16

A.C. Bridges

16.1 INTRODUCTION The detectors commonly used for a.c. bridges are:
Alternating current bridge methods are of (i) Head phones,
outstanding importance for measurement of electrical (zz) Vibration galvanometers, and
quantities. Measurement of inductance, capacitance, (izi) Tuneable amplifier detectors.
storage factor, loss factor may be made conveniently
Head phones are widely used as detectors at
and accurately by employing a.c. bridge networks.
frequencies of 250 Hz and over upto 3 or 4 kHz. They
The a.c. bridge is a natural outgrowth of the are most sensitive detectors for this frequency range.
Wheatstone bridge. An a.c. bridge, in its basic form, When working at a single frequency a tuned
consists of four arms, a source of excitation, and a detector normally gives the greatest sensitivity and
balance detector. In an a.c. bridge each of the four discrimination against harmonics in the supply.
arms is an impedance, and the battery and the
Vibration galvanometers are extremely useful for
galvanometer of the Wheatstone bridge are replaced power and low audio frequency ranges. Vibration
respectively by an a.c. source and a detector sensitive galvanometers are manufactured to work at various
to small alternating potential differences. frequencies ranging from 5 Hz to 1000 Hz but are most
The usefulness of a.c. bridge circuits is not commonly used below 200 Hz as below this frequency
restricted to the measurement of unknown impedances they are more sensitive than the head phones.
and associated parameters like inductance, capacitance, Tuneable amplifier detectors are the most
storage factor, dissipation factor etc. These circuits versatile of the detectors. The transistor amplifier can
find other applications in communication systems and be tuned electrically and thus can be made to respond
complex electronic circuits. Alternating current bridge to a narrow bandwidth at the bridge frequency. The
circuits are commonly used for phase shifting, provi­ output of the amplifier is fed to a pointer type of
ding feedback paths for oscillators and amplifiers, instrument. This detector can be used, over a
filtering out undesirable signals and measuring the frequency range of 10 Hz to 100 kHz.
frequency of audio signals. For ordinary a.c. bridge measurements of
inductance and capacitance, a fixed frequency
16.2 SOURCES AND DETECTORS oscillator of 1000 Hz and output of about 1 W is
For measurements at low frequencies, the power adequate. For more specialised work continuously
line may act as the source of supply to the bridge variable oscillators are preferable with outputs upto
circuits. For higher frequencies electronic oscillators 5 W. The high power may be necessary on some
are universally used as bridge source supplies. These occasions, but in practice it is better to limit the power
oscillators have the advantage that the frequency is supplied to the bridge. Another practice which is
constant, easily adjustable, and determinable with usually followed is to- use an untuned amplifier
accuracy. The waveform is very close to a sine wave, detector. The balance detection is sensed both orally
and their power output is sufficient for most bridge by head phones, and visually by a pointer galvanometer
measurements. A typical oscillator has a frequency having a logarithmic deflection (to avoid damage to
range of 40 Hz to 125 kHz with a power output of 7 W. the galvanometer which may be caused by unbalance).
(479)
 480 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

16.3 GENERAL EQUATION FOR BRIDGE BALANCE Considering the polar form, the impedance can be
Figure 16.1 shows a basic a.c. bridge. The four written as Z = ZZ0, where Z represents the magnitude
arms of the bridge are impedances Zp Z2, Z3 and Z4. and 0 represents the phase angle of the complex
impedance. Now Eqn. 16.5 can be re-written in the
form
(Z, Z0j)(Z4 Z04) = (Z2 Z02)(Z3 Z03) ...(16.7)
Thus for balance, we must have :
Z1 Z4 /9l + e4= Z2Z3/92 + 93 -<16-8)

Equation 16.8 shows that two conditions must be

satisfied simultaneously when balancing an a.c.
bridge. The first condition is that the magnitude of
impedances satisfy the relationship :
ZjZ4 = Z2Z3 ...(16.9)
The second condition is that the phase angles of
impedances satisfy the relationship :

Fig. 16.1 Basic a.c. bridge network. Z0j + Z04 = Z02 + Z03 ...(16.10)
The phase angles are positive for an inductive
The conditions for balance of bridge require that impedance and negative for capacitive impedance.
there should be no current through the detector. This If we work in terms of rectangular co-ordinates,
requires that the potential difference between points b we have
and d should be zero. This will be the case when the Zj = Rj + yXj; z2 = + /X2
voltage drop from a to b equals to voltage drop from a
Z3 = R3 + jx3 and Z4 = R4 + jX4.
to d, both in magnitude and phase. In complex
notation we can, thus, write : Thus from Eqn. 16.5, for balance,
...(16.1) Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
Ei = E2
or IjZj = LfZ^ ...(16.2) or (Rj +yX1)(R4 + ;X4) = (1^ + j‘X2)(R3 + /X3)
Also at balance, or R1R4-X1X4 + ;(X1R4 + X4R1)
= -x2x3 + jtx^ + x^)
I1=I3=---- — ...(16.3)
1 3 z +z ...(16.11)
^1 ^3
. T T E Equation 16.11 is a complex equation and a complex
and E = I, =----------- ...(16.4)
2 4 ^^4 equation is satisfied only if real and imaginary parts of
each side of the equation are separately equal. Thus,
Substitution of Eqns. 16.3 and 16.4 into Eqn. 16.2
for balance,
gives,
^R4 -X1X4 = R2R3 -X2X3 ...(16.12)
ZiZ4 = Z2Z3 ...(16.5)
and Xj X4 + X4Rj = X2R3 + X3R2 ...(16.13)
or when using admittances instead of impedances
Thus there are two independent conditions for
= Y2Y3 ...(16.6) balance and both of them must be satisfied for the
Equations 16.5 and 16.6 represent the basic bridge to be balanced.
equations for balance of an a.c. bridge. Equation 16.5 is Example 16.1 The four impedances of an a.c. bridge
convenient to use when dealing with series elements shown in Fig. 16.1 are :
of a bridge while Eqn. 16.6 is useful when dealing with Zj = 400 Q Z 50°; Z2 =200Q Z40°;
parallel elements.
Z3 = 800 Z-50° ; Z4 = 400 Q Z20°
Equation 16.5 states that the product of
Find out whether the bridge is balanced under these
impedances of one pair opposite arms must equal the
conditions or not.
product of impedances of the other pair of opposite
arms expressed in complex notation. This means that Solution. Applying the first condition of balance
both magnitudes and the phase angles of the for magnitudes,
impedances must be taken into account.
A.C. Bridges 481

Now, Z1Z4 = 400 x 400 = 1,60,000 16.4 GENERAL FORM OF AN A.C. BRIDGE
and Z2Z3 = 200 x 800 = 1,60,000. As an example let us consider the bridge circuit of
7 7 _ 7 7 Fig. 16.2. R3 and R4 are non-inductive resistances,
.. ^1^4 ~ ^2 o’
and are inductances of the negligible resistance and
Thus the first condition is satisfied.
q and q are non-inductive resistors.
Applying the second condition for balance
Therefore at balance,
required for phase,
Z]Z4 = z2 z3
zo1 + z94 = zo2 + ze3 or (Rj=(R2 + 7coi2)R3
Now zei + ze4 = 50°+20°=70° Equating the real and imaginary parts separately,
and ze2 + ze3 = 40°-50°=-10°. we have,
This indicates that the condition for phase R1R4 = R2R3 or R1=^2. R2 ...(16.14)
relationship is not satisfied and therefore the bridge is
unbalanced even though the condition for equality of R,
magnitudes is satisfied. and = jal^R^ or [^=—^-1^ ...(16.15)

Example 16.2 An a.c. bridge circuit working at

Thus if Lj and R1 are unknown, the above bridge
1000 Hz is shown in Fig. 16.1, Arm ab is a 0.2 pF pure
capacitance ; arm be is a 500 Q pure resistance ; arm cd
may be used to measure these quantities in terms of
R2,R3,R4 and L^. We may deduce several important
contains an unknown impedance and arm da has a 300 Q
resistance in parallel with a 0.1 pF capacitor. Find the R conclusions from the above simple example. They are:
and C or L constants of arm cd considering it as a series 1. Two balance equations are always obtained for
circuit. an a.c. bridge circuit. This follows from the fact that for
balance in an a.c. bridge, both magnitude and phase
Solution. Impedance of arm ab is :
relationships must be satisfied. This requires that real
~ _ r — ~------- - --------------------- --- bUU £2. and imaginary terms must be separated, which give
271/Q 271x1000x0.2x10.6 two equations to be satisfied for balance.
and Z} = 800 / -90° Q since it is a pure capacitance. 2. The two balance equations enable us to know
Impedance of arm be is two unknown quantities. The two quantities are usually
a resistance and an inductance or a capacitance.
Z3 = 500 Q
3. In order to satisfy both conditions for balance
or Z3 = 500 Z0° since it is a pure resistance.
and for convenience of manipulation, the bridge must
Arm da contains a 300 Q resistance in parallel with contain two variable elements in its configuration. For
a 0.1 pF capacitance. greatest convenience, each of the balance equations
z ^2 _____________ 300____________ must contain one variable element, and one only. The
2 l + jcoQ!^ 1 +/(2 7ix 1000 x 0.1 xl0"6x 300) equations are then said to be independent. In the bridge
of Fig. 16.2, R^ and are obvious choice as variable
= 294.8 - 7'55.4 = 300/-10,6° elements since 1^ does not appear in the expression for
For balance, Z4 = Z2 Z3

:. Impedance of cd required for balance is,

Z - Z2Z3 = 360 x 500
/-10.6o+0°+90o
4 Zi 800

= 187.5 /78.4° .

The positive angle for impedance indicates that

the branch consists of a series R-L circuit.
Resistance, R4 = 187.5 cos 78.4° = 37.7 Q.
Inductive reactance
X4 = 187.5 sin 78.4° = 83.6 Q.
Inductance, = 183.6/2k(1000)H = 29.2 mH.
Fig. 16.2 Inductance comparison Bridge.
 482 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

RT and R2 does not figure in the expression for and advantage to use a detector tuned to the fundamental
hence the two balance equations are independent. The frequency. Further while the disappearance of the
technique of balancing is to adjust L, till a minimum frequency factor is of advantage in many bridges,
indication is obtained on the detector, then to adjust some bridges derive their usefulness from the
R2 until a new smaller minimum indication is presence of a frequency factor ; such bridges must
obtained. Then L, and R2 are alternately adjusted until then be supplied from a source with very good
the detector shows no indication. wave-form and high frequency stability.
The process of alternate manipulation of two Alternatively, they may be used to determine
variable elements is rather typical of the general frequency.
balancing procedures adopted in most a.c. bridges.
When two variables are chosen such that the two 16.5 MEASUREMENT OF SELF-INDUCTANCE
balance equations are no longer independent, the 16.5.1 Maxwell's Inductance Bridge
bridge has a very poor convergence of balance and
This bridge circuit measures an inductance by
gives the effect of sliding balance. The term Sliding
comparison with a variable standard self-inductance.
Balance describes a condition of interaction between
The connections and the phasor diagrams for balance
the two controls. Thus when we balance with Ry then
conditions are shown in Fig. 16.3.
go to R3 and back to R2 for adjustment, we find a new
apparent balance. Thus the balance point appears to
move, or slide and settles only gradually to its final
point after many adjustments. It may be emphasised
here that in case the two balance conditions are
independent, not more than two or three adjustments
of the variable elements would be necessary to obtain
balance. In case we choose the two variable compo­
nents such that the two equations are not independent
the balance procedure becomes laborious and time­
consuming. For example, if we choose R2 and R3 as
variable elements, the two equations are no longer
independent since R3 appears in both the equations.
Thus R3 is adjusted to satisfy Eqn. 16.15, its value may
be becoming farther removed from that which satisfies
Eqn. 16.14. There are two adjustments, one resistive
and the other reactive that must be made to secure
balance. For the usual magnitude responsive detector,
these adjustments must be made alternately until they
converge on the balance point.
The convergence to balance point is best when
both the variable elements are in the same arms.
4. In this bridge circuit balance equations are
independent of frequency. This is often a considerable
advantage in an a.c. bridge, for the exact value of the
source frequency need not then be known. Also, if a
bridge is balanced for a fundamental frequency it
should also be balanced for any harmonic and the pig. 16.3 Maxwell’s inductance Bridge.
wave-form of the source need not be perfectly
sinusoidal. On the other hand, it must be realized that Let
the effective inductance and resistance for example, of Lj = unknown inductance of resistance R]z
a coil, vary with frequency (see pages 162-163 and = variable inductance of fixed resistance r2,
169), so that a bridge balanced at a fundamental Ro - variable resistance connected in series
frequency is never, in practice, truly balanced for the with inductor Ly
harmonics. To minimize difficulties due to this the and Ry R4 - known non-inductive resistances.
source wave form should be good, and it is often an
A.C. Bridges 483

