CHAPTER 7: ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES

Algebraic structure:

An algebraic structure is a set of elements, i.e., the carrier of the structure with an operation that matches
any two members of the set uniquely onto a third member. One of the most basic algebraic structures is the
group. The axioms give the specificity of an algebraic structure that it satisfies.

The basic operations of mathematics- addition, subtraction, division and multiplication are performed on two
operands. Even when we try to add three numbers, we add two of them and then add the third number to
the result of the two numbers. Thus, the basic mathematical operations are performed on two numbers and
are known as binary operations (the word binary means two). In this section, we will discuss binary
operations performed on a set.

What is Binary Operation?

We take the set of numbers on which the binary operations are performed as X. The operations (addition,
subtraction, division, multiplication, etc.) can be generalized as a binary operation is performed on two
elements (say a and b) from set X. The result of the operation on a and b is another element from the same
set X.

Thus, the binary operation can be defined as an operation * which is performed on a set A. The function is
given by *: A * A → A. So, the operation * performed on operands a and b is denoted by a * b.

Types of Binary Operation

There are four main types of binary operations which are:

 Binary Addition
 Binary Subtraction
 Binary Multiplication
 Binary Division
Binary addition is one of the binary operations. To recall, the term “Binary Operation” represents the basic
operations of mathematics that are performed on two operands. Basic arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, play an important role in mathematics.

What is Binary Addition

The binary addition operation works similarly to the base 10 decimal system, except that it is a base 2 system.
The binary system consists of only two digits, 1 and 0. Most of the functionalities of the computer system use
the binary number system. The binary code uses the digits 1’s and 0’s to make certain processes turn off or
on. The process of the addition operation is very familiar to the decimal system by adjusting to the base 2.

Before attempting the binary addition process, we should have complete knowledge of how the place works
in the binary number system. Because most of the modern digital computers and electronic circuits perform
the binary operation by representing each bit as a voltage signal. The bit 0 represents the “OFF” state, and
the bit 1 represents the “ON” state.

Rules of Binary Addition

Binary addition is much easier than the decimal addition when you remember the following tricks or rules.
Using these rules, any binary number can be easily added. The four rules of binary addition are:

 0+0=0
 0+1=1
 1+0=1
 1 + 1 =10

How To Do Binary Addition?

Now, look at the example of the binary addition:101 + 101

Procedure for Binary Addition of Numbers:

101

(+) 101

 Step 1: First consider the 1’s column, and add the one’s column, ( 1+1 ) and it gives the result 10 as
per the condition of binary addition.
 Step 2: Now, leave the 0 in the one’s column and carry the value 1 to the 10’s column.
1

101

(+) 101

————–

0
  Step 3: Now add 10’s place, 1+( 0 + 0 ) = 1. So, nothing carries to the 100’s place and leave the value
1 in the 10’s place
1

101

(+) 101

————-

10

 Step 4: Now add the 100’s place ( 1 + 1 ) = 10. Leave the value 0 in the 100’s place and carries 1 to the
1000’s place.
1

101

(+) 101

————-

1010

So, the resultant of the addition operation is 1010.

When you cross-check the binary value with the decimal value, the resultant value should be the same.

The binary value 101 is equal to the decimal value 5

So, 5 + 5 = 10

The decimal number 10 is equal to the binary number 1010.

Binary Addition Table

The table of adding two binary numbers 0 and 1 is given below:

x Y x+y

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0 (where 1 is carried over)

You can see from the above table, x and y are the two binary numbers. So when we give the input for x = 0
and y = 0, then the output is equal to 0. When x = 0 or 1 and y = 1 or 0, then x+y = 1. But when both x and y
are equal to 1, then their addition equals to 0, but the carryover number will equal to 1, which means
basically 1 + 1 = 10 in binary addition, where 1 is carry forwarded to the next digit.

