal Identity in the
3.3 TRIBAL IDENTITY CRISES AND THE Modern World

MODERN WORLD
\lodem industrial communities differ significantly from primitive and simple
communities. Emile Durkheim distinguishes them by the type of solidarif that
erists in these societies. Mechanical solidmity based on similarity of all menrbers
rs found in primitive and simple societies whereas organic solidariry based on
interdependence is found in complex industrial societies. He envisaged a
breakdown in norms when society undergoes rapid changes from one society
to another. The result is anomie which leads to an increase deviant behavior
Lncluding suicides and crimes. Another well known sociologist Weber described
the modern world as characterized by the emergence of the rationality in
different spheres oflife. He did appreciate the positive aspects of rationality
but also wamed that it would lead to an end of imagination. He feared the
decline of the supematural and the end of imagination. He described the
modern rational world as being 'iron clad'.

Herbert Blumer (1964;129) points that there are five different ways in which
a traditional society can respond to modemization: (1) Rejective response-a
traditional society may reject the process of modemization and stnve to maintain
traditional order. (2) Disjunctive response-this Rpe ofresponse is characterized
by the persistence of traditional and modern elements without any open
conflict. There are in some spheres of community life where modem elements
prevail and there are other areas where traditionai values and practices prevail.
(3) Assimilative response-this response consist of an absorption of
modernization process by the traditional society without major changes in
social order. (4) Supportive response-the society accepts the modem values
and it increases the power of traditional social order, and (5) Disruptive
response-the tradition order is challenged and destabilized at various points
by the response.

We understand the tribal commrnities' reaction to the changes in the last two
centuries with certain limitations. Firstly, there is a great diversity in the tribal
communities. Social, economic and cultural characteristics differ from
community to communiff and consequently changes affect tribal comrnunities
in diflerent ways. Secondly, identities are dynamic and changing. Thirdly,
perceptions on tribal identity differ widely depending on the location of the
observer and that leads to contradictory observations.

i) Tribal Identity - Individual and Community

Modern society promotes a social identity based on professional competence,

wealth and other achievements ofthe individual. In fact, one ofthe major
achievements ofmodem society is the freedom from ascribed status- individuals
are judged by their achieved status. Modern identity is based on values of
achievement orientation and individualism. Tribal societies are less individualistic
and have communitarian approach to life. Kinship ties are important sources
for material and moral support (Berhera; 189 in Behara and Peffer; 2005).
This is not to say that tribal communities are not socially differentiated and
hierarchy is totally absent. But only to stress that community life plays an
important role in tribai life than it does in the modem society.
37
 Tribal Identity and
Ethnicifv-I
ii) Tribal Identity and Colonialism
Indian society's contact with the westem rationality was under colonial mle.
Administrative, legal system and education systems were modeled on these
values. It was forced by the colonizers on the natives without their consent
However over a period of time the Indian society absorbed these values and
instihrtions. But the impact on tribal population was varied.

Adrninistratively, the traditional forms of self-governance were replaced by a

political system that operated far away in the state capital and in Dethi. A
centralized bureaucratic system with no popular control was put in place to
govern the tribes. The personnel for the administrative senice were chosen
from all communities, not necessary from the local communities. Traditional
tribal communities had sellgoveming systems which were procedurally open
and participatory. For example, see Vashum's discussion on Naga tribe
(Vashum; 200 in Behar and Peffer; 2005) It was r-nale dominated and at times
biased, but it was also community based administration. It relied on customs
and conventions rather than on formal systems of law. Modem administrative
systems thus, took away the autonomy of the tribal communities to govern
itself.

The new legal system, enforced by the administration also dislodged the
traditional legal system of the tribes. The main effect ofthese steps were on
property rights, especially land rights. Traditionally, tribal land was communally
owned and there u'as no concept ofindividual property rights: a foundational
principle ofmodem legal system. Consequently, no official documents exist to
record property rights. Tribal lands were easily alienated to the govemment
and to non-tribes and many ofthem became landless. Furer-Haimendorf ( 19g2:
321) writes, "....in the streets of Ranchi one can still see Munda and Oraon
rickshaw-pullers who not long ago were independent cultivators tilling their
own land".

The modem legal system had negative impact on the farnily relationships also.
Traditionally, the women had an important role in the economic activities of
the family. After the tribes lost their common land the role of women lost its
significance and with it, her status declined. The tribal women became
dependent on the male and this adversely changed the equal status she
previously enjoyed.(For a detailed discussions see the section on v)omen
in PfeJ.fer, George and Deepak Kumar Behera 1997, Contemporary
societies; tribal Studies, Volume One, Struchffe and process,. ppll S-206).

The econornic system of the tribes was adversely affected when common
property resources especially the forests were put under control of the
govemment. Again the colonial law was that all land not privately owned was
government land. The British looked at the forest and common lands as
resources that had to be managed and exploited for commercial purposes.
British forestry policies was inherited by the Government of Independent
India and implemented towards the service of the State's primary goals of
repaid industrialization. The National Forest policy 1952 underlies continuity
of the colonial policy. It reinforced the claim of the state to exclusive control
over forest protection and production. Significantly, this policy identifies shifting
cultivation as one ofthe main threats to State forestry to be dependent on
forest resources. While there were some changes in the post Indian forest
38 policy later on, the overall impact has been very much the same. Therefore
 Ttibal Identity in the
iribal alienation from forest and common propefiy resources has increased ModernWorld
not decreased.

The factor which most adversely affected the tribal was the development
induced displacement (DID). It is estimated that around 20 million people
have been affected due to the DIDs out of which 40 percent are tribes.
(Tribes constitute only 8 percent of India's population). Programmes to
rehabilitate the <lisplaced have been less than satisfactory. As per the
information readily available, a population of 21.3 million have been displaced
between 1951 and 1990 in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat,
Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Orissa Of whom, 8.54 million
(40 per cent) are tribals and ofthose only 2.12 million (24.8 per cent) tribes
could be resettled, so far. Even those settled though rehabilitation programmes
are not ful1y integrated into the new situation.