The theory of this bridge has been dealt with in Writing the equation for balance
Art. 16.4. At balance,
*4
(Rt + /coLj) = R2R3
L= —R ...(16.16) 1 + /coC4R4>
V

and R^-^R^ + rJ ...(16.17) or R^ + = R2Rj +

R/t Separating the real and imaginary terms, we have
Resistors R3 and R4 are normally a selection of R„R.
R =-^ ...(16.18)
values from 10, 100, 1000 and 10,000 Q. r2 is a decade 1 *4
resistance box. In some cases, an additional known
and Lj = R2R3C4 ...(16.19)
resistance may have to be inserted in series with
unknown coil in order to obtain balance. Thus we have two variables R4 and C4 which
appear in one of the two balance equations and hence
16.5.2 Maxwell's Inductance
the two equations are independent.
Capacitance bridge. In this bridge, an inductance
The expression for Q factor
is measured by comparison with a standard variable
capacitance. The connections and the phasor diagram Q= gjL1/R1=coC4R4 ...(16.20)
at the balance conditions are given in Fig. 16.4. Advantages :
Let Lj - unknown inductance, The advantages of this bridge are :
R} = effective resistance of inductor Lj, 1. The two balance equations are independent
if we choose R4 and C4 as variable elements.
R^, RyR^ = known non-inductive resistances,
2. The frequency does not appear in any of the
and C4 = variable standard capacitor.
two equations.
3. This bridge yields simple expression for
unknowns Lj and in terms of known
bridge elements.
Physically R2 and R3 are each, say, 10, 100,
1000 or 10,000 Q and their value is selected to
give suitable value of product R, R3 which
appears in both the balance equations ; C4 is
decade capacitor and R4 a decade resistor.
The simplicity of the bridge can be
appreciated by the following example.
Suppose the product R, R3 is 10°. Therefore,
inductance is = C4 x 106 (see Eqn. 16.19).
Thus when balance is achieved the value of
C4 in pF directly gives the value of
inductance in H.
4. The Maxwell's inductance - capacitance
bridge is very useful for measurement of a
wide range of inductance at power and
audio frequencies.
Disadvantages :
The main disadvantages of this bridge are :
This bridge requires a variable standard
1.
capacitor which may be very expensive if calibrated to
a high degree of accuracy. Therefore sometimes a
Gxed standard capacitor is used, either because a
variable capacitor is not available or because fixed
fig. 16.4 Maxwell's inductance capacitance bridge. capacitors have a higher degree of accuracy and are
 484 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

less expensive than the variable ones. The balance

adjustments are then done by :
(a) either varying R2 and R4 and since R2
appears in both the balance equations, the
balance adjustments become difficult; or
(b) putting an additional resistance in series
with the inductance under measurement
and then varying this resistance and R^.
2. The bridge is limited to measurement of low
Q coils, (1 < Q < 10). It is clear from Eqn. 16.20 that the
measurement of high Q coils demands a large value
for resistance R4, perhaps 105 or 106Q. The resistance
boxes of such high values are very expensive. Thus for
values of Q > 10, the Maxwell's bridge is unsuitable.
The Maxwell's bridge is also unsuited for coils
with a very low value of Q (i.e., Q < 1). Q values of this
magnitude occur in inductive resistors, or in an R.F.
coil if measured at low frequencies. The difficulty in
measurement occurs on account of labour involved in
obtaining balance since nominally a fixed capacitor is
used and balance is obtained by manipulating
resistances R^ and R4 alternately. This difficulty is
explained as below :
From Eqns. 16.18 and 16.19, it is clear that R2
enters into both the expressions. A preliminary
inductive balance is made with R2 and then R4 is
varied to give a resistive balance which is dependent
Fig. 16.5 Hay's Bridge.
on the R^ setting. Accordingly when R2 is changed for
a second inductive balance, the resistive balance is At balance,
disturbed and moves to a new value giving slow
(R1 + /©L,)(R4 -7 / coC4) = R2R3
"convergence" to balance. This is particularly true of a
low Q coil, for which resistance is prominent (as or R4R4 + -^ + ycoLj R4 —= R2R3
Q = wL/ R). Thus a sliding balance condition prevails C4
and it takes many manipulations to achieve balance
Separating the real and imaginary terms, we
for low Q coils with a Maxwell's bridge.
obtain,
From the above discussions we conclude that a
L R1
Maxwell's bridge is suited for measurements of only Ri R4 + — = R2 R3 and Lj =
medium Q coils. c4 ® R4C4

16.5.3 Hay's Bridge Solving the above two equations, we have

The Hay 's bridge is a modification of Maxwell's R2R3C4
bridge. The connection diagram and the phasor ...(16.21)
1 + (o2C42R42
diagram for this bridge are shown in Fig. 16.5. This
bridge uses a resistance in series with the standard co2R2R3R4C2
and ...(16.22)
capacitor (unlike the Maxwell's bridge which uses a 1 + (o2C2R2
resistance in parallel with the capacitor).
The Q factor of the coil is,
Let
Lj = unknown inductance having a resistance Q = wL1/RI =1/coC4R4 ...(16.23)
Rr The expressions for the unknown inductance and
Ry R^, R4 = known non-inductive resistance, resistance contain the frequency term. Therefore it
appears that the frequency of the source of supply to
and C4 = standard capacitor.
A.C. Bridges 485

the bridge must be accurately known. This is not true

for the inductance when a high Q coil is being
measured, as is explained below :
R2 ^3 <“4 1
Now but Q =
l + (o2C2R2 coC4fi4
and therefore L = -^2.—? - ...(16.24)
1 + (1/Q)2
2
For a value of Q greater than 10, the term (1/ Q)
will be smaller than 1/100 and can be neglected.
Therefore Eqn. 16.24 reduces to
L[ - R2 R3 C4 ...(16.25)

which is the same as for a Maxwell's bridge.

Advantages :
1. This bridge gives very simple expression for
unknown inductance for high Q coils, and is
suitable for coils having Q > 10.
2. This bridge also gives a simple expression
for Q factor.
3. If we examine the expression for Q factor :
Q = 1/coC4R4
we find that the resistance R4 appears in the
denominator and hence for high Q coils its
value should be small. Thus this bridge
requires only a low value resistor for R4,
Fig. 16.6 Anderson's Bridge.
whereas the Maxwell's bridge requires a
parallel resistor, R4, of a very high value. Let
Disadvantages : Lj = self-inductance to be measured,
The Hay's bridge is suited for the Rt = resistance of self-inductor,
measurement of high Q inductors, especially = resistance connected in series with
those inductors having a Q greater than 10. self-inductor,
For inductors having Q values smaller than
10, the term (1/Q)2 in the expression for r,R2,R3,R4 = known non-inductive resistances,
inductance L[ (Eqn. 16.24) becomes rather and C = fixed standard capacitor.
important and thus cannot be neglected. At balance,
Hence this bridge is not suited for I1 = I3 and I2 = IC+I4
measurement of coils having Q less than 10
and for these applications a Maxwell's Now, I. R-> = Ix-----
13 c jaC
bridge is more suited.

16.5.4 Anderson's Bridge

Writing the other balance equations
This bridge, in fact, is a modification of the
Maxwell's inductance capacitance bridge. In this I1(r1 + Ri + ;wLi)= +
method, the self-inductance is measured in terms of a
standard capacitor. This method is applicable for and ‘4‘
precise measurement of self-inductance over a very
wide range of values. Substituting the value of Ic in the above
Figure 16.6 shows the connections and the phasor equations, we have
diagram of the bridge for balanced conditions. I1 (^ + R1 + /coLj) = I2R2 + Z^coC R3r
 486 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

or I1(r+ Rj + -jo)CR3r) = I^R^ ...(i) 16.5.5 Owen's Bridge

1 This bridge may be used for measurement of an

and jwCR31^ r +-----
= (I2-IJ^CR3)R4 inductance in terms of capacitance. Figure 16.7 shows
jaaC
the connections and phasor diagrams, for this bridge,
or (j(£)CR3r + jwCR3R4 + R3) = 12R4 •••(“’) under balance conditions.
From Eqns. (/) and (ii), we obtain
+ R1 + jwLj -j(oCR3r)
(R7R^ ifaCR^R^r . '
= L’I *4 + ------R^-3-
4
+ icoCR, R, J

Equating the real and the imaginary parts,

^=2^-,Rn Rq ...(16.26)
R4

and £1=cA[r(R4+R,)+R2R4] ...(16.27)

K4

An examination of balance equations reveals that

to obtain easy convergence of balance, alternate
adjustments of and r should be done as they appear
in only one of the two balance equations.
Advantages :
1. In case adjustments are carried out by
manipulating control over and r, they
become independent of each other. This is a
marked superiority over sliding balance
conditions met with low Q coils when
measuring with Maxwell's bridge. A study
of convergence conditions would reveal that
it is much easier to obtain balance in the case
of Anderson's bridge than in Maxwell's
bridge for low Q-coils.
Fig. 16.7 Owen's Bridge.
2. A fixed capacitor can be used instead of a
variable capacitor as in the case of Maxwell's Let
bridge.
= unknown self-inductance of resistance Rp
3. This bridge may be used for accurate
determination of capacitance in terms of R^ = variable non-inductive resistance,
inductance. R3 = fixed non-inductive resistance,
Disadvantages : C2 = variable standard capacitor,
1. The Anderson's bridge is more complex than and C4 = fixed standard capacitor.
its prototype Maxwell's bridge. The
At balance,
Anderson's bridge has more parts and is
more complicated to set up and manipulate. ( j ( i '
The balance equations are not simple and in (~ = Rq H-------- Rq
fact are much more tedious.
2. An additional junction point increases the Separating the real and imaginary terms, we
difficulty of shielding the bridge. obtain,
Considering the above complication of the I1 = R2R3C4 ...(16.28)
Anderson's bridge, in all the cases where a variable
capacitor is permissible the more simple Maxwell's and R, = RjS
* ...(16.29)
bridge is used instead of Andei son's bridge. C2
A.C. Bridges 487"

Advantages : on the manner of defining L That is, for some purpose

1. Examining the equations for balance, we we may be interested in the average inductance,
find that we obtain two independent represented by the slope of a line from the origin to a
equations in case C2 and R2 are made particular point on the 6 - i curve. For other purposes
variable. Since R2 and C2, the variable we are connected with small variations in the
elements, are in the same arm, convergence neighbourhood of a point on the curve (for very small
to balance conditions is much easier. variations, L equals N times the slope of the curve at
2. The balance equations are quite simple and the point in question). It is thus evident that the
do not contain any frequency component. coefficient of self-inductance is ambiguous for
iron-cored coils unless the conditions are carefully
3. The bridge can be used over a wide range of
defined.
measurement of inductances.
Disadvantages : Many iron-cored coils are used as filter reactors in
rectifier circuits and in other applications in which a
1. This bridge requires a variable capacitor
combination of a d.c. component and a superposed
which is an expensive item and also its
a.c. are encountered. The inductance of the reactor to
accuracy is about 1 percent.
the a.c. in such a case may vary over a wide range,
2. The value of capacitance C2 tends to become depending on the magnitude of the d.c. term. An air
rather large when measuring high Q coils. gap in the magnetic core tends to straighten the 6 - i
1.6.5.6 Measurements of Incremental Inductance curve, and make L more nearly constant. An iron-
cored coil without an air gap gives an extreme
The magnetic flux linking an ion-cored coil is not
variation of L if the d.c. component becomes high
in direct proportion to the current flowing in the coil,
enough to produce a considerable degree of saturation.
but varies in a manner usually indicated by a
magnetization curve. The flux usually increases fairly The d.c. component of the current fixes the
rapidly when the current build-up process first begins. operating point around which changes occur on
However, the flux increment corresponding to a account of the alternating current. The incremental
particular size of current increment becomes smaller inductance at this point may be defined as turns time
with continual increase of current as the core the slope of 6 - i curve.
approaches the condition of magnetic "saturation". An Increment inductance, L = Ndty/ di = NAtj)/ Az
induced voltage in the coil depends on a change of Similarly, incremental permeability may be defined
flux and hence becomes smaller for a given current as the slope of the B - H curve at the operating point.
change at higher values of current. Incremental permeability, p = dB/ dH = AB/ AH.
The basic expression for induced voltage in terms The magnitude of the a.c. component also has an
of a changing flux is usually replaced, for purposes of effect on the apparent inductance of the reactor,
circuit study, by the "coefficient of self inductance" though usually not to so great an extent as the d.c.
multiplied by the rate of change of current. The new component in the common type of reactor
concept must be examined with care when applied to applications. To make inductance measurements on
the case of an iron-cored coil. In terms of a flux change, an iron-cored coil definite, the data should include the
the induced voltage is e - -Ndfy/ dt. amount of d.c. present, and also the frequency and
In terms of inductance, e = - Ldi I dt, magnitude of the a.c.
where L = coefficient of self-inductance. The non-linear character of the flux-current curve
enters in the measurement problem in another way,
Comparison of the two expressions gives
by producing distortion of the current and voltage
L=Nd<b/di waveforms. That is, a sinusoidal voltage does not
which helps to explain the nature of this quantity. produce a sinusoidal current, or vice-versa, in an
Inductance may be represented by the slope of the 6- i iron-cored coil. Even though the applied bridge
curve, or magnetization curve, of a reactor. For an voltage is sinusoidal, the detector voltage is distorted
air-cored coil there is a linear relationship between and hence mayebe analyzed by Fourier method into
flux and current and, accordingly, L is a constant. An the fundamental frequency-component plus
iron-cored coil does not have a linear flux-current harmonics. The harmonics cause difficulties in the
relationship, and Lhas different values, depending on balancing process if the detector consists of an
the portion of the magnetization curve being used and amplifier, a tuned circuit can be incorporated in it to
 488 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

