AC Circuits

Lecture 10
AC Theory
Complex Numbers
- Vector Form (Phasors) -

Patrick Mangire
 Complex Numbers
Introduction

• When we begin to analyze alternating current circuits, we find

that quantities of voltage, current, and even resistance
(called impedance in AC) possess other dimensions that must
be taken into account.
• Frequency and phase shift are two of these dimensions that
come into play.
• Even with relatively simple AC circuits, where we’re only
dealing with a single frequency, we still have the dimension of
phase shift to contend with in addition to the amplitude.
 Complex Numbers
Introduction

• We need complex numbers in order to handle these dimensions

• A complex number is a single mathematical quantity able to
express the dimensions of amplitude and phase shift at once.

Three ways of representing complex numbers

1. Vector form(phasors)
2. Polar form
3. Rectangular form

We’ll now discuss each one of these in more detail!

 Vector Form(Phasors)

• This is a graphical representation of a complex number.

• This involves drawing a line with a certain length (magnitude)
and angle (direction).
• For our target, the length will represent the amplitude and
the angle will represent the phase.
 Vector Form(Phasors)
Amplitude and Length

• The greater the amplitude

of the waveform, the
greater the length of its
corresponding vector.
 Vector Form(Phasors)
Phase
• The angle of the vector, however, represents the phase shift in
degrees between the waveform in question and another waveform
acting as a "reference" in time.
• Usually, when the phase of a waveform in a circuit is expressed, it
is referenced to the power supply voltage waveform (arbitrarily
stated to be "at" 0°).
• If there is more than one AC voltage source, then one of those
sources is arbitrarily chosen to be the phase reference for all
other measurements in the circuit
• Remember that phase is always a relative measurement between
two waveforms rather than an absolute property.
 Vector Form(Phasors)
Emphasis on reference

• With a clearly defined point of reference for phase it becomes

possible to speak of voltages and currents in an AC circuit having
definite phase angles.
• For example, if the current in an AC circuit is described as "24.3
milliamps at −64 degrees," it means that the current waveform
has an amplitude of 24.3 𝑚𝐴, and it lags 64° behind the reference
waveform, usually assumed to be the main source voltage
waveform.
 Vector Form(Phasors)
Phase
• The greater the phase shift
in degrees between two
waveforms, the greater the
angle difference between
the corresponding vectors.
 Vector Form(Phasors)
Example 1 Solution

• Use a phasor diagram to • As you can see, sine wave B leads

represent the sine waves sine wave A by and has less
in Fig.1 amplitude than sine wave A, as
indicated by the lengths of the
phasors

Fig.1
 Vector Form(Phasors)
Example 2

• Use a phasor diagram to represent the sine waves in Fig.2

Fig.2
 Vector Form(Phasors)
Solution

• The length of each phasor represents the amplitude(peak value)

of the sine wave.
 Vector Form(Phasors)
Practice Question
 Vector Addition
Simple vector addition

• Vectors can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided.

• Addition is perhaps the easiest vector operation to visualize, so
we’ll begin with that.
• If vectors with common angles are added, their magnitudes
(lengths) add up just like regular scalar quantities:
 Vector Addition
Simple vector addition
• Similarly, if AC voltage sources with the same phase angle are
connected together in series, their voltages add just as you might
expect with DC batteries:
 Vector Addition
Simple vector addition
• Please note the (+) and (-) polarity
marks next to the leads of the two AC
sources.
• Even though we know AC doesn’t have
"polarity" in the same sense that DC
does, these marks are essential to
knowing how to reference the given
phase angles of the voltages.
• This will become more apparent in the
next example.
 Vector Addition
Simple vector addition

• If vectors directly opposing each other (180° out of phase) are

added together, their magnitudes (lengths) subtract just like
positive and negative scalar quantities subtract when added:
 Vector Addition
Simple vector addition
• Similarly, if opposing AC voltage sources are connected in series,
their voltages subtract as you might expect with DC batteries
connected in an opposing fashion:
 Vector Addition
Simple vector addition
• Determining whether or not these voltage
sources are opposing each other requires an
examination of their polarity markings and
their phase angles.
• The polarity markings would normally
indicate an additive effect in a DC circuit
• But in this AC circuit they’re actually pushing
in opposite directions because one of those
voltages has a phase angle of 0° and the
other a phase angle of 180°.
• The result is a total voltage of 2 volts.
 Vector Addition
Simple vector addition
• We could have just as well shown the
opposing voltages subtracting in series.
• The polarities appear to be opposed to each
other now, due to the reversal of wire
connections on the 8 volt source.
• Both sources are described as having equal
phase angles (0°), they truly are opposed to
one another
• The overall effect is the same as the former
scenario with "additive" polarities and
differing phase angles: a total voltage of
only 2 volts.
 Vector Addition
Simple vector addition

• A point worth noting: A reversal of wires from an AC voltage

source is the same as phase-shifting that source by 180°
 Vector Addition
Complex vector addition
• If vectors with uncommon angles are added, their magnitudes
(lengths) add up quite differently than that of scalar magnitudes:

• If two AC voltages (90° out of phase) are added together by being

connected in series, their voltage magnitudes do not directly add
or subtract as with scalar voltages in DC.
• Instead, these voltage quantities are complex quantities which
add up in a trigonometric fashion.
 Vector Addition
Complex vector addition

• a 6 volt source at 0° added to an 8 volt

source at 90° results in 10 volts at a phase
angle of 53.13°.
• Note that it’s possible to obtain voltmeter
indications of 6 and 8 volts, respectively,
across the two AC voltage sources, yet only
read 10 volts for a total voltage!
• Compared to DC circuit analysis, this is very
strange indeed.
 Vector Addition
Complex vector addition
• DC voltages can only directly aid or directly oppose, with nothing
in between. With AC, two voltages can be aiding or opposing one
another to any degree between fully-aiding and fully-opposing,
inclusive.
• Without the use of vector (complex number) notation to describe
AC quantities, it would be very difficult to perform mathematical
calculations for AC circuit analysis.
• It’ll be tiresome to represent AC quantities graphically whenever
we’re analyzing an AC circuit.
• We’ll need to have represent these quantities in other forms if
any serious calculations are to be performed on these quantities.
 Vector Addition
Complex vector addition

• It’ll be tiresome to represent AC quantities graphically whenever

we’re analyzing an AC circuit.
• We’ll need to represent these quantities in other forms if any
serious calculations are to be performed on these quantities.
• These other forms are polar and rectangular forms as mentioned
earlier.

Next: polar and rectangular notations