It is not the state alone that has altered the conditions for th.e tribes; it is also
the civil society. The relations between non-tribal and tribal communities are
to be seen in the superior- subordinate relationship Being poor in resources
to cope with the "modern world", the tribes are forced to accept subordinate
positions in the society. In rural areas, they are landless labourers and in
urban areas they became unskilled labourers. Educational backwardness and
limited access to resources results in inability to cope with the situations.
These factors make them vulnerable to exploitation and alienation.

iii) Tribal Identity and Environment

In the age of globalization being geographically mobile is seen as an advantage
while tribal communities often see their immediate surrorurding environment as
an important constituent of their identity. Amita Baviskar says "Hills, trees,
stones are imbued with spiritual power and actively interwene in people's lives
at the same time. The supematural world of the spirits is also the extension
ofthe social world of the lineage, populated as it is by the invisible presence
of ancestor guardians and evil spirits (enemies of the lineage who sometimes
assume the human form of dakkans and possess married women)"
(Baviskar,2004:161).

Modenr knowledge systems categorize tribal beliefs as superstitions which

have to be replaced by scientific knowledge. However, these beliefs are
important part of the tribal identity because: (1) They attribute meanings to
their social and physical environment, (2) these meanings are shared among
all members of the community and thus unite the community, and (3) these
shared meanings are the basis for any form ofcollective behavior. Community
rituals and sociai practices are done based on these commonly held meanings.
Similarly protests and violence ensues when others act in vioiations ofthese
values.

Tribal relationship with the forests is not entirely supernattrral. Many ofthe
food items and energy sources are obtained from the forests.

iv) Tribal ldentitv and Chrislianity

Christianity was adopted by the North-Eastem tribes while many other Indian
tribes did not convert to the faith. Converting to Christianity provided tribes
opportunity to be part ofthe global religious system and gave them a new
identity. Christian schools and colleges provided modern education which 39
Tribal Identity and exposed them to modern ideologies and values. It is also observed that tribes
Ethnicity-I
that have converted have relatively higher literacy rate than others.

The increased educational opportunities lead to many changes - modern

political leaders, tribal scholars and intellectuals who could articulate tribal
view points and demands. It was not accidental that the first set ofmodem
political leaders in Chotanagpur (present day Jharkhand) mainly came from
the Christian communiqr.

The new political leadership was different from the traditional leaders. The
traditional tribal leaders acquired their legitimacy from religious sources. Often
traditional leaders got their direction for political actions from spirits and gods
while the new leaders knew modem forms of political activity. They were
aware of need for democratic and representative govemance- elections, voting
and party system. They understood the importance of advocating tribal
demands and getting concessions from the government to help tribal
communities.(Troisi in Rao, 2000;33 8-364).

Christianity became an important factor in fusing desparate tribal groups into

larger hibal communities. According to Sanjib Banrah, the single most important
development that made the imagining of Nagas as a collective group was their
conversion to Christianity. Today, Christianity is an essential part ofNaga
identity. The Christian identity which marks the Nagas apart from the mostly
Hindu and Muslim population ofthe Indian heartland has been partly an act
of cultural resistance that parallel the political and armed resistance. (Baruah,
Sanjib, 2003 : 321-338).

Christian principles often differed with kibal beliefs and value systems. They
discouraged the widespread beliefs of tribes in witchcraft and black magic.
The tribal youth hostels were looked upon as sinful and evil. The church and
the priests became the centre of Christian tribal life. In this way Christian
belief replaced traditional beliefs.

Christian missioruraries played an important role in the standardization of tnbai

languages. A number oftribal languages had no script. Each language had
significant linguistic differences even within it which made it difficult for them
to communicate with different communities within one language group. The
local tribal languages were standardised. Olten the Roman alphabet along
with accent was used to write the language. Dictionaries ofthe local languages
were compiled. Prayer services were translated into the tribal language. Tribal
languages became a part of the identity of the tribes.

Verrier Elwin, a former missionary, himself criticized the Christian missionaries

for converting the tribes. He was critical of the imposition of Christian morals
and values which were contrary to tribal values.

v) Tribal Identity and Hinduism

Tribals have always been in contact with Hindu civilization. In fact, Ghurye,
a prominent sociologist called Indian tribes "backward Hindus". Others have
disputed this contention by pointing out that there are significant differences
between the Hindus and the tribal religions. It is difficult to determine this
issue conclusively beoause of the following reasons: (1) Hindu religion does
not have any set of criteria to determine an individual's membership into the
40 religion. There is no common ritual, prayers or belief system which all Hindus
 Tribal Identit] in the
:,lhere to, (2) it does not have any church or an ummah whose membership Modern World
:an identify the individual as a member ofa pafiicular religious groups, and
3) the diversity in tribal religions makes the process of identif ing individual
rrbes who are significantly Hinduized and who are not, exfemely difficult'

\ Iutually influencing interaction befi'veen the fibes and Llindu cjvilization existed
trom early times. Historians say that Indian civilization is itself a product of a
series of accretion of tribes at different times. Beteille (2004; 7 l -72) quotes
D.D Kosambi who says that "The entire course of lndian history shows tribal
elements being fused into the general society' This phenomenon, which lies at
the foundation ofthe most striking Indian feature, namely caste, is aiso great
basic fact of ancient Indian history". A known example of the hansformation
of a tribe into a caste is the Ahoms of Assam who were originally from
outside India and after a length oltime become a fully integrated caste group
within the Hindu caste system. Similarly, the Khasi regarded as a tribe has
certain Hindu features.

The process got accelerated with the colonial period with greater movement
ofpeople around the country. Increased contact lead to increased intetaction
between tribes and Hindus. changes were observed in many tnbal communities.
The Todas of Nilgiris Hills in TamilNadu is an example. They are substantially
influenced by the Dravidian Hinduism which immigrants from other parts of
South India have brought with them. Pictorial representations of Hindu gods
and goddesses have found an honourable place in many Toda households
However, there has not always been a decline in their indigenous tribal rituals.
Both the ritual systems are practiced with fervor and enthusiasm' Walker
(1936: 288) says that the Todas has accepted the "efficacy of two parallel
ritual systems: his own and that ofpopular South Indian Hinduism"'

Unlike Christianity, Hinduism did not demand that the tdbes completely stop
their former worship practices. The tribal Gods and worship systems were
integrated in to the Hindu belief systems at the local level The tribes were
given a position in the caste system which often was low and ifthey wanted
io improve the status they had to Sankritize- they had to adopt the values,
beliefs, lifestyles of the dominant community. The dominant caste was most
often a twice born caste- Brahmin, Kshatriya or Vaishya' They had to stop
eating beefand pork - both of which were sources ofritual pollution' Women
were stopped from doing work outside the house and restriction put on their
movements.

vi) Tribal Identity and Industrialization

Industrialization and urbanization are two important features of a modern

society. Traditional values and institutions undergo major changes when
indushialization and urbanization takes place. In some situations, traditional
institution gets sfengthened and in other situations it gets u'eakened'

The tribes in the Chotanagpur area experienced industrialization and

urbanizations when industries were set up in the mineral rich areas,' However,
due to the lack of education the tribes could not get goodjobs in the industries-
Non-tribal outsiders got the lucrative jobs while the lowly paid menial jobs
were given to the tribes.