pass the fundamental frequency and suppress the coil is being worked. The d.c. component of current is
harmonics. The situation is a little more difficult when measured by a moving coil ammeter A connected in
a telephone head set is used but a person can train the d.c. supply circuit. The a.c. component of current
himself to listen for the null point of the fundamental may be easily obtained from the reading of a valve
frequency and disregard the harmonics. Due to the voltmeter (not sensitive to d.c.) connected across the
difficulties of defining inductance in the first place, known resistance Ry The value of current calculated
and of determining balance in the second place, we from this reading is a.c. current through Ry but this is
cannot expect to measure parameters of an iron-cored also, at balance, the a.c. current through the coil.
coil with the same accuracy as those of an air-cored At balance, incremental inductance
coil. Fortunately, in most uses of the iron-cored coils, Ll = R2R3C4 ...(16.30)
as in filter chokes, a low degree of accuracy can be
Now inductance, Lj = N2 /(I I pA)
tolerated.
Incremental permeability.
Many bridge circuits can be modified to permit
the simultaneous application of d.c. and a.c. to the P = Z1Z/N2A ...(16.31)
reactor. One thing that must be kept in mind in where N = number of turns,
arranging the circuit is the fact that the amount of d.c. A = area of flux path,
specified for the test reactor must also pass through
I = length of flux path,
one of the bridge arms, and care must be taken not to
overheat the precision resistor. and - incremental inductance.

The incremental inductance can be measured 16.6 MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE

with an Owen's bridge. The original circuit, however,
has to be modified in order that the coil under 16.6.1 De Sauty's Bridge
measurement is fed from both d.c. and a.c. This circuit The bridge is the simplest method of comparing
is shown in Fig. 16.8. two capacitances. The connections and the phasor
diagram of this bridge are shown in Fig- 16.9.
Let Cj = capacitor whose capacitance is to be
measured,
C, = a standard capacitor,
and Ry R^ = non-inductive resistors.

Fig. 16.8 Owen's bridge for measurement of

incremental inductance.
The coil is fed from a.c. and d.c. sources in
parallel. A blocking capacitor C is used to block direct
current from entering the a.c. source. A high
inductance L is used to block alternating current to
enter d.c. source. Any direct current must not affect
the- balance and this condition is automatically
satisfied in Owen's bridge because capacitors C, and
C4 block any d.c. current flowing through the detector.
As has been mentioned earlier, it is necessary to
know the magnetization conditions under which the Fig. 16.9 De Sauty's bridge.
A.C. Bridges 489

At balance, From which we have

q = R? +q _ j^4
...(16.33)
q Rj + fj r3
/coq , k 7®q ,
The balance may be obtained by variation of
or q = qR4/R3 ...(16.23)
resistances Rj,q,R3,R4.
The balance can be obtained by varying either R3
Figure 16.10(1?) shows the phasor diagram of the
or R4. The advantage of this bridge is its simplicity.
bridge under balance conditions. The angles 8j and 82
But this advantage is nullified by the fact that it is
are the phase angles of capacitors q and q respectively.
impossible to obtain balance if both the capacitors are
not free from dielectric loss. Thus with this method Dissipation factors for the capacitors are :
only loss-less capacitors like air capacitors can be D] = tanSj = coqrj and D2 - tanS2 = coC2r2.
compared. From Eqn. 16.33, we have
In order to make measurements on imperfect q r2 + r2
capacitors (i.e., capacitors having dielectric loss), the
C2 Rj + \
bridge is modified as shown in Fig. 16.10. This
modification is due to Grover. or qr2 ~qri = QRj - qR2
or coqr2 - a>qrj = co( q Rj - qR2)
d2 - Dj - co(qRj -qR2)
But q / q = R4 / q

Hence ...(16.34)

Therefore, if the dissipation factor of one of the

capacitors is known, the dissipation factor for the
other can be determined.
This method does not give accurate results for
dissipation factor since its value depends on difference
of quantities Rj R4 / R3 and q. These quantities are
moderately large and their difference is very small
and since this difference cannot be known with a high
degree accuracy, the dissipation factor cannot be
determined accurately.

16.6.2 Schering Bridge

The connection and phasor diagram of the bridge
under balance conditions are shown in Fig. 16.11.
Let
q = capacitor whose capacitance is to be
determined,
= a series resistance representing the loss in
the capacitor q,
Fig. 16.10 Modified De Sauty's bridge.
q = a standard capacitor. This capacitor is either
Resistors Rj and are connected in series with an air or a gas capacitor and hence is loss-
q and q respectively. q and r2 are resistances free. However, if necessary, a correction may
representing the loss component of the two capacitors. be made for the loss angle of this capacitor,
At balance, R3 = a non-inductive resistance,
q = a variable capacitor,
and R4 = a variable non-inductive resistance in
parallel with variable capacitor q.
 >0 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Permanently set up Schering bridges are some­

times arranged so that balancing is done by adjust­
ment of R2 and C4 with C2 and R4 remaining fixed.
Since R3 appears in both the balance equations and
therefore there is some difficulty in obtaining balance
but it has certain advantages as explained below :
The equation for capacitance is Q = (R4/ R^)C2
and since R4 and C2 are fixed, the dial of resistor R3
may be calibrated to read the capacitance directly.
Dissipation factor D1=G)C4R4 and in case the
frequency is fixed the dial of capacitor C4 can be
calibrated to read the dissipation factor directly.
Let us say that the working frequency is 50 Hz
and the value of R4 is kept fixed at 3,180 Q.
Dissipation factor
= 2nx 50x3180x C4 =C4xlO6.
Since C4 is a variable decade capacitance box, its
setting in pF directly gives the value of the dissipation
factor.
It should, however, be understood that the
calibration for dissipation factor holds good for one
particular frequency, but may be used at another
frequency if correction is made by multiplying by the
ratio of frequencies.

16.6.3 High Voltage Schering Bridge

Schering bridge is widely used for capacitance
Fig. 16.11 Low voltage Schering bridge.
and dissipation factor measurements. In fact Schering
bridge is one of the most important of the a.c. bridges.
At balance,
It is extensively used in the measurement of
f R4
f 1 ■R3
capacitance in general, and in particular in the
C1 ^1 + /(oC4R4> /coC2 measurement of the properties of insulators, capacitor

|rl+~7^ ^4 =-^-(1 + 7wC4^4)

or

rR & - ; R3 , R:AC4
or 1 4 ©q 7wc2 c2

Equating the real and imaginary terms, we obtain

ri ^3^4 / <“2 ...(16.35)
and C1 = C2(R4/R3) ...(16.36)
Two independent balance equations are obtained
if C4 and R4 are chosen as the variable elements.
Dissipation factor,
Dx = tan8 = (oC1r1 = o>(C2R4/ ^)x(R3C4/ C2)
= uC4R4 ...(16.37)
Therefore values of capacitance C}, and its
dissipation factor are obtained from the values of
bridge elements at balance. Fig. 16.12 High Voltage Schering bridge.
A.C. Bridges 491

bushings, insulating oil and other insulating materials. general applications, mica capacitors are used and in
This bridge is particularly suitable for small such cases, the dissipation factor of the capacitor must
capacitances, and is then usually supplied from a high be accurately known.
frequency or a high voltage source. The measurements 6. Earthed screens are provided in order to avoid
done on small capacitances suffer from many errors caused due to inter-capacitance between high
disadvantages if carried out at low voltages. High and low arms of the bridge. Instead of earthing one
voltage Schering bridge is certainly preferable for such point on the circuit as shown in Fig. 16.12, the earth
measurements. capacitance effect on the galvanometer and leads is
The special features of a high voltage Schering eliminated by means of a "Wagner earth device"
bridge shown in Fig. 16.12, are explained below : (described later in this chapter on page 498).
1. The high voltage supply is obtained from a
16.6.4 Measurement of Relative Permittivity
transformer usually at 50 Hz. The detector, in this
with Schering Bridge
case, is a vibration galvanometer.
Schering bridge is very useful for the
2. Arms ab and ad each contain only a capacitor
measurement of relative permittivity of dielectric
and these capacitors are designed for high voltage
materials. The determination of relative permittivity
work. The impedances of these two arms are very high
involves the measurement of capacitance of a small
in comparison with the other arms, be and de. Thus the
capacitor with the specimen as dielectric. The
major portion of potential drop will be in the arms ab
capacitor with specimen as dielectric is formed by
and ad and very little voltage drop is there across the
using either a parallel plate or a concentric cylinder
arms be and de. The point cis earthed. Such is the large
configuration for the electrodes. Guard circuits are
magnitude of impedances in arms ab and ad, that even
used in order to make the plate area definite.
if a voltage as high as 100 kV is applied to the bridge,
the voltage across arms be and de is a few volt above Many different techniques are used, both in the
earth. This is certainly a great advantage as the type of specimen capacitor used and in the measuring
controls are located in arms be and de and for the safety circuit. The normal arrangement for solid materials is
of the operator, these controls should be and are at low to use a disc specimen with metal electrodes. The
potential with respect to earth. For the same reason the electrodes may consist of thin metal foil attached to
detector is also at a low potential. the specimen by petroleum jelly, or thin films of silver
3. It is necessary to prevent dangerous high or aluminium applied by evaporation (both these
voltages appearing across arms be and ac in the case of arrangements normally have solid metal backing elec­
breakdown of either of the high voltage capacitors. trodes), or mercury. Mercury electrodes are obtained
This is done by connecting a spark gap, (set to by floating (or supporting) the specimen on the surface
breakdown at about 100 V) across each of the arms be of a mercury pool, the upper electrodes consisting of a
and de. smaller mercury pool held in place by a metal
4. The impedances of arms ab and ad are large and
containing ring. Liquid specimens fill the space between
therefore the current drawn from the source is small the concentric cylindrical electrodes of a test cell.
and hence the power loss is quite small. But this small The relative permittivity is calculated from the
value of current also necessitates the use of a sensitive measured value of capacitance and the dimensions of
detector. the electrodes. For a parallel plate arrangement,
5. The fixed standard capacitor, C2, has either air relative permittivity
Cd ■
or compressed gas as dielectric. The dissipation factor er=f7 -(16.38)
£q A
of a dry and clean gas is sensibly zero, loss in the
insulating supports cannot be avoided. This loss, where Cs = measured value of capacitance with
however, can be prevented from influencing the specimen as dielectric,
measurements by the use of a guard ring from which d = spacing between electrodes,
both electrodes of the capacitor are supported. With
A = effective area of electrodes,
this arrangement the current through the high voltage
and eq = permittivity of free space.
supports passes direct to earth, and as the potential
difference between low voltage electrode and the A method which avoids the necessity for close
guard ring is very small, the insulation of the low contact between electrodes and specimen uses a pair
voltage electrode has a negligible effect. For some of solid electrodes (one with a guard ring) between
 492 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

which the specimen (thinner than the space between measurement of unknown mutual inductance.
electrodes) is slipped. The capacitance of the Variable standard mutual inductances have been used
arrangement is measured, the specimen is then as components in bridges for the measurement of
removed, and the spacing between the electrodes is self-inductances, capacitance, and frequency. Many
adjusted, by means of micrometer adjustments, until such bridges are found in literature, but some of the
the capacitance is the same as before. The relative circuits represent minor modifications of other
permittivity of the specimen can be calculated from bridges; that is, changes to achieve greater accuracy or
the thickness of the specimen and the alteration in convenience for a particular type of measurement, or a
electrode spacing. special range of unknown quantities.
Let We shall study only a small number of these
C = capacitance with specimen between electrodes, circuits. Applications to capacitance and self-inductance
determinations are of secondary interest because
A = area of electrodes,
methods using a capacitance standard are generally
d = thickness of specimen, more convenient and accurate for these measurements
t = gap between specimen and electrode, than a mutual inductor and they (capacitors) are also
and x - reduction in separation between the two cheaper, compact, and more generally available. The
measurements. mutual inductance circuits may have particular merit
in some cases, but this enters the field of special
These dimensions are shown in Fig. 16.13.
research rather than of general measurements, so we
shall not attempt to go into much detail. Much
reference material is available on the subject.
The derivation of the balance equations requires a
different method when we have mutual coupling
between the arms. It is necessary to write equations for
the voltage around the loops and then to make
Fig. 16.13 Measurement of relative permittivity. solution for the unknown quantities.