Examples of Binary Addition

A few examples of binary additions are as follows:

Example 1: 10001 + 11101

Solution:

10001

(+) 1 1 1 0 1

———————–

101110

Example 2: 10111 + 110001

Solution:

111

10111

(+) 1 1 0 0 0 1

———————–

1001000

Binary Addition Using 1’s Complement

 The number 0 represents the positive sign

 The number 1 represents the negative sign
Addition of Positive and Negative Number

Case 1: When a positive number has a greater magnitude

Take the 1’s complement of the negative number, and the carry is added to the resultant sum at the 1’s place.
When you add the carry with the resultant, you will get the sum value.
Example:

+ 1111 and -1101

+1111=01111

– 1 1 0 1 = 1 0 0 1 0 (taking 1’s complement)

——————-

00001

———————

00010

Therefore, the solution is + 0010.

 Case 2: When a negative number has a greater magnitude

Take the 1’s complement of the negative number, and there will be no end-around carrying in this case.
Finally, the sum is obtained by taking the 1’s complement of the resultant.

Example:

+ 1111 and -1101

– 1 1 1 1 = 1 0 0 0 0 (taking 1’s complement)

+1 1 0 1 = 0 1 1 0 1

—————-

1110

——————

1 0 0 1 0 (taking 1’s complement)

Addition of Two Negative Numbers

Take the 1’s complement of both the negative numbers and then add. The end around carrying will appear,
and it will generate a number 1 in the sign bit. The sum value can be obtained by taking the 1’s complement
of the resultant.

Example:

 -1010 and – 0011

  1 0 1 0 = 1 0 1 0 1 (taking 1’s complement)
 0 0 1 1 = 1 1 1 0 0 (taking 1’s complement)
————————–

10001

—————————–

10010

—————————-

1 1 1 0 1 (taking 1’s complement)

Therefore the solution is – 1101

Binary subtraction is one of the four binary operations, where we perform the subtraction method for two
binary numbers (comprising only two digits, 0 and 1). This operation is similar to the basic arithmetic
subtraction performed on decimal numbers in Maths. Hence, when we subtract 1 from 0, we need to borrow
1 from the next higher order digit, to reduce the digit by 1 and the remainder left here is also 1. Read
other binary operations here.

Binary Subtraction

 0–0=0
 1–0=1
 1–1=0
 0 – 1 = 1 (Borrow 1)

Note: For fractional binary numbers, the same rule applies for subtraction, and the decimal should be
appropriately placed.

What is Binary Subtraction?

Can you subtract binary numbers? The answer is yes. Subtraction of binary numbers is an arithmetic
operation similar to the subtraction of decimal numbers or base 10 numbers. For example, 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 in
base 10 and 1 + 1 + 1 = 11 in binary number system. When you add and subtract binary numbers, you will
need to be careful when borrowing as these will take place more often.

When you subtract several columns of binary digits, you must take into account the borrowing. When 1 is to
be subtracted from 0, the result is 1 where 1 is borrowed from the next highest order bit or digit.
Binary Subtraction Table

The subtraction of binary numbers is given by:

Binary Number Subtraction Value

0–0 0

1–0 1

0–1 1 (Borrow 1 from the next high order digit)

1–1 0

Note:

The addition of two binary numbers 1 and 1 is 10, where we consider 0 and carry forward 1 to the next high
order. But in the case of subtraction of 1 and 1, the answer is equal to 0, and nothing is carried forward.

In the case of decimal subtraction, when 1 is subtracted from 0, then we borrow 1 from the next preceding
number and make it 10, and after subtraction, it results in 9, i.e. 10 – 1 = 9. But for binary subtraction, it
results in 1 only.

Binary Subtraction Rules

Rules and tricks: Binary subtraction is much easier than the decimal subtraction when you remember the
following rules:

 0–0=0
 0 – 1 = 1 ( with a borrow of 1)
 1–0=1
 1–1=0
Now, look at the example of the binary subtraction: 101 from 1010

How to Subtract Binary Numbers?

Learn how to do binary subtraction using the example: 1010 – 101

Procedure to do Binary Subtraction:

1010

(-) 101

Step 1: First consider the 1’s column, and subtract the one’s column,( 0 – 1 ) and it gives the result 1 as per
the condition of binary subtraction with a borrow of 1 from the 10’s place.
Step 2: After borrowing 1 from the 10’s column, the value 1 in the 10’s column is changed into the value 0

1 Borrow

1010

(-) 1 0 1

——————

Step 3: So, subtract the value in the 10’s place, ( 0 – 0 ) = 0.

