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Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive

Development

What were the key ideas in his theory?

• His approach is also called the sociocultural (socio-historical) theory of

cognitive development.

• Children’s thinking is shaped

• by interactions with others

• by using the culture’s “psychological tools,” such as language.

• A child-in-context participating in some activity is the smallest meaningful

unit of study.

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What were the key ideas in his theory?

• Cognitive development is embedded in historical and cultural contexts.

• Children internalize cultural tools such as sign systems shared in the culture.

• Shared sign systems influence how people think, communicate, and solve
problems within a culture.

• They include language, counting system, maps, narratives

• Enculturation is something that children actively do; it is not something

that happens to them.

How does cognitive development occur?

• Learning precedes development.

• Acquisition of signs in the culture through social systems (internalization) then

brings self-regulation.

• Children are first other-regulated and then become self-regulated in social

contexts.

• For example, a mother reads to her child every evening before bed. The child
asks questions and touches the book and the pictures. Reading as a culture
shared and experienced intersubjectively.

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What are the mechanisms in the theory?

Private Speech

• Children incorporate the speech of others

• Use that speech to solve problems
• Speech and thought are tied at around age two by the use of mental symbols
(internalization of cultural representations)
• Not an ego-centric speech as Piaget proposes but a reflection of thinking
• Evident especially when the problems are difficult
• By the age of 7, the speech becomes silent (internal)
• For example, a preschooler solves the problem of building a castle using the blocks given
to her.

Zone of Proximal (Nearby) Development

• The distance between a child’s

• Performance on a task on her own

• and her potential performance when assisted/guided by an adult or

competent peer

• The space for learning

• Teachable moment/situation

• In this zone, the child is active and actively solving problems.

(ADAPTATION in Piaget’s terms)

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Mediation
• Refers to the social learning process where the help provided by
knowledgeable others mediates the learning of complex skills/solving
problems.

• Verbal explanations occur naturally while they are working collaboratively

• It is not an intentional instruction.

• Intersubjectivity in the zone supports learning within the zone by

• shared understanding,

• common focus of attention and a common goal between a child and a

more competent person.

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Cognitive apprenticeship and scaffolding

• Cognitive apprenticeship (mediation) is the entire process of modeling
through a time period on a task (borrowed from Rogoff).

• provide the beginner with access to both the overt aspects of the skill and
the more hidden inner processes of thought

• Scaffolding (Borrowed from Bruner) :

• A purposeful assistance

• Both the child and the guide are active and affect each other’s behavior

• The interaction and degree of support are adjusted according to how much
help the child needs.

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Cooperative learning

• Children or parties from different ability levels are learning together.

• In these situations, inner speech becomes hearable

• Support learning and development of both

• They understand each other’s problem-solving strategies

• The role of play in learning, solitary, and group play works similarly.

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What was his method?

• Vygotsky argued that we can only understand development by looking directly at
moment-to-moment change. (microgenetic method)
• the mechanism of development is the dialectical process
• two opposing ideas or phenomena are synthesized into a new idea or phenomenon
in interaction with an adult/peer (Similar to adaptation (accommodation) in Piaget)

• Because intelligence is not what you know but what you can learn with help,
• a dynamic assessment of a child’s potential level of development is necessary to
have an accurate picture of the child’s ability.
• As static assessments, intelligence tests can only give what children already know (the
bottom line of ZPD/the current level).

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What are the strengths and weaknesses of the theory?

• Strengths

• Emphasize the role of the social-cultural context of development,

• explain the influence of acculturation on thinking,

• pay attention to the diversity of development.

• Weaknesses

• Limited operational definition of ZPD

• Difficulties in studying the influence of social-cultural context on ZPD

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How does the theory inform teaching practice?

• ZPD- activities that fall into the zone can be learned

• Pre-assessment and process (dynamic) assessment is crucial

• Too easy- below the bottom line

• Too tricky- above the upper line

• Scaffolding- I do, We do, You do

• Gradual change from other-regulated to self-regulated

• Cooperative learning environments allow learners from different ability levels

to come together, and learn from each other. But the teacher should carefully
guide and facilitate the learning.

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Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

• A developing person is embedded in a series of environmental systems that interact with one
another.

• “Russian Doll” metaphor

• The focus is on the role of environment on child’s development

• Microsystem- immediate surroundings

• Mesosystem- interactions among microsystems

• Exosystem- system that individual is not a part of but indirectly influenced by

• Macrosystem- broader environment of culture

• Chronosystem- changes in the individual and environment across time

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Constructivist approaches to
instruction

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Constructivism
• Learning is a construction.

• Learners construct knowledge, and learning occurs by discovering,

transforming, and using new knowledge.