Let 16.7.2 Mutual Inductance Measured

Cs = capacitance of specimen, as Self-Inductance
Co = capacitance due to space between specimen If the terminals of the two coils whose mutual
and electrode, inductance is to be measured are available for series
and C = effective capacitance of Cs and Co in series. connection, measurement may be made by one of the
self-inductance bridges considered earlier. If the
. C_ CsC0 _ (grSO^/^)-(£o^/O _£rg0A
connections are made so that the magnetic fields of the
CS + CQ (er£0 A/(/) + (e0X/f) &rt + d two coils are addative as shown in Fig. 16.14(a), the
When the specimen is removed and the spacing effective inductance of the two coils in series is,
readjusted to give the same capacitance, the expression L,i = Li + L,+2M ...(16.40)
for capacitance is :
If the connections of one coil are reversed as
_ £od
shown in Fig. 16.14(b),
t + d-x
...(16.41)
t + d-x &rt + d

er=~ ...(16.39)
d —x

16.7 MEASUREMENT OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

16.7.1 Uses of Mutual Inductance

in Bridge Circuits
Mutual inductance has been used in a great (b)
number of bridges for a variety of purposes. Known Fig. 16.14 Positive and negative couplings for
mutual inductances are used in some circuits for the mutual inductors.
A.C. Bridges 493

Thus from Eqns. 16.40 and 16.41, we get At balance voltage drop between b and c must equal
Mutual inductance the voltage drop between d and c. Also the voltage drop
across a-b-c must equal the voltage drop across a-d-c.
-(16.42) Thus we have the following equations at balance :
Hence mutual inductance is obtained as *1^3 ~ ^2^4

one-fourth of difference of self-inductance measured and (I1 + I2)(;(dM)+I1(R1 + K3 + /(d£1)

with series addative and series subtractive = 1^2 ( ^2 ^4 + )
connections. This method is of advantage only when
I R I R
R,
fairly high coupling between the two coils is obtained J2 -1 + 1
otherwise it results in poor accuracy due to nearly k K3 J
equal terms of Eqn. 16.42. ~ ^2 ( ^2 )
R I R R
R,
16.7.3 Heaviside Mutual Inductance Bridge or j(f>M —— + 1 4—R,— Rj + R4 + —— — R2 + R4 +
This Bridge (shown in Fig. 16.15) measures mutual
inductance in terms of a known self- inductance. The Thus R1 = R2R3/R4 ...(16.43)
same bridge, slightly modified, was used by Campbell
to measure a self-inductance in terms of a known and m= ...(16.44)
R4 / R3 +1 R3 + R4
mutual inductance.
It is clear from Eqn. 16.44, that Zp the self- induc­
tance of the secondary of the mutual inductor must be
known in order that M be measured by this method.
In case R3 = R4, we get
M= ...(16.45)

and Rj — R? ...(16.46)
This method can be used for measurement of
self-inductance. Supposing is the self-inductance to
be determined. From Eqns. 16.43 and 16.44, we get
M(R3+R4)+R4L1
^3

...(16.47)

and R2 = Rj R4 / R3 ...(16.48)
In case R4 = Ry we have
L^=2M+ 1^ and R^ = Rr

16.7.4 Campbell's Modification of

Heaviside Bridge
Figure 16.16 shows a modified Heaviside bridge.
This modification is due to Campbell. This is used to
measure a self-inductance in terms of a mutual
inductance. In this case an additional balancing coil L,
pig. 16.15 Heaviside mutual inductance bridge.
R is included in arm ad in series with inductor under
Let test. An additional resistance ris put in arm ab. Balance
M = unknown mutual inductance, is obtained by varying M and r. A short circuiting
Lj = self-inductance of secondary of mutual switch is placed across the coil Ry under
inductance, measurement. Two sets of readings are taken one with
switch being open and the other with switch being
Z^ = known self-inductance, and
closed. Let values of M and r, be and with switch
H},R2rR3,R4 = non-inductive resistors. open, and and r2 with switch closed.
 494 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

At balance, L R~
1 O= I, ZR. 4 but Ro0 = R.4
and therefore I1 = I2 = Z/2as Z = I1 + I2.
Writing the other equation for balance :
(RL + r)+ l1j<aL+ IjwMx
= 12R2 + I2/co( + L) - IjaiMy
R1 + r ' . ( L A R2 . f + M
or -L—+ ywl-+MxJ = ^- + ;coll-ytoA^

Fig. 16.16 Campbell's modification of

Heaviside bridge.
.’. With switch open, from Eqn. 16.47, we have

r3
and with switch closed, L = ^4^1
^3

Hence = (Afj - A^Xl-b R4 / R3) ...(16.49)

With switch open, from Eqn. 16.48, we have, Fig. 16.17 Heaviside Campbell equal ratio bridge.
R2+R = (R1 + r1)R4/R3 Equating the real and imaginary terms
and with switch closed R2 = RI + r ...(16.53)
R = (R1 + r2)R4/R3 and z a y
L = 2(A4 + M, )=2M ...(16.54)
R, =(r1-r2)R4/R3 ...(16.50) Thus the magnitude of inductance which can be
This method is a good example of the methods measured with this method is twice the range of the
adopted to eliminate the effects of leads etc. mutual inductor. The values calculated above include
When we have equal ratio arms R3 = R the effects of leads etc. In order to eliminate these effects,
we take two readings with switch open circuited and
and therefore from Eqns. 16.49 and 16.50, we get,
another with switch closed. Let A4r be the readings
Z2=2(M]-A42) ...(16.51) of Af, rwith open circuit and n, with short circuit.
and R2 = rl-r2 ...(16.52) RA=rx-r2 ...(16.55)
16.7.5 Heaviside Campbell Equal Ratio Bridge and L, =2(A41-A^) ...(16.56)
The use of balancing coil in the above method 16.7.6 Carey Foster Bridge ; Heydweiller Bridge
reduces the sensitivity of the bridge. Figure 16.17
shows Heaviside Campbell equal ratio bridge. This is This bridge was used basically by Carey Foster
a better arrangement which improves sensitivity and but was subsequently modified by Heydweiller for
also dispenses with the use of a balancing coil. use on a.c. Both names are associated with the bridge
and is used for two opposite purposes :
In this method the secondary of the mutual
inductor is made up of two equal coils each having a (/) It is used for measurement of capacitance in
self-inductance. One of the coils is connected in arm ab terms of a standard mutual inductance. The
and the other in arm ad. The primary of mutual bridge in this case is known as Carey Foster's
inductance reacts with both of them. R2 is the coil bridge.
whose self-inductance and resistance is to be (n) It can also be used for measurement of
determined. The resistances R,J and R,4 are made mutual inductance in terms of a standard
equal. Balance is obtained by varying the mutual capacitance and is then known as
inductance and resistance r. Heydweiller bridge.
A.C. Bridges 495

Figure 16.18 shows the connection diagram for the measurement of capacitance R3 is not a separate unit
bridge under balance conditions. but represents the equivalent series resistance of the
capacitor and thus can be determined in terms of the
elements of the bridge.

16.7.7 Campbell's Bridge

This bridge measures an unknown mutual
inductance in terms of a standard mutual inductance.
Figure 16.19 shows the circuit diagram for the bridge.

Let
M1 = unknown mutual inductance,
= self-inductance of secondary of mutual
Fig. 16.18 Carey Foster (Heydweiller) Bridge. inductance
This bridge has an unusual feature, one of its M-, = variable standard mutual inductance,
arms, ad, is short circuited and therefore the potential L> = self-inductance of secondary of mutual
drop across this arm is zero. In order to achieve inductance M,, and
balance, the potential drop across arm ab should also R],R?,R3,R4 = non-inductive resistances.
be equal to zero and for this reason negative coupling
There are two steps required in the balancing
is needed for the mutual inductance.
process.
At balance,
1. Detector is connected between b and d. The
Ij (JR1 + /coL,) -() ;cdM = 0 . circuit now becomes a simple self­
inductance comparison bridge. The
and R3 + = R4- requirement for balance is :
;coc3 J

The solution of the above equation gives :

M=R}R4C3 ...(16.57)
The bridge may be balanced by adjustment
M(R? + R.)
and = R1C3(R3 + R4 )...(16.58) of R3 (or R4) and R] (or R^).
^4
2. Detector is connected between b' and d'.
If the bridge is used for measurement of Keeping adjustments as in step 1 above, the
capacitance, Eqns. 16.57 and 16.58 may be written as: variable mutual inductance M, is varied to
C3 = M/RxRa ...(16.59) get balance. Then,
M] _ R3
R3 = R^-M)/M ...(16.60)
~M2~~R4
In the measurement of mutual inductance with
this bridge, is a separate resistance while in the or M1 = A42R3/R4 ...(16.62)
 496 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

16.8 MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY , . . . 1

from which co = — ■ —---
Some bridges have balance equations which
involve frequency directly even if the performance of and frequency, f = -—, Hz.
individual bridge elements is independent of 2 71J R1 R^ C1 C2
frequency. These bridges may be used for deter­
In most Wien bridges, the components are so
mination of frequency in terms of values of various
chosen that
bridge elements. We shall describe here the Wien's
bridge, which is the most important one for R1 = R2 = R and Q = C2 = C.
determination of frequency. Then Eqn. 16.63 reduces to,

16.8.1 Wien's Bridge ^4/^ = 2

and Eqn. 16.64 reduces to
The Wien's bridge is primarily known as a
frequency determining bridge and is described here / = 1/2 kRC ...(16.65)
not only for its use as an a.c. bridge to measure Switches for resistors R1 and R2 are mechanically
frequency but also for its application in various other linked so as to fulfil the condition R^ = R^.
useful circuits. A Wien's bridge, for example, may be As long as and C2 are fixed capacitors equal in
employed in a harmonic distortion analyzer, where it value and R4=2R3, the Wien's bridge may be used as
is used as notch filter, discriminating against one a frequency determining device, balanced by a single
specific frequency. The Wien's bridge also finds control. This control may be directly calibrated in
applications in audio and HF oscillators as the terms of frequency as is evident from Eqn. 16.65.
frequency7 determining device. This bridge is suitable for measurement of
Figure 16.20 shows a Wien's bridge under balance frequencies from 100 Hz to 100 kHz. It is possible to
conditions. obtain an accuracy of 0.1 to 0.5 per cent.
Because of its frequency sensitivity, the Wien's
bridge may be difficult to balance unless the
waveform of the applied voltage is sinusoidal. The
bridge is not balanced for any harmonics present in
the applied voltage, so that these harmonics will
sometimes produce an output voltage marking the
true balance point. This difficulty can be overcome by
connecting a filter in series with the null detector.
A Wien's bridge may be used for measurement of
capacitance also.

16.9 UNIVERSAL IMPEDANCE BRIDGE

One of the most useful and versatile laboratory
bridges is the Universal Impedance Bridge. The set up of
Fig. 16.20 Wien's Bridge.
this bridge combines several of the bridge
configurations described so far into a single portable
At balance
instrument. This instrument is capable of measuring
Ri both d.c. and a.c. resistance, inductance and storage
1 + ywQ jR2 factor Q. factor of an inductor, capacitance and
dissipation factor D of a capacitor.
^4 _ ^2 +£1 • r- p *1 The universal bridge consists of four basic bridge
+ 1 (OCX------------
i?3 C2 I “C2rJ circuits. It has suitable a.c. and d.c. sources, a.c. and
d.c. null detectors, and impedance standards. The
Equating the real and imaginary parts, Wheatstone bridge is used for both d.c. and a.c.
^4 = ^2 j resistance measurements. Capacitance and dissipation
...(16.63)
R3 R{ C2 factors are determined by modified De Sauty's bridge.
The Maxwell's bridge is used for medium Q inductors
and coC. R,----------- = 0 while Hay's bridge configuration is used for inductors
1 wC2Ry having Q more than 10.
A.C. Bridges 497