1 Borrow

1010

(-) 1 0 1

——————

01

Step 4: Now subtract the values in 100’s place. Borrow 1 from the 1000’s place ( 0 – 1 ) = 1.

1 1 Borrow

1010

(-) 1 0 1

——————

0101

So, the resultant of the subtraction operation is 0101.

When you cross-check the binary subtraction resultant value with the decimal value, the resultant value
should be the same.

The binary value 1010 is equal to the decimal value 10, and 101 is equivalent to 5

So, 10 – 5 = 5

Therefore, the decimal number 5 is equal to the binary number 0101.

Binary Subtraction Using 1’s Complement

 The number 0 represents the positive sign

  The number 1 represents the negative sign

Procedures for Binary Subtraction by 1’s Complement

 Write the 1’s complement of the subtrahend

 Then add the 1’s complement subtrahend with the minuend
 If the result has a carryover, then add that carry over in the least significant bit
 If there is no carryover, then take the 1’s complement of the resultant, and it is negative.

Binary Subtraction Questions Using 1’s Complement

Question 1:

(110101)2 – (100101)2

Solution:

(1 1 0 1 0 1)2 = 5310

(1 0 0 1 0 1)2 = 3710 – subtrahend

Now take the 1’s complement of the subtrahend and add with minuend.

1 carry

110101

(+) 0 1 1 0 1 0

——————

001111

1 carry

——————

010000

Therefore, the solution is 010000

(010000)2 = 1610

Question 2:

(101011)2 – (111001)2

Solution:

Take 1’s complement of the subtrahend

111

101011

(+) 0 0 0 1 1 0 (1’s complement)

——————

110001

Now take the 1’s complement of the resultant since it does not carry 1

The resultant becomes 0 0 1 1 1 0

Now, add the negative sign to the resultant value

Therefore the solution is – (001110)2.

Binary Subtraction Examples

Consider other examples of binary subtractions are as follows:

Example 1: 0011010 – 001100

Solution:

1 1 Borrow

0011010

(-) 0 0 1 1 0 0

——————

0001110

Decimal Equivalent :

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 = 26

0 0 1 1 0 0 = 12

Therefore, 26 – 12 = 14

The binary resultant 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 is equivalent to 14.

Example 2: 0100010 – 0001010

Solution:
1 1 Borrow

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 = 3410

(-) 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 = 1010

——————

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 = 2410

Binary multiplication is one of the four binary arithmetic. The other three fundamental operations are
addition, subtraction and division. In the case of a binary operation, we deal with only two digits, i.e. 0 and 1.
The operation performed while finding the binary product is similar to the conventional multiplication
method. The four major steps in binary digit multiplication are:

 0×0=0
 0×1=0
 1×0=0
 1×1=1

Note: The binary product of the two binary numbers 1 and 1 is equal to 1 only. And no additional number is
borrowed or carried forward in this operation.

Based on the above specification, we will solve here the problems online based on the multiplication of binary
numbers.

In this section, you will get answers for the questions about binary multiplication, including:

 What is Binary multiplication?

 Procedure to multiply two binary numbers
 Steps to Solve Binary multiplication using examples

What is Binary Multiplication?

The binary multiplication operation is actually a process of addition and shifting operation. This process has to
be continued until all the multiplier is done, and finally, the addition operation is made.

Similar to the decimal system, the multiplication of the binary numbers is done by multiplying the
multiplicand with the multiplier. It is noted that the multiplication by zero makes all the bits zero, and this
step may be ignored in the intermediate steps. The multiplication by 1 makes all the multiplicand value
unchanged.

Binary Multiplication Table

The multiplication table for binary numbers is given below.

