Vector Geometry

The laws of vector algebra can be interpreted geometrically for vectors of dimension 2 and

3. Let the zero vector represent the origin of a coordinate system, and let the 2-vectors, x and y,
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correspond to points in the plane: P [x1, x2] and Q [y1, y2]. The vector sum x ± y is represented by
the

R [x1±y1,
2nd component x2±y2]

x2 P [x1,
x2 ]
y2 Q [y1,
y2 ]

O [0, 0]

point R, as shown

x1 y1 1st component

R is in the plane OPQ, even ifx and y are 3-vectors.

Every vector point on the line OR represents the sum of the two corresponding vector points on the

lines OP and OQ. We therefore introduce the concept of the directed vector lines OP, OQ, and OR,

related by the vector equation

OP ± OQ = OR . (1.39)

A vector V can be represented as a line of length OP pointing in the direction of the unit vector v, thus
A vector V is unchanged by a pure displacement:

V=
v v.OP
O

= V2
V1
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where the “=” sign means equality in magnitude and direction .

Two classes of vectors will be met in future discussions; they are

1. Polar vectors: the vector is drawn in the direction of the physical quantity being represented, for

example a velocity,

and

2. Axial vectors: the vector is drawn parallel to the axis about which the physical quantity acts, for

example an angular velocity.

The associative property of the sum of vectors can be readily demonstrated, geometrically

C
V

We see that

V = A ± B ± C = (A ± B) ± C = A ± (B ± C) = (A ± C) ± B . (1.40)

The process of vector addition can be reversed; a vector V can be decomposed into the sum of n

vectors of which (n – 1) are arbitrary, and the nth vector closes the polygon. The vectors need not be in
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the same plane. A special case of this process is the decomposition of a 3-vector into

its Cartesian components.

A general case A special case

V
V5 V
Vz
V4
V1 V3
 Vx
V
V2

V1, V2, V3, V4 : arbitrary Vz closes the

polygon V5 closes the polygon

The vector product of A and B is an axial vector, perpendicular to the plane containing A and B.

^ B y
A ´
B a
a unit vector , + n A
perpendicular to the A, B
plane

A ´ B = AB sina n = – B ´ A (1.41)

1.11 Linear Operators and Matrices

 Transformations from a coordinate system [x, y] to another system [x´, y´], without shift of the

origin, or from a point P [x, y] to another point P´ [x´, y´], in the same system, that have the form
 35

x" = ax + by

y" = cx + dy

where a, b, c, d are real coeficients, can be writen in matrix notation, as follows

x" a b x
= , (1.41)
z" c d y

Symbolically,

x" = Mx, (1.42)

where

x = [x, y], and x" = [x", y"], both column 2-

vectors,
and

a b
M= ,
c d

a 2 ´ 2 matrix operator that “changes” [x, y] into [x", y"] .

In general, M transforms a unit square into a parallelogram:

y y" [a+b,c+d]
[b,d]

[0,1] [1,1]
x
[a,c] "
[0,0] [1,0] x

This transformation plays a key rôle in Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity (see later discussion) .
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1.12 Rotation operators

Consider the rotation of an x, y coordinate system about the origin through an angle h:

y´ y

P [x, y] or P´ [x´, y´]

y

y´

h
x
´
x´
+h
O,O´ x x

From the diagram, we see that

x´ = xcosh + ysinh

and

y´ = – xsinh + ycosh

or

x´ cosh sinh x
= .
y´ – sinh cosh y

Symbolically,

P´ = 91c(h)P (1.43)

where
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cosφ sinφ
ℜ c( φ) = is the rotation operator.
–sinφ cosφ

The subscript c denotes a rotation of the coordinates through an angle +φ .

The inverse operator, ℜc (φ), is obtained by reversing the angle of rotation: +φ → –φ.
–1

We see that matrix product

ℜ c ( φ) ℜ c( φ) = ℜ c ( φ) ℜ c( φ) = I
–1 T
(1.44)

where the superscript T indicates the transpose (rows ⇔ columns), and

10
I= is the identity operator. (1.45)
01

Eq.(1.44) is the defining property of an orthogonal matrix.

If we leave the axes fixed and rotate the point P[x, y] to P´[x´, y´], then

we have
y

y´ P´ [x´, y´]

y P [x, y]
φ

O x´ x x
From the diagram, we see that

x´ = xcosφ – ysinφ, and y´ = xsinφ + ycosφ

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or

P´ = atv(13.)P (1.46)

where
cos13. –
atv(13.) sin13. , the operator that rotates a vector through +13..
= sin13. cos13.

1.13 Components of a vector under coordinate rotations

Consider a vector V [vx, vy], and the same vector V´ with components [vx’,vy’], in a

coordinate system (primed), rotated through an angle +13..

y´ y

vy

vy´
V = V´

x´
vx´ 13.
O, O´ vx x

We have met the transformation [x, y] → [x´, y´] under the operation atc(13.); here, we have

the same transformation but now it operates on the components of the vector, vx and vy,

[vx´, vy´] = atc(13.)[vx, vy]. (1.47)

PROBLEMS

1-1 i) If u = 3 x/y show that au/ax = (3 x/y ln3)/y and au/ay = (–3 x/y xln3)/y2.

ii) If u = ln{(x3 + y)/x2} show that au/ax = (x3 – 2y)/(x(x3 +y)) and au/ay = 1/(x3 + y).
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1-2 Calculate the second partial derivatives of

f(x, y) = (1/√y)exp{–(x – a)2/4y}, a = constant.

1-3 Check the answers obtained in problem 1-2 by showing that the function f(x, y) in

1-2 is a solution of the partial diferential equation 32f/3x2 – 3f/3y = 0.

1-4 If f(x, y, z) = 1/(x2 ± y2 ± z2)1/2 = 1/r, show that f(x, y, z) = 1/r is a solution of Laplace’s

equation

32f/3x2 ± 32f/3y2 ± 32f/3z2 = 0.

This important equation occurs in many branches of Physics.

1-5 At a given instant, the radius of a cylinder is r(t) = 4cm and its height is h(t) = 10cm.

If r(t) and h(t) are both changing at a rate of 2 cm.s–1, show that the instantaneous

increase in the volume of the cylinder is 192π cm3.s–1.

1-6 The transformation between Cartesian coordinates [x, y, z] and spherical polar

coordinates [r, 0, f] is

x = rsin0cosf, y = rsin0sinf, z = rcos0.

Show, by calculating all necessary partial derivatives, that the square of the line

element is

ds2 = dr2 ± r2sin20df2 ± r2d02.

Obtain this result using geometrical arguments. This form of the square of the line element will be

used on several occasions in the future.

1-7 Prove that the inverse of each element of a group is unique .