For d.c. resistance measurements a suspension of the effects and allow for them in the bridge
type galvanometer having a sensitivity 0.5 pA per calculations. The more important methods of reducing
scale division is used. The null indicator for a.c. bridge errors are now described.
measurements is usually an electron ray tube. 1. Use of high-quality components. Good-quality
Terminals are provided for connection of any external bridge components will normally have the advantages
null detectors. High impedance head phones may also of high-accuracy calibration, freedom from stray
be used as a.c. detectors. conductance effects/ and a minimum of residues.
The a.c. source of the bridge consists of an Where residues exist, manufacturer supplies
oscillator having 10 kHz as the standard frequency. information giving the values of the residues.
2. Bridge lay-out. The conventional bridge circuit
16.10 SOURCES OF ERRORS IN BRIDGE CIRCUITS
diagrams in the present chapter are drawn to
We have assumed in our derivation of basic represent the potential distribution in the circuit; they
circuit relationships that a bridge consists of lumped do not indicate the best physical lay-out. In general, it
impedance units connected only by the wires that are is desirable that the four 'corners' of the bridge a, b, c
placed in the circuit for making connections. This and d (Fig. 16.21) should be closed together. Each
idealized condition exists in bridge circuits to a lesser component is then connected to the appropriate
or greater extent. The idealized arrangement works comers by its own leads. The physical lay-out of the
fairly well if the frequency is low, if component bridge will then be as shown in Fig. 16.21. All the leads
impedances are not high and if accuracy desired is not to a single comer should be brought a$ nearly as
high. But in practice there are certain factors which we possible to the same point. A pair of leads to a
have not considered yet and these complicate the component should not form a large loop ; if possible
behaviour or the bridge circuits considered so far. the leads should be co-axiaL If there is more than one
inductor in the bridge, leads may have to be quite
Some of these factors are stray couplings between
long. In this manner stray mutual inductance coupling
one bridge arm and another and from elements to
and lead self-inductances are reduced to minimum
ground. These stray couplings modify the balance
and the stray capacitances are definitely located across
conditions making a definite balance impossible or
individual arms of bridge; they can then be measured
may lead to false balance. Thus these effects will cause
and compensated for relatively easily.
incorrect values of unknown components to be
attained.
Factors causing errors. The various factors
causing errors in a.c. bridge circuit are listed below :
(z) stray-conductance effects, due to imperfect
insulation ;
(zz) mutual-inductance effects, due to magnetic
coupling between various components of the Source
bridge ;
(zzz) stray-capacitance effects, due to electrostatic
fields between conductors at different
potentials ;
(iv) 'residues' in components - e.g., the existence Fig. 16.21 Bridge lay-out.
of small amount of series, inductance or
shunt capacitance in nominally non-reactive 3. Sensitivity. To obtain a high degree of accuracy
resistors. e.g., 1 part in 104 or better, it is necessary that the
bridge must be operated at sufficient sensitivity which
16.10.1 Precautions and Techniques used implies that the change in voltage at the detector
for Reducing Errors terminals from the balance condition should be large
Errors introduced by the above effects become when the detector is considered open. The treatment is
greater in high frequency and high-voltage bridges, similar as with the Wheatstone bridge except that with
but precautions should always be taken to reduce the a.c. bridge circuit we have to consider both the
them to a minimum. Even so, in high-accuracy work it magnitude and phase angle of the impedance of the
is often necessary to determine the magnitude of some bridge arms.
 498 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

4. Stray conductance effects. If the insulation measurement is made possible by the addition of a
between various components (elements) of a bridge Wagner earthing device. This device removes all the
circuit is not good, trouble may arise because of earth capacitances from the bridge network.
leakage currents from one arm to another. This is Figure 16.22 shows the connections of the device
specially true in the case of high impedance bridges. for use in conjunction with the general form of bridge
To avoid this, various bridge components and other network, in which Z4,Z,,Z3 and Z4 are the impedances
pieces of apparatus may be mounted on insulating of the bridge arms. Z5 and Z6 are the two variable
stands. impedances of the Wagner earth branch, the centre
5. Eddy current errors. Errors may result due to point of which is earthed as shown. These
variation in the value of the standards, which may impedances may consist of variable resistances and
occur because of induced eddy currents in the capacitances similar to those used in the arms of the
standard resistors and inductors. In order to avoid bridge proper, but not necessarily of known value.
such errors the presence of large conducting masses The two impedances Z5 and Z4, must be capable of
near the bridge network is avoided. forming a balanced bridge with Z4 and Z3 or Z2 and Z4
6. Residual errors. Though the resistors used are and can be a duplicate of either of these pairs of arms.
taken as non-inductive and non-capacitive but their Cr C2, C3 and C4 are the stray earth capacitances
inductance and capacitance are never zero. Residues appearing at the apexes of 'fne bridge. D is the
mean small inherent inductance or capacitance of the detector, which in this case is headphones.
resistors. In precise work it becomes necessary to
evaluate them in order to eliminate them or compen­
sate for errors due to these. The self-inductance is
important only when the coils used are multi-turn
coils and supply used is of high frequency.
7. Frequency and wave form errors. In case of
bridges whose results are independent of frequency,
the supply frequency is important only from the point
of view of its effects on resistance, inductance and
capacitance of the apparatus under test. The presence
of harmonics in the supply waveform is also
important from the same point of view.
If the case of bridge network whose balance
equations involve frequency the variation in supply
frequency is very important both from the point of
view of balance and evaluation. The waveform of the Fig. 16.22 Wagner Earthing Device.
supply is also important as the bridge cannot be
balanced both for fundamental and-harmonics in the If the switch S is on contact d, balance of the bridge
waveform (if any) simultaneously. If headphones are may be obtained by adjustment of the impedances Z2
used, it will not be possible to obtain complete silence and Z4. The presence of the earth capacitances will
at all, but only a point of minimum sound can be prevent a true balance being obtained, but a point of
achieved. minimum sound can be obtained.
This difficulty is overcome either by employing After adjusting the bridge to give minimum
wave filters which eliminate the unwanted harmonics sound, the switch S is thrown to contact e so that the
from the source or by employing tuned detectors in headphones are then connected between b and earth ;
place of headphones such as vibration galvanometers Z5 and Z4 are next adjusted until minimum sound is
which do not respond to harmonics and respond obtained. The headphones are next reconnected to b, d
readily only to the fundamental for which they are and Z2 and Z4 adjusted to give minimum sound again.
timed. The process is repeated until silence is obtained with
the switch on d, and silence or the minimum attainable
16.11 WAGNER EARTHING DEVICE sound, with the switch on e. Then all three points b, d
If each component in a bridge has a defining and e are at earth potential. Under these conditions no
screen connected to one end, a very high accuracy in current flows in the earth capacitances C, and C4 and
A.C. Bridges 499

since CT and C3 shunt the Wagner arms Z5 and Z6, ;. Resistance of coil :
these capacitances are eliminated from the bridge rl =r2~Rl= 327 - L36 = 3134 Q
network Zr Z2, Z3 and Z4. Inductance of coil,
The capacitances and C3, shunting Z5 and Z6,
Lj = L, =47.8 mH.
complicate these arms, and because of this the
combination may not give a true balance against Z2 Example 16.4 A Maxwell's capacitance bridge shown
and Z4, only a minimum being attainable during the in Fig. 16.4 is used to measure an unknown inductance in
Wagner balance. The existence of these capacitances comparison with capacitance. The various values at balance,
should be borne in mind when deciding the form of R2 = 400C1; R3 = 600 Cl; R4 = 1000 Cl; 6^ = 0.5 pF.
the Wagner arm, which should preferably be
composed of resistances and capacitances. Much of Calculate the values ofR} and Lj. Calculate also the value of
and C3 will be due to the earth capacitance of the storage (Q) factor ofcoil iffrequency is 1000 Hz.
source transformer and a common cause of difficulty Solution. At balance,
in achieving a good Wagner balance is due to the use ( R
of transformers with large and lossy earth capacitance. (Rj + ycoLj) - = R2^3-
Poor insulation in the source transformer will cause <1+ ,
resistance to appear shunting Gj and C3. Some of the Separating the real and imaginary terms, we have
disadvantages of the use of Wagner earth devices can
400 x 600 = 24Qn
be overcome by using double ratio a.c. bridges; which
1 Rt 1000
have two sets of inductively coupled ratio arms.
and Lj = R, R3 C4
™ 'HC7' The students must attempt these problems = 400 x 600 x 0.5 x 10-6 = 0.12 H.
from fundamentals although here direct
formulae have been used since analysis has been done Storage factor,
earlier. _ wLj _2nxlOOx0.12
240
Example 16.3 A Maxwell's inductance comparison
bridge is shown in Fig. 16.23. Arm ab consists of a coil with Example 16.5 An inductance of 0.22 H and 20 Cl
inductance and resistance in series with a resistance is measured by comparison with a fixed standard
non-inductive resistance R. Arm be and coil ad are each a inductance of 0.1 H and 40 Cl resistance. They are connected
non-inductive resistance of 100 Cl. Arm ad consists of as shown in Fig. 16.24(a). The unknown inductance is in
standard variable inductor Lof resistance 32.7 Cl. Balance is arm aband the standard inductance is arm be, a resistance of
obtained when = 47.8 mH and R = 1.36 Cl. Find the 750Cl is connected in arm cd and a resistance whose amount
resistance and inductance of the coil in arm ab. is not known is in arm da.
Find the resistance of arm da and show any necessary and
practical additions required to achieve both resistive and
inductive balance.

Fig. 16.23 Diagram of Example 16.3.

Solution. At balance
[(Ri +r]) + /(oL1]xlOO =(r2 + ;©Z2)xlOO
Equating the real and imaginary terms -
R] + Tj = r2 and 1^ = 1^ Fig. 16.24(a) Diagram of Example 16.5.
 500 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Solution. Now R} = 20 Q ; L, = 0.22 H ; When this bridge is fed from a source of 500 Hz, balance is
obtained under following conditions :
R4 =750Q; R3=40Q; L=0.1H.
At balance, (R4 + /'coL,) R4 = Ry (Ry + ycolg) Ry = 2410 Q ; R3 = 750 Q ; C4 = 0.35 pF; R4 = 64.5 Q.
Thus the two balance equations are : The series resistance of capacitor = 0.4<A, Calculate the
R2 R-^ , Ry L, resistance and inductance of the choke coil.
1 R4 H r4
The supply is connected between a and c and the detector is
From above, we have between b and d.
Solution. When we draw the sketch of this
R3 bridge, we find that it is Hay's bridge shown in
.'. Value of R2 required for balance Fig. 16.5. The analysis of Hay's bridge is done in
Art. 16.5.3. on page 484.
R, = R =750x —= 1650 0 Now from Eqns. 16.21 and 16.22, inductance and
4k o-1
resistance of the coil are :
and A = ^2 = 2.2.
_ R2 ^3^4
^3 R4
l + co2C2R2
Now examine the value of ratio — for the existing
*3 2410 x 750 x 0.35 xlQ~6
circuit, we have 1 + (2 rr x 500 x 0.35 x 10-6 x 64.9)

= 0.63 H.

The value of this ratio should be 2.2 for both _ (0 RyRyR^R^

resistive and inductive balance and therefore we must and
1 l + co2C2R2
add a series resistance to arm ab. Let this series
resistance be rr Therefore J2nx 500)2 x 2410 x 750 x 64.9 x (0.35 x 10~6)2
R, + n 1 + (2 71 x 500 x 0.35 x 10~6 x 64.9)2
—1—1 = 2.2 or n =22 x 40 -20 =68 Q.
*3 1
= 141.1 Q
The modified circuit is shown in Fig. 16.24(h).
(Note that the resistance of arm cd is the sum of
resistance of the series resistor and the series
resistance of capacitor i.e., R4 =64.5+0.4 = 64.90).

Example 16.7 The arms of a five node bridge are as

follows :
arm ab : an unknown impedance (R1,L[) in series with
a non-inductive variable resistor r.,
arm be : a non-inductive resistor Ry = 100 O,
arm cd : a non-inductive resistor R4 = 200 Q
arm da : a non-inductive resistor R^ = 250 O,
arm de : a non-inductive variableresistor r
Fig. 16.24(b) Diagram of Example 16.5. arm ec : a loss-less capacitor C = 1 pF, and
arm be : a detector.
Example 16.6 A bridge consists of the following :
An a.c. supply is connected between a and a
Ann ab: a choke coil having a resistance R^ and
inductance Iy. Calculate the resistance and inductance Rp Iy when under
balance conditions =43.1 O and, r = 229.7 O.
Arm be: a non-inductive resistance Ry
Arm cd: a mica condenser C4 in series with a Solution. After drawing the network we find that
non-inductive resistance R..
4 it is the Anderson's bridge shown in Fig. 16.6 and
Arm da : a non-inductive resistance Ry dealt with in Art. 16.5.4 on page 485.
A.C. Bridges 501

From Eqns. 16.26 and 16.27, Example 16.9 An Owen's bridge is used to measure the
properties of a sample of sheet steel at 2 kHz. At balance,
Resistance,
arm ab is test specimen ; arm be is R3 = 100 Q ; arm cd is
250x100 19n
C4 =0.1 pF and arm da is R^ = 8340 in series with C =
1 R,
4
1 200 0.124 pF. Derive balance conditions and calculate the
Inductance, effective impedance of the specimen under test conditions.
I1 = ^l[r(R4+R2)+R2R4] Solution. Let Rj and be the effective resistance
and inductance of the specimen respectively.
= 1 x IO- x ~[229.7(200 + 250) + 250 x 200]

= 0.0766 H.
Example 16.S The four arms of a bridge are :
arm ab : an imperfect capacitor Cj with an equivalent
series resistance of
arm be: a non-inductive resistance Ry
arm cd : a non-inductive resistance R4'
A,
arm da : an imperfect capacitor C2 with an equivalent
series resistance ofn, series with a resistance R2.
A supply of 450 Hz is given between terminals a and cand
the detector is connected between b and d. At balance :
R2=4.8O, R3= 2000 0, R4 = 2850 Q and
C2 = 0.5 pF and r2 = 0.4 Q.
Calculate the value of C4 and r4 and also of the dissipating = R2R3C4= 834x100 x O.lx 10-6H
factor for this capacitor. = 8.34 mH
Solution. The bridge is shown in Fig. 16.25. and R1 = R_ -i =100 x-°^- = 80.7 Q.
1 3 C2 0.124

Reactance of specimen at 2 kHz,

= 2 k x 2 x 1000 x 8.34 x 10’3 = 104.5 Q.
Impedance of specimen
\ = 7(80.7)2 + (104.5)2 = 132 Q.