• So teaching, in the constructivist stance, is

• Making information meaningful and relevant for learners

• Providing opportunities to discover new ideas

• Helping the learners to be aware of their own strategies for learning

(metacognition and self-regulation)

• Student-centered.

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Vygotsky’s influence on constructivist methods

• On cooperative learning, project-based learning, discovery learning

• His ideas:

• Social learning by cooperative problem-solving and sharing inner speech on tasks

• ZPD, tasks are within the limits of ZPD of the group

• Cognitive apprenticeship (guided participation): Gradually acquiring expertise with the help
of knowledgeable others

• Mediated learning/scaffolding:

• Complex, realistic, and difficult tasks are given by necessary and enough help to achieve
them.

• Situated learning- giving real life task

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How can you use the constructivist approach?

• Top-Down Process:

• Opposite order with the traditional approach

• Beginning with problems (often proposed by the students themselves)

• Then, help students figure out how to do the operations.

• How can you enhance your achievement in essay writing?

• How would you solve the unemployment problem?

• How can we establish sustainable schools/classrooms?

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How can you use the constructivist approach?

• Discovery learning

• Proposed by Bruner

• It arouses curiosity, motivating them to continue to work until they find

answers.

• Students also learn independent problem-solving and critical-thinking skills,

because they must analyze and manipulate information.

• (-) Requires good guidance; otherwise, it can lead to errors and wasted
time. (Alien TV)

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How can you use the constructivist approach?

• Self-regulated learning

• Idealized student attitude

• Awareness of own thinking and studying strategies and feelings regarding

the process

• Ability to divide a problem into small and operational pieces

• Mastery/intrinsic motivation and persistence

• Can be taught, and children benefit from learning self-regulation strategies.

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How effective are the constructivist methods?

• Measurement is an issue because these methods are more likely to lead to

qualitative changes.

• Research shows that they are effective in different subject domains

• Designs are primarily descriptive, and comparative evidence is limited

• A blended model, including direct instruction and constructive methods,

seems to work well

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Social, Moral, Emotional

Development

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

• People pass through 8 stages of psychosocial development

• Psychosocial crisis

• Stage I: Trust vs mistrust (Birth to 18 months)

• Stage II: Autonomy vs Doubt (18 mnts to 3 y)

• Stage III: Initiative vs Guilt ( 3 to 6 y)

• Stage IV: Industry vs Inferiority (6 to 12 y)

• Stage V: Identity vs Role Confusion (12 to 18 y)

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• Identity: a firm and coherent sense of who we are, where we are heading,
and where we fit into society.

• Erikson believed identity formation was the primary task of adolescence and
young adulthood.

• identity crisis

• When answering the question, “What kind of self can (or should) I
become?”

• the sense of confusion and even anxiety

Marcia’s identity formation framework

• Based on structured interview data

• Four identity status based on adolescents’

• Explorations for various alternatives

• commitments to an occupation, a religious ideology, a sexual orientation, and

a set of political values.

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• Stage VI: Intimacy vs Isolation (Young adulthood)

• Stage VII: Generativity vs Self-absorbtion (Middle adulthood)

• Stage VIII: Integrity vs Despair (Late adulthood)

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Moral Development

How does Piaget define moral development?

• Moral development is closely related to cognitive development

• moral reasoning progresses

• through invariant levels:

• heteronomous morality,

• autonomous morality.

• Marble game (rules) and Moral stories (reasoning)

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Heteronomous morality (5/6 to 10)

• Acknowledging the existence of rules

• Compliance with the rules of authority figures

• Rules as “moral absolutes”, RIGHT means following the rules

• Judging the acts based on consequences instead of the doer’s intent

• Expiatory punishment: Punishment for its own sake

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• Kohlberg questioned the idea that moral development would be completed

11 years onward

• He asked boys from ages 10, 13 and 16

• Moral dilemmas:

• obeying a rule/law/authority figure vs taking an action conflicted with the rule

while serving a human need.

• He was less interested in what they choose, but more interested in why they
choose?

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Levels and stages of moral development

• Level 1: Pre-conventional
• Punishment and obedience orientation (avoidance from punishment)
• Example: Heinz should not steal because he will have to go to jail if he does.
• Instrumental relativist orientation (what is right is what satisfies one’s needs)
• Example: He should steal because when his wife recovers, she will care for him as she used to.
• Level 2: Conventional
• Good girl/boy orientation (Right is doing what is approved/expected by others/authorities)
• Example: He should steal because a good husband would do so.
• Law and order orientation (Right is doing one’s duty and obeying the rules, and rules cannot be
questioned)
• Example: He should not steal because everyone must obey the law; otherwise, maintaining social
order becomes impossible.

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Levels and stages of moral development

• Level 3: Post-conventional

• Social contract orientation (Law/rules can be revised for the good of the society)

• Example: While he shouldn't steal, the law needs revision to serve both parties
better.