41
a-

Tlibal Identity and

Ethnicitv-I
vi) State and Nation Building

The Indian state that replaced the British colonial state was a liberal, democratic
and modem state. One of the main tasks of the state was nation building- the
political leaders felt that loyalties ofpeople were predominantly with their
own community and not to the nation state. In order to make a nation it is
important that terminal loyalties of its citizens lie in the nation state. At the
same time it was realized that a large number of people experienced inequality
and discrimination because they belonged to certain groups- Schedule Castes
and Schedule Tribes. Ending the discrimination and integrating communities
into the mainstream was seen as important goal for independent India.

The leading ideas of the political leadership after independence can be

summarized under the following heading; sovereignry unity, order, a strong
state, secularism, democracy and pailiamentary, economic self suffrciency,
and the need for social and economic reform A key principle was that no
secessionist movement would be entertained and would be smashed with
armed force, if necessary.

The British administered the largely tribal areas by designating them as "Partially
excluded Areas" and "Excluded Areas" which meant less of British
administration and more of self governance. When the British exited lrom
India the pdncely states were given option whether to join the Indian Union
or the newly created state ofPakistan or remain Independent. Princely states
depending on their population and tenitorial position were integrated with the
Indian Union.

Many tribal secessionist claim that the option to remain independent was
available to them and tribai leaders had opted out to remain independent. But
these claims are not recognized by the Indian Government. Rebellions by
tribes have been dealt with the help of armed forces. The Indian govemment's
response to tribal demands for increased self governance has been to in the
following ways: (1) Create new states when feasible within the Indian federal
system. However not all demands for statehood has been accepted by the
Centre, (2) Create autonomous councils with limited powers within the existing
states. The plain tribes of Assarn Bodo have got a Bodo Autonomous Council
which govems the Bodo dominated areas, and (3) the extension ofPanchayat
Raj System to tribal areas (PESA) with additional powers and responsibilities.
The aim ofthese structures is to satisfy demands for greater control of resources
and protecting their unique life sty1e.

Tribal identity has been significantly influenced by the post Independence

politics. Some olthe significant changes have been the following: (1) New
identities have been created by the tribal communities by merging previously
separate tribe, and (2) Political mobilization by one community has led to
counter mobilization by the other community and vice versa' At times, these
mobilizations have lead to violent conflicts sharpening tribal identities. A number
of states were created in the North-East in response of tribal movements lor
separate states. In some cases, the formation ol a nevr state has satisfied the
demands of the dominant community whiie minorities are unsatisfied. In other
cases the demands for statehood have been only partially met. For example,
it was after a long struggle that the demand for Jharkhand has been accepted
and it consists of areas belonging only to Bihar. Areas in West Bengal and
42 Orissa which are tribal don.rinated have not been included in Jharkhand.
 Tribal Identity in the
The idea ofnationalism and democracy support homogenizing of cu1tures. ModernWorld
Often communities with different culture are seen as threat to the maiority
communiqt

Are tribes' nations?

T. K Oommen surveys the popular academic opinion on tribal nationalism.
Academicians prefer to use teims like 'sub-national movements'(N. K.
Bose) and'sub-national' and'proto-national' movements lRoy Burman)
to describe tribal aspirations for autonomy. Tribes are denied the right
o.f being nations and always seen as being part of the larger nation.
Oommen argues that tribes especially the larger ones have fulfilled the
criteria for being called d ndtion and should be seen as such. Jaganpathy
points out that the term "tribe" itself is a nomenclature introduced by
colonialists. He points out that tribes were earlier were treated like
"nations" before they were subdued and made part of the colonial empire.
(Sharma, S.L. and T.K.Oommen (2000) Nation and National ldentity'
Orient Longman, New Delhi)

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) Describe the relationship between tribes and Hindu.

............

3.4 TRIBAL REACTION TO LOSS OF

IDENTITY AND CHANGE
Tribal communities have been exposed to large attack on their culture and
identity. The response has been diverse and observable at different levels.
Needless to say there is clash between the tribal world view and the modern
view which when played out in an unequal condition has led to widespread
unrest and v iolence.

B. K. Roy Burman identifies the following parameters as the causes for tribal
unrest:

1) Response to threats ofprivacy of habitats, (2) Response to threats to

access and control resources, (3) Response to disruption oftraditional
roles in the total interaction set up, (4) Search for new meanings of the
relationship between man and nature, (5) Search for new meanings of the
relationship between individuals and society, (6) Search for new frontiers
of identity, (7) Search for a more satisfactory system of control of
resources, and (8) Search for more satisfactory system of organization of
41
community power at all levels.
Trib.l ldentiry and Deviant Behavior
Ethnicity-l
At the individual and group level, increase in deviant behavior among the
tribes have been observed in the communities in India. In some cases.
deviant behavior is observed in following ways: (1) Increase in committing
theft and robberies. Tribes that have faced rapid change in their traditional
roles and facing problems of survival have often taken to committing
thefts and robberies. In traditiondl tribal societies stealing was improper
but due to value changes tribes began to commit these crimes. B.K. Roy
Bunnan gives an exarnple ofthe Banjaras who rendered commissariat
services to the armies in the middle ages became redundant after the
railways and modem communication technology arrived. Many of them,
unable to adapt to the new situation took to crime. R. C. Verma mentions
how British government and Rajputs rulers in Rajasthan declared the
entire Mina tribe as notified criminal tribe. While some tribesmen may
have been participating in criminal behavior (ust like members of any
community more or less) the whole tribe was declared as criminal tribe
in order to humiliate the community. Here again it was the loss of their
kingdoms that the Minas engaged in the criminal behavior. Similarly, cases
of tribes indulging in theft, robberies and dacoit have been reported in
other areas. James Scott in his influential book calls these acts ofbanditry
as a form ofsocial protest against the powerful that dispossessed them
of their properly.
2) Alcoholism: It is observed that tribal men and women are increasingly
becorning addicted to alcohol. There always existed in many tribes the
habit of drinking traditional drinks socially. The consumption of these
drinks was controlled by the community. Tribes, removed from their
traditional settings, have increasingly become alcoholics. The prevalence
of alcoholism is higher in communities which were displaced and not
successfu lly rehabilitared.