Example 16.10 A sheet of bakelite 4.5 mm thick is tested

at 50 Hz between electrodes 0.12 m in diameter. The Schering
bridge employs a standard air capacitor C2 of 106 pF
capacitance, a non-reactive resistance R4 of lOOO/nO in
parallel with a variable capacitor C4=0.5pF, and a
non-reactive variable resistance Ry
Fig. 16.25 Diagram of Example 16.8.
Balance is obtained with C4 =0.5 pF and R2 = 260 0.
At balance + Calculate the capacitance, power factor and relative
permittivity of sheet.
Separating the real and imaginary terms Solution. The Schering bridge is shown in
rl = (r2 + R2)-?3 = (0 4 + 4.8) x |22£ = 3.65 Q Fig. 16.11 where C1 and represent the capacitance
1\.4 ZoDU and series resistance of the capacitor. From Eqns. 16.35
and C. =C>^-=(0.5x10^) x—F = 0.712 pF and 16.36
~ R3 2000 >i = I1 R3 = 0,5X10 260 =1.23 x 106Q
Dissipating factor, 1 C2 3 106 xlO’12

Dj = tanSj = (oC1r1 =2nx 450x0.712 x 10^x3 55 R. 1000

and C.=—C2=--------- x 106x 10~12F = 130 pF.
= 0.00734. 1 R3 2 nx260 r
 502 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Power factor of sheet From (i) and (ii), we have

= 0)^^ =2rtx50xl30xl0-12xl.23xl06 = 0.05. C, R. , 2z-
9 9
_2_4 + coc2r
c3r /?2
c4a 4
Now capacitance, C4 = er eQ — C =—23______________
I 1 , 2 z-^2 n2
1 + co C4 K4
z. Relative permittivity

sr =
C.d 130x10-12x4.5x10-3
=------------------------------ =5.9 now w2c, c, c. r.2« -A
eoA 8.854 x 10-12 x ^(0.12)2 2344 *3
and co2C4R4«1.
where eq =permittivity of free space =8.84 x 10-12 F/m. Hence we can write
Example 16.11 In a low-voltage Schering bridge
Ci = C2 —
designed for the measurement of permittivity, the branch ab 1 2R
consists of two electrodes between which the specimen under
When the capacitor Cf is without specimen
test may be inserted; arm be is a non-reactive resistor R3 in
dielectric, let its capacitance be CQ.
parallel with a standard capacitor C, arm cd is a non-
r r R4 1Rn 5000 _
reactive resistor R4 in parallel with a standard capacitor C4 ; Cn = C~ —- = 150 x------ = 150 pF.
0 2 R3 5000 r
arm da is a standard air capacitor of capacitance C2.
Without the specimen between the electrodes, balance is When the specimen is inserted as dielectric, let the
obtained with the following values ; C3=C4 = 120 pF, capacitance be Cg.
C2 = 150 pF, R3 - R4 = 5000 Q. With the specimen .-. C=C2^= 900x^^ = 900 pF.
inserted these values become C3 =200 pF, C4 =1000 pF, s 2 Rq 5000
and R3 = R4 = 5000 Q. In each test co = 5000 rad/s. Find the
relative permittivity of the specimen. Now Co = £0 A / d and Cs = sr eq A / d.
Solution. The voltage circuit is shown in Hence relative permittivity of specimen
Fig- 16.27. Cs 900 4
£ = — =---- =6.
r co 150

Example 16.12 The arms of a four arm bridge abed,

supplied with sinusoidal voltage, have the following values:
arm ab: A resistance of 200 Q in parallel with a
capacitance 1 pF.
arm be: 400 Q resistance,
arm cd : 1000 Q resistance.
arm da : A resistance IT, in series with a 2 pF capacitance.
Determine the value of R2 and the frequency at which the
bridge will balance.

pig. 16.27
Solution. If we draw the sketch of this bridge, we
find that it is Wien's bridge shown in Fig. 16.20.
For balance Yj Y4 = Y, Y3 The analysis of this bridge is given in Art. 16.8.1.
1 From Eqn. 16.63,
1 • 1
or R^ + ;(0C1 —+ 7'coC4 =(7’coC2) —+ >C3 fdtS L flOOO lxl0~6>
R‘4 x200
IR3 C2 J I 400 2 x 10“6 ,
or —- ----- co2C C4 + / = ]&-=-a C2C3 = 400 Q.
1 4) K3
From Eqn. 16.64, the frequency at which the
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have bridge balance,
f =______ 1______
-(j) 2n JR^R^C;
RR
^4 + Q =----- 1 = 398 Hz.
and -(H)
R4 R3 2 tW200 x 400 x 1 x 10-6 x 2 x 10~6
A.C. Bridges 503

Example 16.13 16-17 shows a Heaviside Campbell 46.5 10

= 46.5 1 ±
bridge for measurement of a self-inductance with the 1± 10/4920 4920/
equal ratios i.e., R3 - R4, the following results were obtained: = 46.5(1 ± 0.00204) = 46.5 ± 0.095 Q.
With switch open M = 15.8 mH and r = 25.7 Q. This resistance includes the series resistance of
With switch close M = 0.2 mH and r = 1.2Cl. capacitor.
Find the resistance and self-inductance ofcoil. Series resistance of capacitor
Solution. The theory of this bridge is dealt in = (46.5 ±0.095)-(25.1 ±0.1)
Art. 16.7.4. = 21.4 ±0.195 Q
From Eqns. 16.49 and 16.50, for equal ratios 0.195
Limits of accuracy = x 100 = 0.915%
Self-inductance 21.4
L, =2(M1-M2)=2(15.8-0.2)=31.2mH
16.12 TRANSFORMER RATIO BRIDGE
Resistance
The Transformer Ratio Bridges are becoming
=r}-r2 =25.7-11.2 =14.5 Q. increasingly popular and are being used for a wide
Example 16.14 A modified Carey Foster's bridge shown range of applications. This is on account of versatility
in Fig 16.18 is used for measurement of capacitance. Arm ab and accuracy of Ratio Transformers, which are used in
contains the secondary winding a mutual inductance of the transformer ratio bridges. In fact, transformer ratio
18.35 mH and a total non-reactive resistance of 200 Cl. The bridges are replacing the conventional a.c. bridges at a
inductance of secondary of mutual inductor in arm ab is rapid rate.
40.6 mH. Arm ad is short circuited. Arm be contains the A transformer ratio bridge consists of voltage
unknown capacitor in series with a resistance of 119.5 Q. transformer whose performance approaches that of an
Arm cd comprises of a resistor of 100 Cl resistance. The ideal transformer. An ideal transformer is one that has
detector is across bd. Determine the capacitance and its no resistance, no core loss and no leakage flux (i.e.,
equivalent series resistance. there is perfect coupling between the windings).
Solution. From the analysis carried in Art. 16.7.6, The ratio transformer is provided with a number
we have of tappings in order to obtain voltage division.
Capacitance C3 == 18:36x 10 3 F = 0.918 pF. Voltage appearing across the windings of a
r 3 R. R, 200x100 transformer is :
R4( \ - M) _ 100(40.6 -18.36) E = 4KfN®mf volt ...(16.66)
= 121.2 Q.
—M " 18.36 where N = number of turns,
.’. Series resistance of capacitor = maximum value of flux ; Wb,
= 121.2 -119.5 = 1.7 Q. f = frequency ; Hz,
Example 16.15 R* a modified Carey-Foster bridge Kf = form sector
shown in Fig. 16.18. At balance R4 = 10C1, R3 =25.1 ± 0.1 Cl, (Its value is 1.11 for sinusoidal flux).
= 100 Q, = 22.82 mH and M = 4920 ± 10 pH. Find For a given value of Kj, flux <b))( and frequency f,
the unknown capacitance C3 and the limits of accuracy
E=K1N ...(16.67)
determined by the limits of balance measurements indicated.
Figure 16.28 shows an autotransformer provided
Solution. From Eqn. 16.59, we get
with tappings. Suppose an alternating voltage E is
4920 ±10
3 ’ R1 R4
= 4.92 ± 0.01 pF. applied across the winding. Assuming that the
100x10 Tappings

Accuracy limit = 221 x 100 = 0.2%

4.92
Example 16.16 Suppose in the above example the value
of R3 does not include the series loss resistance of capacitor,
find the loss resistance and limits of its accuracy.
Solution. From Eqn. 16.60,
R = ~M) = 228200
M 4920(1 ±10/4920) Fig. 16.28 Tapped autotransformer.
 504 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

autotransformer is ideal type, the division of applied using an arrangement similar to that in a Kelvin
voltage E into output voltages E1 and E2 is : Varley slide. This transformer arrangement gives a
ratio error of less than 1 part in 104.
r r J r? r ^2
E. = E —- and E~ = E —-
1 N 2 N 16.12.1 Applications and Features of
Different values of E} and E2 may be had by Ratio Transformers
changing the position of wiper on the tappings. Applications. The ratio transformers can be used
However, in practice it is impossible to construct for :
an ideal transformer. But the ideals of zero winding (i) Measurement of resistance capacitance and
resistance, zero core loss and perfect coupling can be inductance in comparison with standard
closely achieved if the design features similar to those resistance, standard capacitance and standard
for instrument transformers are used. The material inductance respectively,
used for construction of core should be such that it (zz) Measurement of amplifier gain and phase
gives the smallest core losses at the desired operating shift, and
frequency. The magnetizing current is reduced by using
(zzz) Measurement of transformer ratios.
a Toroidal Core. The added advantage of toroidal core
is that winding put on it has minimum leakage Features. The ratio transformers have the
reactance giving an almost perfect coupling. The following features :
leakage reactance can be reduced further by using a (z) They can be used on a.c. only.
special type of construction for the windings as shown (zz) They have very small ratio errors.
in Fig. 16.29. This winding takes the form of a
(z’z'z) They have a wide frequency range extending
Multiconductor Rope. In order to obtain a decade of
from 50 Hz to 50 kHz.
voltage division,the multicon- ductor rope has ten
(zu) They have high input impedance and low
wires with successive sets of turns connected in series
and a tapping is taken from each joint. input impedance. Thus the loading effects in
them are small.

16.12.2 Measurement of Resistance

The circuit used for measurement of an unknown
resistance, R, in comparison with a standard
resistance, Rs is shown in Fig. 16.31. The position of
the wiper is adjusted till the detector D shows null.
(The detectors used are the same as for conventional
a.c. bridges.)

Fig. 16.29 Tapped ratio transformer using toroidal

core and multiconductor rope type winding.
The resistance of the windings can be reduced by
using copper wire of heavy cross-section.
A 4-decade ratio transformer is shown in
pig. 16.30. The successive decades are obtained by Fig. 16.31 Measurement of resistance using
Decade 1 Decade 2 Decade 3 Decade 4 ratio transformer.

Current through the unknown resistance

1 R R

Current through the standard resistance

I _ e2 _ kxn2
2 Rs Rs
fig. 16.30 Four decade ratio transformer.
A.C. Bridges 505

Under balance conditions, the current through the in comparison with a standard capacitance C, which is
detector is zero i.e., = I2 assumed to be perfect. Resistance R represents the loss
Ki Ni _ Ki N2 of the capacitor. Since for balance, the magnitude and
R ~ Rs phase of the currents passing through the detector
should be the same, a variable standard resistance is
or R= ...(16.68) connected in parallel with the standard capacitor.

A circuit used for measurement of low resistance (Unknown •—

capacitor) C | R (Resistance
is shown in Fig. 16.32. This circuit is similar to that of representing
Kelvin's double bridge. Detector loss)

T (Standard Standard
capacitor) Cs —i— s resistance

Fig. 16.33 Measurement of capacitance using

ratio transformer.