• Universal ethical principle orientation (Right is the decision of conscience based on

moral principles)

• Example: He should steal because saving a human life is a more fundamental

value than the property rights of another person.

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• Moral development becomes complex throughout adolescence to young adulthood

• Moral reasoning progresses
• in stages
• invariant order, no regression to earlier stages
• Moral development is closely related to cognitive development
• However, cognitive development is not enough for moral development;
• Children must be exposed to persons or situations that introduce cognitive disequilibria.
• Social factors affecting cognitive development may contribute to moral development
• Living in a democratic society
• Having higher education
• Chances of discussion with parents and peers

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Self and self concept

• SELF is the combination of physical and psychological attributes

• Unique to the individual

• SELF-CONCEPT:

• Self-perception about the“self”

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• Adolescents
• Aware of multiple portrayal of self in different contexts

• They are in a search of real one

• They have to deal with inconsistencies in self-portrayals

• Ideal vs real selves

• In summary: Through developmental stages

• Self-concept becomes

• More psychological

• More abstract

• More coherent

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Self-esteem

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How do children develop socioemotionally?

• Early years
• Initiation and doubt
• Initiatives and Challenges, then self-regulation of emotions
• Peer relations
• Overcoming egocentrism
• Conflict resolution
• Cooperation and prosocial acts (role of parenting)
• The quality of parent-child relations impacts how children interact with peers

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How do children develop socioemotionally?

• Play

• Solitary play
• Parallel play

• Associative play

• Cooperative play

• All categories observed in all ages

• Solitary and parallel play decline with age, while associative and cooperative become more
common

• Play contributes to all aspects of development

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Who are peers?

• People of usually
• Same age
• Same social status and power (Social equals)
• Operating at the same level of behavioural complexity
• Pursue common goals and share similar interests
• Develop social competence mutually by
• Learning from each other
• Negotiating
• Compromising
• Cooperating for joint goals

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Friends?

• Friend, a peer with whom an individual has an

• Intimate
• Mutual
• Positive relationship
• Children tend to become friends with peers
• who are similar in age and sex
• who are similar in behaviours such as aggression, sociability, and
cooperativeness—although each of these factors matters less as children age into
adolescence.

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• Children’s conceptions of friends change with age.

• Young children rely primarily on the basis of actual activities with their peers.
• With age, issues such as loyalty, mutual understanding, trust, cooperative
reciprocity, and self-disclosure become important components of friendship.
• As children age and especially when they reach adolescence, friendships are
characterised by more self-disclosure and intimacy.
• Having friends is associated with positive developmental outcomes like social
competence and adjustment.

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How do children develop socioemotionally?

• During the elementary years

• Industrious vs inferiority

• Social-emotional factors affect how well children do at school

• Self-esteem can be reserved by avoiding inappropriate competition or

inflexible ability grouping

• Improving achievement enhances self-esteem

• Peer relations and friendships contribute to student well-being

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• Early adolescence
• More time spend with peers
• Cliques are common in beginning of early adolescence
• most clique members being of the same sex
• membership in cliques is not very stable over time
• clique members may not necessarily consider one another to be friends.
• Middle adolescence
• Boy and girl cliques interact more
• Form heterosexual cliques
• Adolescents often are members of crowds (loosely organised group sharing similar
values and norms)

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Peer interactions and acceptance

• Children’s status in the larger peer group varies as a function of their

• social behavior
• thinking about their social interactions
• physical attractiveness
• Sociometric techniques
• Measuring of a child’s likability in the eyes of peers

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• Popular (liked by majority): tend to be high in social skills and in regulation of

their emotions and behaviors but may not be well liked and may use their status to
engage in relational aggression.
• Rejected (disliked by majority): tend to be either aggressive or socially withdrawn
• Aggressive-rejected children are low in social skills, tend to make hostile
attributions about others’ intentions, and have trouble coming up with
constructive strategies for dealing with difficult social situations.
• Withdrawn-rejected children tend to feel isolated, lonely, and depressed over
time.
• Neglected (invisible to others- few nominations): tend to be less sociable,
aggressive, and disruptive than average children.
• Controversial (disliked/liked by many): tend to have characteristics of both
popular and rejected children: they tend to be aggressive, disruptive, and prone to
anger, as well as helpful, cooperative, sociable, good at sports, and humorous.
• Average-status (disliked/liked by a moderate number of peers)

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Parents role in peer relations

• Securely attached children tend to be more positive in their behavior and affect with
peers
• Parents of socially competent children use warm control, positive verbalisations,
reasoning, and explanations in interactions with their children.
• Positive relationships with parents can buffer children against the potential negative
effects of peer relationships.

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