3) Disintegration and disappearance oftribal communities is also one of the

consequences.

ii) Revivalism of Language and Culture

The process of nation-building is centred on the majority culture and language.
The majority language is often made the official language. The majority
community then has numerous advantages over members of other communities.
According to Charles Taylor, the minorities have three basic options: (i) they
can accept integration into the majority culture, although perhaps attempt to
renegotiate the terrns of integration; (ii) they can seek the sorts of rights and
powers of self-government needed to maintain their own societal culture i.e.
to create their own economic, political and educational institutions in their
own language. That is, they can engage in their own form of competing nation-
building; (iii) they can accept permanent marginalization (Taylor, 1997;37 1.
It is in reaction to this marginalization that tribes have begun to see themselves
as being separate from the others, the mainstream. They insist that they be
identified by their membership in the tribe (Adivasis) a:rd that their identity not
be subsumed by the larger regional and national identity. They claim that they
are the indigenous people ofthe territory they reside and therefore have the
first right over the natural resources. Thus, there is use of Adivasi identity
imposed on them by others to further their claims to the state (Xaxa, 1999).
44
Any attempt by the so called mainstream at the govemment level and the civil Tribal ldentit] in the
Modern World
society level to foster "integration" is responded with even more aggressive
dcclarations ofbeing different from "mainstream". There has been a significant
movement towards revival ofpast religious practices of the tribes. Hinduized
tribes have been asked by their leaders to again start eating beefwhich rvas
prohibited by the Hindu community. Some tribes which had converted to
Christianity have also taken up their tribal beliefs and rejected Christian beliefs.
There is also a significant process of 'tribalization' of Christian rituals and
practices under the broad term of indigenization.

iii) Fusion and Fission in Tribes

Modernization and democracy often leads to changes in sociai identity of
people. A number of originally distinct tribes have come together to form
larger federation to form new tribal union. But these processes are not without
controversy and acrimony.

Dattaray(l989), describes the process of naming and renaming of tribes by

tribes themselves and by outsiders. He gives an example of Thadou and
Kukis. Many in these tribes feel that they are distinct from each other while
others feel that they are one and the same. There is even a denial ofthe name
of the tribe by claiming that the term'thadou'is not the name of the tribe but
of their ancestor. Similarly, there are attempt in Assam to change the name of
the tribe by the tribes themselves as they feel that the name is derogatory and
given by others.

Check You r Progress III

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) List five issues whlch causes tribal unrest.

3.5 LET US SUM UP

Tribal political and social identity are important issues in the future. Often, the
issue is seen as iimited to one or two issues- political autonomy, displacement
and ecology. As we have seen tribal identity problems are often much larger
than these issues.

The situation is also dynamic. The society and the tribal population are
undergoing numerous changes consciouSly or unconsciously. Thus the problem
of identity is related to social and cultural change. It is different type of
modemity which has to emerge in the tribal communities. In democratic societies
these problems cannot be resolved through autho(itarian means and
parlicipatory ways have to be found to resolve these issues. Social workers
are deeply engaged in the society and its different processes. 45
Tribal ldentity and
Ethnicity-I 3.6 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES
Baruah, Sanjib (2003) Confronting Constructionism: Ending India's Naga War
Journal of Peace Research (International Peace Research Institute, Olso,
Norway) Vol 40 (3) May 2003, pp. 321-338.
Baviskar, Amita(2004) 5th priflt, In the belly of the river, Oxford University
Publications, New Delhi.

Behera, Deepak Kumar and Georg Pfeffer, (2005), Contemporary societies;

tribal Studies, Volume six, Tribal situation in India, Concept Publishing houses,
New Delhi.

Beteille, Andre(2004)4'h Impression, Society and Politics in India, essays in

a comparative perspective, oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Bhargava, Rajeev and others ( 1999), Multiculturalism, liberalism and

Democracy, Oxlord University Publications, New Delhi.

Blumer, Herbert (1964), "industrialization and the traditional order", in

Sociology and Social research, Vol. 48

Brass, Paul(1997) reprint, The politics of India since independence, Cambridge

university press, New Delhi.

Chacko, Pariyaram M.(ed)(2005), Tribal Communities and Social change,

Sage Publications. Neu Delhi.

Dattaray, B.(1989), Tribal identity and tension in North East India, Omsons
Publications. New Delhi.

Gleason. Philip. 1983, 'Identifliing Identity: A Semantic history' The Joumal

of American history, 69 (4), March 1983, pp.910-31

Goulboume, Harry (200i), Race and ethnicity, Critical Concepts in Sociology,

Routledge, London and New York.

Horowitz, David(I975), Ethnic Identity in Glazel, Nathan and Daniel Moynihan,

Ethnicity; theory and experience, Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Mandelbaum, David G.,(1998 reprint), society in India, Popular Prakhashan,

Bombay.

Oommen, T. K., (1986), Insiders and Outsiders; Primordial Collectivism and

Cultural Pluralism in Nation-Building, Intemational Sociology; 1 ;53

Oommen , T.K. (2004), Nation, civil society and Social Movements, essays
in political sociology, Sage Publications, New Delhi.

Pfeffer, Georg and Deepak Kumar Behera1997), Contemporary societies;

tribal Studies, Volume One, Structure and process, Concept Publishing houses,
New Delhi.

Pfeffer, Georg and Deepak Kumar Behera(1997), Contemporary societies;

tribal Studies, Volume two, Development issues transition and change, Concept
Publishing houses. New Delhi.