At balance, C = —C and R = —T Rc ...(16.71)

s N2 s
Dissipation factor
1 1
D = tan8 = —— =—— ...(16.72)
(oCR ©CSRS

16.12.3 Measurement of Phase Angle

A circuit for measurement of small phase angles
with the help of ratio transformers is shoWn in
Fig. 16.32 Measurement of low resistance. Fig. 16.34. An RC circuit is used where the capacitance
is variable in order to get phase shift. The value of
By using two transformers a form of Kelvin's
resistance should be large in order that there are no
double bridge for measurement of low resistances
loading effects on the ratio transformer. The capaci­
may be devised as shown in Fig. 16.32, where
tance is changed till the detector indicates null.
> ^B + + (1 ^2)ZX + ^3
Ls _(1-NJZn
x 1z o
+ Z,
4J
Z1+ZZ7 + Z,
5LI 3
+ Z3.
R

NjZg + Z, N1Za+Z3
...(16.69)
(1 — )ZB + Z4 (1-N2)Za+Z3

If the impedances of leads i.e., Z1,Z2,Z3,Z4, and Z5

are small and the resistances R and Rs are of the same
order, the unknown resistance is given by :
Fig. 16.34 Measurement of phase angle using
A= ...(16.70)
ratio transformer.

This form of Kelvin's bridge can, of course, only Phase angle = tan ^-coRC) ...(16.73)
be used on ac but by plotting the values R against The magnitude of in-phase component is :
frequency, an extrapolation may be used to find the
d.c. value of R with an accuracy of a few parts in a *’ = N“Urcos2* -(16-74)
million.

16.12.2 Measurement of Capacitance 16.12.4 Transformer Double Ratio Bridges

The transformer bridges described till now in this
A circuit for measurement of capacitance is given
chapter are similar to the conventional a.c. bridges in
in Fig- 16.33. An unknown capacitance C is measured
 506 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

the sense that the balance conditions are indicated If the unknown impedance is a pure resistance R,
when the voltage across the detector is zero and a standard resistance Rs is required for obtaining
therefore, the current through the detector is zero. balance
An alternate way of indication of balance is that r = ...(16.77)
the current flowing through the unknown impedance N2n2 5
is equal and opposite to that through the standard or
If the unknown impedance is a pure capacitance
known impedance. The detector indicates this
C, a standard capacitor Cs is required for balance,
condition of equality.
c = -^cs ...(16.78)
The arrangement of Transformer Double Ratio
Ni"i
Bridges is shown in Fig. 16.35. It consists of an ideal
voltage transformer having a secondary winding of Equation 16.77 can also be converted to a form
bf turns. The secondary winding is tapped at N2 similar to that of Eqn. 16.78. This is done by using
turns. The resulting voltages E1 and E2 are applied conductance in place of resistance.
across the unknown impedance, Z, and standard Unknown conductance
impedance, Zs, respectively. G = JL=2^Z2G ...(16.79)
R bLn, s
where Gs is the standard conductance.
In practice, the capacitors are not perfect, the losses
being represented by a conductance in parallel with
the capacitance. Therefore, balance has to be obtained
both for resistance as well as for capacitance. In other
words, mmf equality for both magnitude as well as for
phase has to be obtained in order to get balance.
A circuit used of measurement of an imperfect
capacitor in terms of standard capacitor and standard
conductance is shown in Fig. 16.36.
Under balance,
Fig. 16.35 Basic circuit for a double ratio C = -3-(.CsJNZ1
21 + CslN2,') ...(16.80)
transformer bridge.
The two voltages E1 and E2 produce currents f Un
and G = —2_(Gs1N'1 + Gs2N;2) ...(16.81)
and L, respectively. These currents flow in the N-. m 1 sz -z
windings and n2 of a current comparator. The two
mmfs and n2I2 produce fluxes in the core of the
comparator. The two fluxes oppose each other and
when there is no flux in the core, no emf is induced in
the secondary winding of this comparator and the
detector D indicates null condition.
At balance, the two mmfs ...(16.75)

Now
r E1 K. N.
E = — =—-1—i and T2~ =
KiN2
1 Z Z 2zs

N2n2
77
or unknown impedance
~ _ N. n .
Z=Z‘WZ
2 2 »
■(16-76) conductance
The balance is obtained by changing the setting of
n2.
Fig. 16.36 Measurement of imperfect capacitor.
A.C. Bridges 507

It is clear from Eqns. 16.80 and 16.81 that the 16.12.6 Measurement of Components in 'SITU'
double ratio bridge allows the reactive and resistive One of the greatest advantages of double ratio
components of an unknown to be adjusted transformer bridges is their capability to measure the
independently of each other (capacitive balance can be values of the components while they remain
had by changing N?1 and N22 while resistive balance connected in the circuit. Figure 16.37 shows a circuit
can be obtained by changing N'2} and N'22). This for measurement of an unknown impedance Z. If the
property of independent balance facilitates the use of
this bridge in a very wide range of applications.

16.12.5 Measurement of Inductance

The circuit for measurement of inductance is the
same as that for measurement of capacitance
(Fig. 16.36) except that the unknown capacitance is
replaced by the unknown inductance.
In order that independent balance of the resistive
and reactive mmfs can be obtained anv inductive
circuit must be considered as a two terminal network,
the components of which are in parallel. The mmf
due to the resistive component of the unknown may
then be opposed by that through the conductance
standard. On the other hand, the mmf due to inductive
component of the unknown must be balanced due to Fig. 16.37 Measurement of components TN SITU'
capacitance standard. In order to obtain mmf balance using a double ratio transformer bridge.
due to unknown inductance and the standard
capacitance, it is necessary to reverse the comparator ratio transformers are considered ideal the values of
winding connected to the standard capacitor. This impedances Ze and Z can be assumed to be zero and
the voltage applied to the unknown impedance Z is
condition of bridge operation is normally indicated by
not affected by current flowing in impedance Zr Also
addition of a negative sign to the display of
all the current flowing through Z would flow into nv
capacitance Cm. Suppose an inductance Lp in parallel
winding as :
with a resistance Rp represents the actual inductor
having an inductance Lin series with a resistance R.
Z/ + Z2
1 1
At balance, — + -—- = G,„ - j(£>Cm
Rp jaLp m The value of unknown impedance is
approximately given by :
where G = indicated conductance, and
^+-
C = indicated capacitance. ...(16.84)
<Z1 Z2>
G
:. Series resistance, R=—~=- ...(16.82) In practice impedances Ze and Z have small finite
G12in +co2Cm2
values and corrections must be applied for this. In
c order that corrections be applied Ze and Z. must be
and Series inductance, L = —5—_ ....(16.83)
G,2 + determined.

Review Questions
1. Derive the general equations for balance for an a.c. 2. Describe the sources and the null detectors that are
bridge. Prove that two conditions i.e., for magni­ used for a.c. bridges.
tude and phase have to be satisfied if an a.c. bridge
3. Explain what is meant by sliding balance. How is
is to be balanced unlike a d.c. bridge wherein only
the magnitude condition is to be satisfied this condition avoided by choosing variables for
 508 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

manipulation of balance i.e., why variables are so 13. What are the modifications and additional features
chosen that the two equations for balance are incorporated in a low voltage Schering bridge for it
independent of each other. to be used on high voltages ? Explain. Describe
4. Why is it preferable in bridge circuits that the how relative pemittivity of a specimen of
equations of balance are independent of insulating material can be determined using a
frequency ? Explain. Schering bridge.

5. Derive the equations for balance in the case of 14. Describe the working of Heaviside Mutual
Maxwell's inductance capacitance bridge. Draw Inductance Bridge for determination of mutual
the phasor diagram for balance conditions. inductance of a coil. Explain how the
self-inductance of a coil can be determined with
6. In Maxwell's inductance-capacitance bridge the
the help of a mutual inductance. Also, explain how
dial of variable capacitor can be made to read the
the use of a balancing coil helps in elimination of
value of unknown inductance directly. How is it
errors on account of resistance of leads etc.
done ?
15. Explain how Wien's bridge can be used for
7. Explain why Maxwell's inductance-capacitance
experimental determination of frequency. Derive
bridge is useful for measurement of inductance of
the expression for frequency in terms of bridge
coils having storage factor between 1 and 10.
parameters.
8. Describe the working of Hay's bridge for
16. What is a Universal Impedance Bridge ? What are
measurement of inductance. Derive the equations
the features incorporated in it ? Draw the circuit
for balance and draw the phasor diagram under
diagrams of the various bridges . used in a
conditions of balance. Why is this bridge suited for
Universal Impedance Bridge.
measurement of inductance of high Q coils ?
17. What are the different sources of errors in a.c.
9. Derive the equations of balance for an Anderson's
bridges ? Explain the precautions taken and the
bridge. Draw the phasor diagram for conditions
techniques used for elimination/minimization of
under balance.
these errors.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the
18. Explain the function and working of Wagner Earth
bridge.
Devices.
10. What are incremental inductance and per­
19. Describe what do you understand by the term
meability ? Describe how are they measured with
"Ratio Transformer". Explain the construction of a
Owen's bridge.
Ratio transformer and describe its uses.
11. Describe how an unknown capacitance can be
20. Explain how a Ratio Transformer bridge can be
measured with the help of D'Sauty's bridge. What
used for measurement of
are the limitations of this bridge and how are they
overcome by using a modified form of D'Sauty's (i) resistance (zz) capacitance, (zzz) phase angle.
bridge ? Draw phasor diagrams to illustrate your 21. What is a "Transformer Double Bridge" ? Explain
answer. how can it be used for measurement of
12. Describe the working of a low voltage Schering (z) resistance, (zz) inductance,
bridge. Derive the equations for capacitance and (zzz) capacitance and loss angle of a imperfect
dissipation factor. Draw the phasor diagram of the capacitor.
bridge under conditions of balance.

Note. Students must attempt these problems from fundamentals.

1. A four arm a.c. bridge a,b,c,d has the following Arm be : Z3 = 300Z0°Q (purely resistive),
impedances :
Arm cd•: Z4 = 600Z30°Q (inductive impedance).
Arm ab : Zj = 200Z60°Q (inductive impedance).
Determine whether it is possible to balance the
Arm ad :Z2 = 400Z-60°Q bridge under above conditions.
(purely capacitive impedance) [Ans. No as ZOj + 04 * Z02 + Z03]
A.C. Bridges 509

2. A 1000 Hz bridge has the following constants : arm impedance; BCis a non-reactive resistor of 1000 £2;
ab, = 1000 £2 in parallel with Cj = 0.5 pF ; arm be, CD is a non-reactive resistor of 833 Cl in series with
Rj = 1000 £2 in series with = 0.5 pF ; arm a standard capacitor of 0.38 pF : D * is non-reactive
cd L4 = 30 mH in series with R4 = 200 £2. Find the resistor of 16800 £2. If the supply frequency is 50 Hz
constants of arm da to balance the bridge. Express determine the inductance and the resistance at the
the result as a pure resistance R in series with a balanced conditions. Derive the conditions for
pure inductance L or capacitance C. balance and draw the phasor diagram under
[Ans. 79.4 Z-11.1 £2, R = 77.9 Cl balanced conditions.
in series with C = 10.4 pF] [Ans. Rj = 210 £2, = 6.38 H]
3. An a.c. bridge has in arm ab, a pure capacitance of
7. The a.c. bridge shown in Fig. 16.38 used to measure
0.2 pF ; in arm be, a pure resistance of 500 Q ; in arm
an unknown inductance *L, that has inherent
cd, a series combination of a 50 £2 resistance and of resistance Rx. The bridge parameters are R^ =
0.1 H inductance. Arm da consists of a capacitor of
0.4 pF in series with a resistance R^ co = 5000 rad/s.
(a) Find the value of R^ to give bridge balance, (b)
Can complete balance be obtained by adjustment
of ? If not, specify the position and the value of
an adjustable resistance to complete the balance.
[Ans. 1000 Cl, complete balance cannot be
obtained by adjustment of R^ only as reactive
conditions are not satisfied. If an adjustable
resistance of 200 fl is connected in series in
branch c d capacitor reactive
balance can be obtained]
4. The four arms of a Maxwell's capacitance bridge at Fig. 16.38 Diagram of Problem 7.
balance are : arm ab, an unknown inductance l^,
having an inherent resistance Rj ; arm be, a 20,000 Cl, Rj = 50,000 Cl, C^ = 0.003 pF, co = 106 rad/s.
non-inductive resistance of 1000 £2 ; arm cd, a Cj is adjustable from 10 pF to 150 pF and R4 is
capacitor of 0.5 pF in parallel with a resistance of adjustable from 0 to 10,000 £2.
1000 £2 ; arm da, a resistance of 1000 Cl. (a) Show that the equations for resistive and reac­
Derive the equations of balance for the bridge and tive balance are independent of each other.
determine the value of R^ and I1. Draw the phasor Derive expressions for R^ and *L in terms of
diagram of the bridge under balance conditions. co, Rj, R,, R4, Cj and C,.
[Ans. Rj = 1000 £2 ; =0.5 H] (b) Determine the largest values of *R and Lx that
5. In an Anderson Bridge for the measurement of can be measured with the given parameters.
inductance the arm AB consists of an unknown [Ans. (fl) R, = R2 R4 / Rj + QR4 / q ;
impedance with inductance L and R, a known L, = R2R4q-R4/0)2R1C2;
variable resistance in arm BC, fixed resistance of (b) 2.55xlO4Q; 58.3 mH]
600 £1 each in arms CD and DA, a known variable 8. The four arms of a bridge network are made up as
resistance in arm DE, and a capacitor with fixed
follows : ab, a resistor of 50 £2 in parallel with an
capacitance of 1 microfarad in the arm CE. inductor of 0.1 H ; be, a resistor of 100 £2 ; cd, and
The a.c. supply of 100 Hz is connected across A and unknown resistor R in parallel with an unknown
C, and the detector is connected between B and E If capacitor C ; da, a resistor of 1000 £1. A 50 Hz
the balance is obtained with a resistance of 400 £1 in voltage supply is applied across ac. Find R and C
the ami DE and a resistance of 800 £1 in the arm BC, when a vibration galvanometer connected across
calculate the value of unknown R and L Derive the b d is undeflected. [Ans. R = 7060 £2; C = 0.72 pF]
conditions for balance and draw the phasor
9. A four branch bridge network ABCD balanced at
diagram under balanced conditions.
1000 Hz has branches AB and BC of pure resistance
[Ans. R = 800 £1, L = 1.12A]
of 1000 £2 and 1250 £2 respectively. An unknown
6. The four arms of a Hay's alternating current bridge impedance forms the arm CD and the branch DA
are arranged as follows : AB is a coil of unknown consists of a standard capacitor of 0.1 pF capacity
 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