Binary Number Multiplication Value

0x0 0

1x0 0

0x1 0

1x1 1

Binary Multiplication Rules

Binary multiplication, like other binary operations, is much easier, unlike the decimal multiplication when you
remember the following multiplication rules. The rules of binary multiplication are:

 0×0=0
 0×1=0
 1×0=0
 1 × 1 = 1 [No borrow or carry method is applicable here]
As per these rules, it very clear, that if the binary multiplication includes 0, then it will result in zero itself.
Hence,

Binary product of 0 and 0 is equal to 0

Binary product of 0 and 1 is equal to 0

Binary product of 1 and 0 is equal to 0

But,

Binary product of 1 and 1 is equal to 1.

To differentiate the rules for multiplication of binary numbers from other binary operations such as addition,
subtraction and division, please refer to below given table:

Addition Subtraction Division

0+0 = 0 0-0 = 0 0÷0 = 0

0+1 = 1 0-1 = 1 (1 is borrowed) 0÷1 = 0

1+0 = 1 1-0 = 1 1÷1 = 1

1+1 = 0 (1 is carry forwarded) 1-1 = 0

Examples of Binary Multiplication

Some binary multiplication examples are given below for a better understanding of this concept.

Example 1: Solve 1010 × 101

Solution:

1010 × 101

1010

(×) 101

—————–

1010

0000

——————

01010 ……. First Intermediate Sum

1010

——————–

110010

Comparison with Decimal values:

10102 = 1010

10102 = 510

10 x 5 = 5010

(110010)2 = 5010

Another example of binary multiplication with a decimal point is as follows:

Question: 1011.01 × 110.1

Solution:
Here, the decimal point is placed three places from the least significant bit. Because, the binary number
1011.01, the decimal point is 2 places from the LSB and 110.1 the decimal point is placed 1 place from the
LSB.

What is Binary Division?

The binary division operation is similar to the base 10 decimal system, except the base 2. The division is
probably one of the most challenging operations of the basic arithmetic operations. There are different ways
to solve division problems using binary operations. Long division is one of them and the easiest and the most
efficient way. This section has been designed to answer questions about binary division, including:

 What is Binary division?

 Procedure to add two binary numbers
 Examples to Solve Binary division

Binary Division Rules

The binary division is much easier than the decimal division when you remember the following division rules.
The main rules of the binary division include:

 1÷1 = 1
 1÷0 = Meaningless
 0÷1 = 0
 0÷0 = Meaningless
Similar to the decimal number system, the binary division is similar, which follows the four-step process:

 Divide
 Multiply
 Subtract
 Bring down
Important Note: Binary division follows the long division method to find the resultant in an easy way.
Comparison with Decimal Value

(01111100)2 = (1111100)2 = 12410

(0010)2 = (10)2 = 210

You will get the resultant value as 62 when you divide 124 by 2.

So the binary equivalent of 62 is (111110)2

(111110)2 = 6210

Both the binary and the decimal system produce the same result.

Binary Division Examples

Example 1.

Question: Solve 01111100 ÷ 0010

Solution:

Given

01111100 ÷ 0010

Here the dividend is 01111100, and the divisor is 0010

Remove the zero’s in the Most Significant Bit in both the dividend and divisor, that doesn’t change the value
of the number.

So the dividend becomes 1111100, and the divisor becomes 10.

Now, use the long division method.

  Step 1: First, look at the first two numbers in the dividend and compare with the divisor. Add the
number 1 in the quotient place. Then subtract the value, you get 1 as remainder.
 Step 2: Then bring down the next number from the dividend portion and do the step 1 process again
 Step 3: Repeat the process until the remainder becomes zero by comparing the dividend and the
divisor value.
 Step 4: Now, in this case, after you get the remainder value as 0, you have zero left in the dividend
portion, so bring that zero to the quotient portion.
Therefore, the resultant value is quotient value which is equal to 111110

So, 01111100 ÷ 0010 = 111110

Example 2: Solve using the long division method: 101101 ÷ 101

Solution:

So, when you bring down the fourth bit of the dividend, it does not match with the divisor. In order to bring
down the 5th and 6th bit of the dividend, add two zeros in the quotient value.