46
 Tribal ldentity in the
Rao, M.S.A (ed)(2000), Social Movements in lndia, Manohar Publications, Modern World.
New Delhi.

Saksena, H.S. and others(ed)(2006), scheduled tribes and bevelopment,

Serials Publications, New Delhi.

Sharma, S.L. and T.K.Oommen (2000), Nation and National Identity. Orient
Longman, New Delhi.

Taylor, Charles(et.al);edited and introduced by Amy Gutman,(1994),

Multiculturalism; examining the politics of recognition" Princeton University
Press.

Taylor, Charles (1997) "Nationalism and Modernity", in J. McMahan and

R.McKim (eds), The Ethics of Nationalism (Oxford University Press).
vidyamthi, L.P and Binay Kumar Ra(1985). Second edition, The tribal culture
in India, concept Publishing House, New Delhi.

Xaxa, Virginius 1999. Tribes as Indigenous People of India. Econornic and

Political Weekly 34 (51): 3589-3595.

47
 UNIT 4 STRUCTURAL CONFLICT IN
SECTORS OF TRIBAL
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Concept of Development-A Brief Note
4.3 Structural Constraints for Development
4.4 Tribal Experience with Mainstream Development
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Further Readings and References
4,0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the unit you should be able:

to be familiar with the concept of development;

to understand the different dimensions of tribai development; and

to know the major problems of tribals in. India.

4.I INTRODUCTION
The concept of development is seen dilferently by different people. For the
common people, development means mainly the improvement in infrastructure
(roads, electricity and water) and increase in commerce and trade. The
economists locus on the increase in Gross Domestic Product and the per
capita income. Sociologists explain development as the increased use of
rationality and specialized division of labour. Political scientists refer to
development as attaining a high level of stability and order in the political
system. Thus, we can say that development is a multidimensional concept.
In the period immediately after the Second World War, the concept of
development was nearly unanimously accepted by the global community as
progressive and necessary. Political leaders and intellectuals explored strategies
to achieve a higher stage of development. The world itself was divided into
two groups- developed and underdeveloped llater on called developing)
countries. Many problems ofthe developing countries iike ethnic conflict.
political instabiliry poverty and population were seen as a direct effect oflack
of development. It was felt that it is only through development that these
problems could be resolved.

The dominant opinion in India was also quite similar- development was seen
as the keyto answering the numerous problems ofpost colonial India.
Since most institutions in India weie weak it was the State that had to lead
48
 the efforts to develop the nation. Thus, state lead development became the Structural Conllict in
Sectors of Tribal
focus of the Indian political leadership. Development

Ilowever, in the case ofthe tribes, it was recognised that a different approach
to development had to be taken. The socio-economic profile ofthe tribes was
very different from that of the general population. At the same time it was also
felt that the "the fi'uits of development" could not be denied to them. The
Pancheel advocated by Jawaharlal Nehru and Verrier Elwin was an attempt
to balance between the need to preserve tribal way of life and the dght of the
tribes to develop. The experience oftribal development in post- colonial
lndia should be studied rvith this back ground in mind.

4.2 THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT - A

BRIEF NOTE
In its earliest descriptions development meant improvement in human conditions,
quality of life and social well being. Economic progress measured in terms of
increase in per capita income and Gross Nation Product (GNP), was seen as
the means to achieve a higher state of development. Thus development and
economic progress was seen more or less as one and the same.

But soon it was discovered that economic progress and development did not
go hand in hand. Economic development did not always lead into social
development. Time and again, only elites of the society benefited from the
development process. The second major challenge to the idea of development
was that it was not ecological sustainable. Modem theories of development
increased humankind's power over nature and subsequently 1ed to its ecological
degradation and exploitation. Nature is a finite source and cannot survive
prolonged decrease of its resources. Therefore, development process should
take into consideration the limited resources of nature. The World Commission
on Environment and Development's definition is "development that meets the
E needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
E meet their own needs." Sustainable Development implies economic growth
c together with the protection of environmental resources.
t
f Another set of critics of development see a relationship between development
D and underdevelopment. According to these critics notably Andre Gunder Franl<
I and Samir Amin, development and underdevelopment are sides of the same
L coin- one leading to another. In the capitalist system, the gror.vth of the
developed countries is based on the continued erploitation of the
f underdeveloped countries. They pointed out that rhe developing countries
s have remained colonies providing for the raw materials for the developed
s countries in a neo imperialist regime.
D

i) More recently, a new dimension has been added to development- Human

t development. According to this concept the centre ofthe development strategy
k should be the human being. The objective of human development is to create
e conditions in rvhich people can expand their capabilities and opportunities.
According to Human Development Report 1990, human development is a
process of enlarging people's choices. The purpose of developrnent is to offer
lt
people more options. One of their options is access to income not as an
L
end in itself bu onll' a-r a means of attaining human well being. Other options
d 49

I
 Tribal Identity and include longevity, knowledge, freedom, security, ability to participate in
Ethniciry-I
govemance and human rights. People cannot be reduced to a single dimension
as an economic creature. (UNDP 1990).

The concept ofdevelopment has broadened its scope from being an exclusively
an economic characteristic to more holistic one which includes social and
political dimensions. However, there are significant numbers ofcritics ofthe
very concept of development itself. These critics want to rejecl the concept
ol development in totality while those mentioned above only advocate major
changes in the way we look at development. Development for these critics
is a flawed concept from the beginning and no amount ofchanges will make
it viable and useful. Major criticisms are the following: (1) the concept of
development is Eurocentric and ignores the cultural specificities of other
societies. It is homogenizing as it aims to make the whole world similar to the
westem society and thereby destroying the indigenous cultures of the lesser
developed societies. Diversity and pluralism, a precious heritage of humankind
is destroyed in the process. (2) It is elite driven with little role for participation
of the people. (3) It is capital intensive and technology dependent. (4) It is
not ecologically sustainable as its philosophically assumptions is based on
maximum exploitation of the natural resources. (5) It is state centred
development and increases the power ofthe state vis-i-vis the people, and
(6) It results in violence against the poor and dispossessed which is justified
in the name of development. Development induced displacement is an example
of this violence.

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What are the major criticisms of the concept of development?