and negligible resistance, connected in series with of 1,000 Q and the fixed capacitance is 50 pF.
a non-inductive resistance of 10 Q to give balance. Determine the values of the variable resistor and
The supply voltage is 15 V and the supply is given capacitor required.
at the points B and D. Find the components of
Derive the equations for balance and draw the
unknown impedance and draw the necessary
phasor diagram under balanced conditions.
phasor diagram. [Ans. 12.5 Q ; 0.08 pF]
[Ans. 4200 Q, 0.00196 pF]
10. The circuit for measurement of effective resistance 14. hi a balanced bridge network, AB is a resistance of
and self-inductance of an iron cored coil is as 500 Q in series with an inductance of 0.18 H ; BC
follows : arm ab, the unknown impedance ; arm be, and DA are non-inductive resistances of 1000 Q ;
a pure resistance R^ ; arm cd, a lossless capacitor and CD consists of a resistance R in series with a
Q ; arm da, a capacitor Q in series with a capacitance C. A potential difference of 5 volt at a
resistance. Under balance conditions. frequency of 5,000/2tt Hz is established between
Rj = 10 Q, Rj = 842 Q, q = 0.135 pF and C4 = IpF. the points A and C. Draw to scale a phasor diagram
Calculate the value of effective resistance and showing the currents and potential difference in
self-inductance at a supply frequency of 100 Hz. the bridge and from it determine the values of R
and C. Check the result algebraically.
Derive the equations of balance and draw the
[Ans. 472 Q; 0.235 pF]
phasor diagram under balanced condition.
[Ans. 74 Q, 8.42 mH] 15. A 4-arm unbalanced a.c. bridge is supplied from a
source having negligible impedance. The bridge
11. A capacitor bushing forms arm ab of a Schering has non-reactive resistors of equal resistance in
bridge and a standard capacitor of 500 pF capa­ adjacent arms. The third arm has an inductor of
citance and negligible loss, forms arm ad. Arm be resistance R and reactance X, where X is
consists of a non-inductive resistance of 300 Q. numerically equal to R The fourth arm has a
When the bridge is balanced arm cd has a resis­ variable non-inductive resistor. The detector is
tance of 72.6 Q in parallel with a capacitance of connected between the junction of first and second
0.148 pF. The supply frequency is 50 Hz. Calculate arms and the junction of third and fourth arms and
the capacitance and dielectric loss angle of has a resistance R and negligible reactance.
capacitor. Determine the magnitude of the variable resistor
Derive the equations for balance and draw the where the detector current is in quadrature with
phasor diagram under conditions of balance. the supply current. [Ans. 1.37 R]
[Ans. 121 pF ; 0.00338 rad] 16. An a.c. bridge consists of the following constants :
arm ab, a resistance of 800 Q in parallel with a
12. An a.c. bridge was made up as follows : arms AB
capacitance 0.4 pF ; be, an unknown resistance ; cd,
and BC equal ratio arms ; CD a variable capacitor C
a known resistance of 1200 Q and da, a resistance
in series with a variable resistor R: DA a standard
of 500 Q in series with a capacitance of 1 pF. Find
air capacitor of 0.001 pF in series with a fixed
the resistance required in arm be to give balance
standard resistance of 500 Q. The supply at 796 Hz
and also the frequency for which the bridge is
was connected across AC and the detector across
balanced. [Ans. 384 Q ; 890 Hz]
BD. Balance of the above bridge was obtained with
C = 0.001 pF ± 10 pF and R = 500±5Q. When an 17. A 4-arm bridge network, adjusted to balance
unknown capacitor was connected across CD, the conditions consists of :
balance conditions changed to C = 360 ± 10 pF and Arm AB a standard resistor known to be within
R = 0. Calculate the capacitance and power factor 0.1% of 100 Q.
of the unknown capacitor and the limits of
Arm BC a variable capacitor adjusted to
accuracy.
0.362 pF in parallel with a variable resistor
[Ans. 650 pF ± 3.2% ; 0.0039 ± 0.002%]
adjusted to 2380 Q.
13. A Schering bridge is used for measuring the power Arm CD a standard resistor known to be within
loss in dielectrics. The specimens are in the form of 0.1% of 1000 Q.
discs 0.3 cm thick and have a dielectric constant of
2 Arm DA a coil of inductance L and series loss
2.3. The area of each electrode is 314 cm and the
loss angle is known to be 9 for a frequency of resistance R
50 Hz. The fixed resistor of the network has a value Evaluate L and R deriving the equations used.
A.C. Bridges 511

Determine the maximum percentage error that can Calculate L, and R^.
be tolerated in each of the variable components if L If each of the resistors is accurate within ± 0.5% the
is to be determined to within 0.5% and R to within capacitor within ± 1 pF, and the frequency within
1% of the correct value. If the variable components 5 Hz, determine the limits of accuracy of
are known to be accurate within the limits so determination of L
determined how accurately is the ratio L/ R known ? [Ans. L = 942.3xl0“6(l± 10.00181) H;
[Ans. 00.362 H ; 42 Q ; 0.3% for capacitor ; accuracy limit ± 0.18%]
0.8% for resistor ; 1.1% ]
20. A resonance bridge is shown in Fig. 16.39.
18. A low-resistance coil AB of 500 turns is wound on a
ring of high permeability magnetic alloy, and a
tapping is made at a point C such AC = 100 turns.
A secondary winding on the same is connected to
an amplifier and headphones, and a supply at 796
Hz is connected between C and a point D, so that
ACBDforms a bridge circuit in which the two parts
AC and BC of the winding are the ratio arms.
Balance is achieved when arm AD comprises a
capacitance of 0.16 pF in series with a resistance of
0.4 Q, and arm BD is the capacitor under test.
Evaluate the capacitance and the equivalent shunt
loss resistance of the capacitor at supply Fig. 16.39 Resonance bridge.
frequency. (Diagram of Problem 16.20)
Mention the special advantages of this form of
Prove that
bridge circuit over the more conventional forms.
[Ans. 0.04 pF ; 976 kQ] c=^-, l=4-
co2L co2C
19. A balanced Hay's bridge shown in Fig. 16.5 has
and f -------- 7=
R, = R3 = 1000 Q, R4 = 8120 Q, C4 = 980 pF, 2njLC
and the frequency = 4000 Hz.

Objective Type Questions

Tick (\) the most appropriate answer : 1. In order that the bridge shown in Fig. 16.40, be
Answer questions 1-3, referring to Fig. 16.40. balanced :
(«) \ = I3 and 12 = I4
(&)ZjZ4=Z2Z3
(c)Z01 + Z04 = Z02 + Z03
(rf) all the above.

2. For the bridge shown in Fig 16.40, Z1 = 200 Q Z30°,

Z2 = 150 Q Z0°, Z3 = 250 OZ- 40°. In order that the
bridge be balanced Z4 should be :

(fl) 187.5 Q Z-70° (0 187.5 Q Z-10°

(c) 333.3 Q Z 10° (rf) 120 Q Z 70°.

3. For the bridge shown in Fig. 16.40, arm ab consists

of resistance in series with an inductance, arms be
and ad consist of pure resistance. In order to
pig. 16.40 achieve balance arm cd should consist of
 512 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

(a) a variable resistance in series with an variable 7. In D'Sauty's bridge (unmodified form) it is :
inductance (a) possible to obtain balance even if both the
(b) a variable resistance capacitors are imperfect
(c) a variable resistance in series or parallel with a (b) possible to obtain balance if one of the capaci­
variable capacitance tors is perfect
(d) a variable capacitance. (c) possible to obtain balance only if both the
4. The equations under balance conditions for a capacitors are perfect
bridge are : (d) all the above.
= KjRj I R4 and = R^R^C^
8. Frequency can be measured by using
where Rj and L, are respectively unknown
(a) Maxwell's bridge
resistance and inductance.
(b) Schering bridge
In order to achieve converging balance
(c) Heaviside Campbell bridge
(a) Ri and R3 should be chosen as variables
(d) Wien's bridge.
(b) R^ and C4 should bechosen as variables
9. A bridge circuit works at a frequency of 2 kHz. The
(c) R4 and C4 should be chosen as variables
following can be used as detectors for detection of
(d) R3 and C4 should be chosen as variables. null conditions in the bridge
5. Maxwell's inductance-capacitance bridge is used (a) vibration galvanometers and headphones
for measurement of inductance of:
(b) headphones and tunable amplifiers
(a) low Q coils
(c) vibration galvanometers and tunable ampli­
(b) medium Q coils
fiers
(c) high Q coils
(d) vibration galvanometers, headphones and
(d) low and medium Q coils.
tunable amplifiers.
6. The advantage of Hay's bridge over Maxwell's
inductance-capacitance bridge is because 10. Wagner's Earth Devices are used in a.c. bridge
(a) its equations for balance do not contain any circuits for :
frequency term (a) eliminating the effect of earth capacitances
(b) it can be used for measurement of inductance (b) eliminating the effect of inter-component
of high Q coils capacitances

(c) it can be used for measurement of inductance (c) eliminating the effect of stray electrostatic
of low Q coils fields
(d) none of the above. (d) shielding the bridge elements.

1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (b) < 10. (fl)
 High Voltage Measurements
and Testing

17.1 TYPES OF TESTS 2. Constant Direct Current Tests

The growing extension, interconnections and Modern trend in electric power transmission is to
use of higher voltages in electric power systems has use as high voltages as possible. This is because
been only possible due to extensive research work increase in trans- mission voltage results in an increase
carried in the sphere of high voltage measurements in efficiency of transmission. Overhead lines are in
and testing. Due to this research work in the high actual operation which employ voltages as high as 750
voltage field, it has been possible to reduce the size kV while cables for 275 kV have been made and tested.
of the equipment to economic and manageable propor­ Before high voltage lines are energised, the
tions. Thus it is logical that the high voltage testing of insulation of every part connected with the lines must
electric equipment has come into prominence and withstand continuously for half an hour, a voltage as
sometimes it is the sole design criterion for the specified below :
determination sizes of high voltage electrical apparatus.
Table 17.1 Test Voltages
High voltage testing includes a large number of Normal system voltage Test voltage
methods. Due to limitations of space, we will be Below 10 kV Twice the normal voltage j
considering a few important methods only. The high
Above 10 kV Normal voltage + 20 kV
voltage tests are classified as :
From above it is clear that the transmission lines
A Sustained low frequency tests.
and high voltage cables would be subjected to very
A Constant direct current tests. high voltages for a considerably long interval of time,
A High frequency tests. (i.e., 30 minutes). If such voltage tests are carried out
A Surge or Impulse tests. with an a.c. voltage supply, the high voltage trans­
former required for the purpose would have to be of a
1. Sustained Low Frequency Tests very large capacity owing to the heavy charging
These tests are most commonly used. The (capacitive) currents drawn by the lines or the cables.
frequency employed is 50 Hz in India. These tests are This means that a large expenditure has to be incurred
carried out on : for procuring the high voltage testing transformer.
(z) Motors, switchgear and other electrical Also there would be great difficulties involved in
apparatus for routine voltage testing after transporting the testing transformer to the site of
manufacture or in some cases after installa­ testing owing to its large size.
tion. The voltage normally used is 2 to 3 kV. Thus in order to overcome the difficulties
(z'z) Specimens of insulation for the determination encountered above, high voltage d.c. testing is done in
of dielectric constant and dielectric loss. place of a.c. testing.
(zzz) Supply mains for routine testing. 3. High Voltage High Frequency Tests
(zz?) High voltage transformers, porcelain The break-down and flash over of porcelain
insulators and high voltage cables, etc. for insulators used on power transmission lines is often
works testing. The test voltage in such cases due to high frequency' disturbances in the trans­
may be as high as 2000 kV. mission lines. These high frequency disturbances are
(513)