Binary Operations Example Questions

 Let us show that addition is a binary operation on real numbers (R) and natural numbers (N). So if we
add two operands which are natural numbers a and b, the result will also be a natural number. The
same holds good for real numbers. Hence,
+ : R x R → R is given by (a, b) → a + b

+ : N x N → N is given by (a, b) → a + b

 Let us show that multiplication is a binary operation on real numbers (R) and natural numbers (N). So
if we multiply two operands which are natural numbers a and b, the result will also be a natural
number. The same holds good for real numbers. Hence,
x: R x R → R is given by (a, b) → a x b

x: N x N → N is given by (a, b) → a x b

 Let us show that subtraction is a binary operation on real numbers (R). So if we subtract two
operands which are real numbers a and b, the result will also be a real number. The same does not
hold good for natural numbers. It is because if we take two natural numbers, 3 and 4 as a and b, then
3 – 4 = -1, which is not a natural number. Hence,
– : R x R → R is given by (a, b)→ a – b

Similarly, the division cannot be defined on real numbers. This is because / : R x R → R is given by (a, b)→
aa/b. Now if we take b as 0 here, a/b is not defined.

Groups Definition

If G is a non-empty set and “⋆” is the binary operation defined on G such that the following laws or axioms
are satisfied then, (G, ⋆) is called a group.

Let “G” be a non-empty set and “⋆” be a binary operation on G such that

(G1) – Closure law for a, b ∈ G, a ⋆ b ∈ G

(G2) – Associative a ⋆ (b ⋆ c) = (a ⋆ b) ⋆ c for all a, b, c ∈ G
law
(G3) – Identity there is an element e ∈ G such that a ⋆ e = e ⋆ a = a for all a ∈ G; where e is the
element identity element
(G4) – Inverse law for each a ∈ G, there exists an element b ∈ G such that a ⋆ b = b ⋆ a = e, where
b = a-1 is the inverse element of a.

Notation and Examples of Groups

Consider a set of real numbers and a binary operation, say addition, then it forms a group. This can be
represented as (ℝ, +). Similarly, (Z, +) is also a group that comprises a set of integers under addition.

Terminology of Groups

We can define various terms related to groups based on the number of laws they satisfy.

Abelian Group or Commutative Group

(G; ⋆) is said to be an abelian group, or a commutative group is a binary operation that satisfies the
commutative law, i.e., a ⋆ b = b ⋆ a for all a, b ∈ G.

Semi Group

If the set G satisfies only closure law and associative law, then G is called a semi-closed group or semi group.

Finite and Infinite Group

In a group, G contains only a finite number of elements, then group G is called a finite group; otherwise,
group G is called an infinite group.

Order of a group: The number of elements in a finite group G is called the order of a group and is denoted by
O(G). That means if the number of elements in G is n, then O(G) = n.

Theorem on Groups
Theorem 1:

In a group, the identity element is unique (or) Uniqueness of the identity element.

Proof:

Let (G, ⋆) be a group.

Let us assume that e and f are the two identity elements of group G.

Case (i):

Let e ∈ G be the general identity element of group G.

And f ∈ G be the identity element of group G.

⇒ e ⋆ f = f ⋆ e = e….(1)

Case (ii)

Let f ∈ G be the general identity element of group G.

And e ∈ G be the identity element of group G.

⇒ f ⋆ e = e ⋆ f = f….(2)

From (1) and (2),

e=f

Hence, in group G, the identity element is unique.

Theorem 2: (Cancellation laws)

Let G be a group, then for a, b, c ∈ G;

ab = ac ⇒ b = c (Left cancellation law)

ba = ca ⇒ b = c (Right cancellation law)

Proof:

Let G be a group and e be the identity element in group G.

Also, consider aa-1 = a-1a = e….(1)

Left cancellation law:

Consider ab = ac

⇒ a-1(ab) = a-1(ac)
⇒ (a-1a)b = (a-1a)c

⇒ eb = ec [From equation (1)]

⇒b=c

Thus, ab = ac ⇒ b = c

Hence, the Left cancellation law is proved.

Right cancellation law:

Consider ba = ca

⇒ (ba)a-1 = (ca)a-1

⇒ b(aa-1) = c(aa-1)

⇒ be = ce [From equation (1)]

⇒b=c

Thus, ba = ca ⇒ b = c

Hence, the Right cancellation law is proved.