4.3 STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINTS FOR

DEVELOPMENT
As mentioned earlier development is a multi-dimensional concept. The process
ofdevelopment involves psychological, social, culnral, political and economic
factors. Societies and communities need to have those characteristics that will
favour the development processes. communities that lack these characteristics
will experience problems in their path to development.
i) Psychological Constraints

Modemization and development require a set of psychological qualities in the

people. Max Weber established a relation between culture (Values) and
capitalism(economic development). Weber observed that a majority of
50 capitalists (large entrepreneurs and industrialists) in Gennany belong to the
te in protesranr denomination of Christianity. He established a relation between the Structural Conflict in
Sectors of Tlibal
!'l0n protenanr ethics and the spirit of capitalism which emerged in Germany. The
Development
beliefs and values of Protestantism produce a psychological condition in its
members which promotes capitalism. He lists the important values of
ively Protestantism as foilowing- thrift. discipline, importance of time and hard
and work.
f the
cept David McClelland introduced the concept of need for achievement,
ajor syrrbolized by 'n'achievement- the geater the development of the 'n'factor
itic s the greater the economic development in any society. Factors such as
mke individualism, energetic iurovative activity, drive for success and so on are
high which leads to development. In his book "The Achieving Society(l961)
Fof he analyses the culrural artefacts (folk tales, children tales and songs) of
ther
r the
various tribes of USA and finds that those tribes that scored high on the
ss€r factor also experienced higher development standards.
kind Tribes in India have collective orientation more than an individual orientation.
lion Their community and kinship ties may be a factor in limiting the growth of
It is individualism and high drive for individual success. As ofnow we do not have
ion any large scale study to prove this asset.tion, Tribal community's inability to
rred engage in modem market practices maybe partly attributed to their community
and value orientations. Martin Orans says "It is difficult to square the basic
fied reciprocity ofrelations in a kin society like that of Santal with the impersonal
ple and contractual relations of the market.... haditional Santal, once in the market
is too eager a buyer, too poor a haggler, and too readily drawn into a pleasant
social intercourse to hold his own" (quoted in Mandelbaum (1998; 581)
However, value orientations are product of community experience with the
extemal world and can change over time.
ii) Social Constraints
The processes of development and education ievels are closely related.
Education levels ofthe popuiation are both indicator of the level of development
and a factor of development. Literacy, especially women literacy is positively
correlated with variable ofdevelopment such as occupation, educational level
of children, health status and age of marriage. The literacy of ST is 58.96
percent which is around 14.03 per cent less than in the total population
(Census, 2011). Male female gap in literacy date descreased from 24.41
percent in 2001 to 1908 per cent in 2011 for STs and for the total population,
it declined fiom 21.59 per cent in 2001 to 16.29 per cent in 2011. It is
obsen ed that rribes are not interested in sending their children to school.
(Reddl'. Rami \'. in Pteffer and Behera (ed) (1997) and Kum Kum
Bhattacha4-a il Behera and Pttft-er tl00-s).
DesS

mic Social capital and culnrra.l c4itat tacton in the developrnent

are impronalt social
*il I process. According to Robert Putnam: '\\hereas phl sical capital refers to
tics physical objects and human capital refers ro rhe prt-'penies of individuals,
social capital refers to connections among inditiduals - setial nenlorks and
the norms of reciprocity and hustworthiness thar arise trom them. lncreased
social means increased access to social networks rvhich plav an imponanr
th€ role in econ,,.mic and social development.
md- Pierre Bcrurde.:- a French sociologist argued that, above and beyond economic
'ol factors. -c:-:-::- :rsbrts and... dispositions inherited from the famill' are
the -il

I
l ribd ldentifv and
Flthnicifv-I fundamentally important to school success (Bourdieu & Passeron 1979). Thtts
he asserted that "habits and dispositions" are a resource which individuals cart
convert to "profits". Just like ltnancial resources they are potentially subject
to monopolization by individuals and groups; and, under appropriate conditior.rs,
they are transmitted from one generation to the next generation.
iii ) Political Constraints
The state has emerged as an important agent of development in the modern
society. This is especially true of developing societies where economic and
social backwards persist. The state with enormous financial and technical
resources is a major factor in the developrnent.

Political conflicts and lack of political legitimacy cause problems ir govemance

which harms economic development. Another reason is that politicians and
bureaucratic elite control the state and therefore play an important role in
deciding how state patronage flows to the people. The social backgrounds of
the leaders then become a factor in the development process. Development
and political powers are closely related. In India, control of state power gives
ethnic groups opportunities to Llse state resources for their own benefit.

The numbers of tribal political leaders have been few in number. In the higher
bureaucracy also the representation is not propodionate to their population.
The Pariiamentary Standing Committee on Welfare of Scheduled Castes and
Sche(\\e( Tr\bes s!a(e( (hat as s( t Ianuery 20Q5 , the overrl\ \s$sserrtetiorr
in Groups A, B, C and D posts in the government of India services among
the STs was 4.3 per cent. 4.5per cent, 6.5 per cent and 6.9 per cent
respectively.

Tribal movements for new states in tribal dominated area aims at gaining
greater control over resources that can be used lor development. The North
eastern states were created by the centre after strong demands by various
tribal communities. However, the central govemment has been slow in accepting
similar demands from tribes of central India till recently. Chhattisgarh and
Jharkhand were created to address the demand for tribal communities for
greater political controls. At the local level, the Panchayat Extension in Schedule
Areas (PESA) with greater control over resources ofthe area is implemented
so that tribal communities have a greater control over land, water and other
common property resources.

iv) Economic Constraints

Modem economies are market based economies. Individuals need to have

material resources, skills, knowledge that is considered valuable in the market.
Gross inequalities and deprivations retard the growth prospects ofthe backward
communities and the society as whole. Access to credit and market networks
are impoftant lactors to promote entrepreneurship.

The major barriers which prevent tribes from attaining a higher level of
development can be identihed by studying their socio-economic profile. Firstly,
urban areas are engines of growth in the modern society. The share of the
Scheduled Tribe population ln urban areas is only 2.8 percent. A vast majority
of tribes are unable to avail the opportunities which are emerging in urban
sector. Secondly, most tribes are in occupations related to agriculture.
52
A large number of tribes are cultivators. According to Planning Commision, Structural Contlict in
45 per cent were cfltivators and 37 per cent were agricultural labourers. Sectors of Tribal
Development
Thus, about 78 per cent of the main workers from these communities were
engaged in primary sector activities. Tribal representation in the secondary
and tertiary sectors is restricted to around 28 per cent.

Even in the agricultural sector tribal communities are not beneficiaries of the
Green Revolution. Their holdings are small and mostly in dry lands. The 70th
Round further showed that, at the all-India level, despite the handicaps the
average area owned by a tribal household was 0.650 hectares and that owned
by non-tribal household is 0.563 hectares. The percentage of landless
householG among tribes was somewhat higher than among the non-tribes, the
respective figlres being 20.5 per cent and 16.3 per cent. The percentage of
ribal marginal households was less than the non-tribal marginal households,
that is respectively 40.6 per cent and 51.7 per cent.

Tribes as whole were unable to benefit from land reforms- The Dhebar
Commission (1961) observed that the schemes of land reforms were based
upon land lords-tenant system and the tribal areas did not customarily have
such a practice on a significant scale. The total quantum of land declared
surplus in the entire country was 73.36lakh acres out of which aborfi 64.97
lakh acres have been taken possession ofby Government and 54.03 lakh
acres have been distributed to 57 .46lakh beneficiaries of whom l5% beiong
to Scheduled Tribes, the number of ST beneficiaries being 8.30 lakhs

Tribal land has been alienated on a large scale. The Dhebar Commission
(1961) had gone into the circumstances leading to tribal land alienation. Some
of their observations regarding reasons for land alienation are as follows: (i)
ignorance oftriba.l peirple;(ii) lacunae in the laws (iii) utilization ofthe machinery
of the courts before which the tribal is more or less powerless; (iv) voluntary
surrenders engineered by lardlords taking advantage ofthe tribals' ignorance;
(v) lack of adequate knowledge of conditions in tribal areas on the part ofthe
authorities; (vi) complicated legislation; and (vii) lack of sources of credit as
al alternative to the money-lenders' usury.
Large Multipurpose Societies (LAMPS) and tribal cooperatives were created
by the central government to enable tribal communities to access credit and
assisting in marketing of products. However, the efforts were of limited success.
The rate ofrecovery ofloans given *'as very poor. Most of the people who
took loans used it for consumption purposes. Tribal Cooperative Marketing
Development Federation (TRIFED) was staned !o ensure fair economic price
;br the produce grown/collected by the tribes and to check their exploitation
b1'the r-ested interests. It developed a nelwork for collection, processing and
marketing of forest and agricultural commodities of tribes. Here too the efforts
were only of limited success. A diagnostic study ofthe organization identified
the following causes:

!) Organizational deficiencies, arising out oflimited focus on procurement,

lack of market intelligence, adhoc approach to project execution and
poor s ork c ulture.

ii) Systemic failure. resulting from a lack of planning framework, monitoring

procedures. ald the ad hoc nature ofpuichase and selling operations.

iii) Operatie-.*- ece.iresses. brought about by poor storage facilities, high

53
Tiibal Identity and inventory costs, huge fixed expenses and unprofitable procurement
Ethnicity-I
activities.

While the general picture of tribes in gainful activity is dismal, there are
number of tribal entrepreneurs emerging. Sachchinanda (Sachchinanda in
Saksena and othen (2006)) describes how a combination of education, political
power, central firnds and outside exposure changed the socio-economic profile
of tribal communities in Arunachal Pradesh.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
l) What are the psychological characteristics needed for development.

4.4 TRIBAL EXPERIENCE WITH

MAINSTREAM DEVELOPMENT
As seen earlier, tribal experience with development programmes designed to
improve their socio-economic situation has been met with limited success. But
there have been situations where tribal experience with development has only
been negative.

i) Displacement and Tribes

An estimated 20 million people have been displaced by various development
projects from 1944 to 1990. It is estimated that 40 percent of the displaced
people are tribes. Many of the people including tribes have not rehabilitated
adequately. It is fear that with economic growth and demand for natural
resources more tribal communities maybe displaced.

ii) Tribes and Forest Rights

Tribal communities depend on the forests for food, energy and other materials.
According to forest policy forestland are owned by the govemment and not
by communities that have lived in it for centuries. The non-recognition oftheir
rights has resulted in they being looked upon as encroachers offorest lands.
The threat ofeviction and resettlement has always been present in their psyche.
Insecurity of tenure and fear of eviction from these lands are the biggest
causes of tribal communities emotionally and physically alienation from the
mainstream.

iii) Tiibes and Intellectual Property Rights

The institutionalization of Intellectual Property Rights regime under the World
Trade Organizations has brought about a number of challenges to the
preservation and conservation of the knowledge of indigenous people.
Indigenous community has a large body of knowledge which is part oftheir
'54 cultural heritage. It is commonly owned by the communities. But under the
 Structursl Conllict in
system' multinational companies and Sectors of Tribol
new Intellectual Property Rights(IPRs)
il;;;;;;"1t"-p*i t" p'i'oatis"s the indigenous knowledge base' DeveloPment

and used for commercial gains'

The IPR svstems knowledge can be patented

iv) NGOs and Tribal DeveloPment

Anoverviewofthetribaldevelopmentploglammesundertakenbythe
;#rnirre;aJn* g;';"--"nt otguni'utio* tttow that apart from a few
progmmmes were failures or of limited
success'
initiatives, most

The failures of government efforts to

'develop' the tribes- and 'integate' the
by the governnelt
;;;;;,h";nomic and social mainsteam are accepted
a small clutch of bureaucratic
itself. The tenth five year Ao"o-t"i tuyt tftat
precipitous pauperisation' exploitation
progranlmes could do littte to resist the
It is forreview of the development
and disintegration oftribat communities'
number of 'Unresolved Issues' and
strategy for the tribes to uaJtttt u
:t.ffit, ntoUfems', which require immediate
attention of the Government'

in lndia are playing an imnollnt

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
in-India' NGOs are part of the
role in the development of oiUuf to-^*ities to social
etrorts
civil society *d rrpr",.nt p'JpL Ngitottl] i1-contribute
of the govemment in ensuring well
welfare and social change' Sui tl" fuil*"
which are actuallv
;;;;f il;""pte mJ-aae Ncos to move into sectors
broad roles that NGOs play today
the domain of tft. gol'.*-""t' ih" fiut of
disaster relief' (2) Implementation
are: (1) Provision of ,"*it"i in"luding
action including leading mass
developmental progru--t', (f ) social
pILs, t+i rnn**i"g p"uric policy and programmes, and
D movement and using public
l iijii.tit! *l rt "ir,?, Ncot'""a civil slcietv oiganizations to raise
t awareness.

there areNGOs that are very effective

The performances of NGOs vary and
Many NGOs arc totally fraud set up
and there are NGOs that are in"if"ctiv"'
d tomakemoneywhilett'.''u'"Nco'doirr!verygoodwork.Anumberof
tribes'
d ;A;;;;"1ting suitable models for working with the
Dd and driven by ideological
al Most of the NGOs leaders are self motivated
or humanitarian based' But their
commitrnents' fheir ideologres are religious
hardships while working
;;;;;i;.;i"gttai beliefs S"uurta trttrn to endure
not non-tribal communities they
s'ith the tribes Though mu"y of tft"- *"te
their experiences and problems'
ls. lir-ed among the tribal .o"'-onitit', shared
Their-approaches to tribal
rot Thel leamed the -Uut tutrutt -a tireir lifestyles
Their knowledge and
pmbleo-< .'..E la-sed on tnti'ft"otul experiences'
Eir to the
il;.*; *ip.o the* r"ttulate programmes which were suited
G. knowled^ge It was their emotional
he.
tribes wtile ming t Ottt t*hnof"g'' and
their efforts successful'
gst attachment towards the rn-bes *'hich made
lb€ is that ofDr' Sudarsan working
An example of these kinds of expcrimenrs
bv profession' he has been
*iii ii. S"ri"g"s in nR hills in ]viysore' A docor organization Vivekananda
r"t't "glfirtifte tribes from tsdt' He and hisfor holistic and sustainable
Ai;J-" Kalyana Kendra has been working slhals' solingas are uught in
trtd developrnenr of the tribes' In the organizatign's
the share their knowledge about foress'
their os-c lrett. They are encouraled to
They are made
ple.
t*a;,i"*: ar:::cas una '" tuogh;to strengthen their roots' This tribal friendly
lcit i" i..i*-; -'l tqptttiut" tn# rictr cultural heritage' i<
th€

I
Tribal Identity and approach has been the key to the success of the organization. Similar.ly,
Ethnicity-I
another organization working in tribes in Orissa follows the participatory
approach in the building sustainable housing and sanitation facilities. Instead
ofgiving grants to the selected families to build houses and toilets the NGO
involves all the families in the village. People luve to conffibute to the common
fund and then contribute their labour to make their houses. The NGO gives
technical and limited economic assistance. The locally available materials are
used for the building and locals know how it is used to the maximum. All
these processes make the programme participatory and cost-effective
compared to govemment housing scheme.

On the other hand government programmes are top- down approach.

Govemment officials are reluctant to go to remote areas and work with tribal
cornmunities. The type of programmes is determined at the higher levels, at
the state and central and lower level staff is only to implement the programmes.
Many of these programmes are not relevant to the tribal communities.
Participation ofthe beneficiades is minimal and their resources are not utilised
properly. High transaction costs and delays discourage potential beneficiaries
fiom availing the programmes. Another important firctor is the comrption that
exists in government departments. Bribes have to be paid to village officials
and bureaucrats to get the programmes sanctioned. All these conditions make
the numerous govemment programmes ineffective.

Check Your Progress III

Notel Use the space provided for your answer.
l) What are the major differences in the NGO approach and rh
government approach to development oftribes?

4.5 LET US SUM UP

The overview oftribal experiences with development clearly shows it has
adversely affected the tribes. The loss oftheir culture and their resources has
not been compensated with any tangible gains. The process of modemization
has always produced losers and winners- communities that have quickly
adapted themselves to modern institutions and values and others who have
remained backward. The communities that had locational and situational
advantages could adapt sooner than others. For example, during the colonial
period, some of the earlier elite quickly took advantage of colonial education
and employnent opporftrnities.

In case of tribal communities, the process has not been that of only the
inability to adapt. The colonial state and the post independent state policies
have contributed towards the marginalization and oppression ofthe tribes.
56 The realization ha's occurred in govemment and non-government sector that
 conditions' t*ffi*:lH#
failed to ameliorate their
welfare and development approach has
Urrt"rrtt..oot"ausesofoppressareaddressedthesituationwillnotimprove'Development
an important part in
have played
Unforhmately, govemment laws and polices
the oppressive sYstem.

+.e runrHER READINGS AND REIlxlxgES

(2005), Contemporary societies;
Behera, Deepak Kumar and Georg Pfeffer,
Concept Publishing houses'
*U"f^S*a*r, V"1ume six, Tribal siitation in India'
New Delhi.
French Students
Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J'-C' (1979)
The
-Inheritors:
of Chicago Press' Chicago'
and their Relations to Culture' University

Communities and Social change'

Chacko, Pariyaram M (ed)(2005)' Tribal
Sage Publications
review of tribal economic
Karmakar. K. G (2002), The silenced drums;
Delhi'
A"u"iop-.nt, Northern Book Agency' New
3 203 00
http //wr',w.hindu.
:
c om' fri2005/08/26lstories/2005082603
5'pdf
http://ncst.nic.in $ritereaddata'/mainlinkFile/File41
Princeton' New Jersey: D' Van
McClelland. David The Achieving Society
Nostrand ComPanl', Inc , 1961 '
Contemporary societies;
Pfeffer, Georg and Deepak Kumar Behera199?)' houses,
Jt.iii"a"r.iolume one, Stmcture and process, concept Publishing
New Deltu.
Contemporary societies;
Pfeffer. Georg and Deepak Kumar Behera(199?),
transition and change' Concept
tribal Studies. Volume two, Development issues
Publishing houses, New Delh'i'
Declining Social Capital"
Putnam, R. D. (i995). 'tsowling Alone: America's
Journal of DemocracY 6:1, Jan, 65-78'
and Development' Serials
Saksena H.S.et a1.(2006), Schedule Tribes
Publication. New Delhi.
edition' The tribal culture
\id1'aarthi. L P and Brnay Kumar Rai(1985) Second
ir inaia, concept Publishing House, New Delhi'

57