Electronics and Telecommunication

PART 1
Radio Wave Propagation: Radio Wave Propagation Principle, types of
Propagation, Fading.

What is Radio Wave Propagation?

Radio Wave Propagation means how radio waves travel from one place to another
(from the transmitter to the receiver). Think of it like sound waves — if you shout, your
voice travels through the air to someone else. Similarly, radio waves travel through
different paths depending on the conditions.

Types of Radio Wave Propagation

A. Ground Wave Propagation

• How it works: Radio waves travel along the surface of the Earth.
• Frequency Range: Works for low and medium frequencies (below 3 MHz).
• Distance: Short to medium distances (up to 100-300 km).
• Used for:
o AM Radio
o Military and maritime communication
• Example: Just like rolling a ball on the ground, the waves "roll" along the Earth's
surface.

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B. Sky Wave Propagation
• How it works: Radio waves go up into the atmosphere, hit the ionosphere, and
bounce back to Earth. This allows signals to travel much farther distances.
• Frequency Range: Works best with high frequencies (3 to 30 MHz).
• Distance: Long distances (up to thousands of kilometers).
• Used for:
o Shortwave radio (international broadcasting)
o Amateur radio (ham radio)
• Example: Imagine bouncing a ball off a wall and it comes back to you. Here, the
ionosphere acts like the wall.

C. Space Wave Propagation

• How it works: Waves travel in a straight line between the transmitter and the
receiver. This type needs a clear line-of-sight (no big obstacles in between).

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 • Frequency Range: Works best with very high frequencies (VHF) and ultra-high
frequencies (UHF) (above 30 MHz).
• Distance: Line-of-sight distance (up to the horizon or further, depending on height).
• Used for:
o FM radio
o TV broadcasting
o Mobile phone signals
o Satellite communication
• Example: Think of a flashlight beam going straight. If something blocks the beam,
the light can't reach the other side.

Fading in Radio Wave Propagation

Fading means that the strength of the radio signal weakens or fluctuates as it travels.
This can happen due to:
• Multipath Fading: Signals take different paths (e.g., bouncing off buildings) and
interfere with each other.
• Absorption Fading: Signals are absorbed by objects like buildings, trees, or the
atmosphere.
• Interference Fading: Other signals or noise weaken the radio wave.
• Weather Fading: Weather conditions like rain, fog, or humidity weaken the signal.

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 • Ionospheric Fading: Changes in the ionosphere can affect long-distance signals,
especially during the day or night.

Clear Summary
1. Radio Wave Propagation: How radio waves travel from one place to another.
2. Three Main Types:
a. Ground Wave Propagation: Travels along the ground; used for AM radio.
b. Sky Wave Propagation: Bounces off the ionosphere; used for long-distance
communication.
c. Space Wave Propagation: Travels straight in a line; used for FM, TV, and
mobile communication.
3. Fading: The signal gets weaker or changes due to obstacles, interference, or
weather.

PART 2
MODULATION AND DEMODULATION: NEED FOR MODULATION, TYPES OF MODULATION
AND D EMODULATION. INTRODUCTION TO AM, FM & PM, SSB-SC & DSB-SC. BLOCK
DIAGRAM OF AM A ND FM TRANSMITTER. FM G ENERATION & DETECTION. AM, FM &
PM COMPARISONS.

What is Modulation?
Modulation is the process of adding information (like your voice, music, or data) to a
carrier signal. The carrier signal is a high-frequency wave that helps to carry the
information over long distances.
• Example: Imagine you want to send a letter to someone far away. You can't throw
the letter, so you use a mail service (the carrier) to carry the letter (information) to
its destination.

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Why Do We Need Modulation?
Without modulation, signals like your voice would not travel far enough because voice
frequencies are too low to travel long distances. So, we use a higher frequency (carrier
signal) to "carry" the information farther.

Types of Modulation
There are different types of modulation, depending on how the carrier signal is
modified:

A. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

• What is it?: In AM, the amplitude (strength) of the carrier signal changes based on
the information (message signal) you want to send.
• Example: Imagine you're adjusting the brightness of a light to send a message. The
brightness (amplitude) goes up and down depending on the message.

B. Frequency Modulation (FM)

• What is it?: In FM, the frequency (the number of waves per second) of the carrier
signal changes with the message.
• Example: Instead of changing the brightness, you're changing how fast the light
flickers. The faster it flickers (frequency), the more it’s saying.

C. Phase Modulation (PM)

• What is it?: In PM, the phase (position) of the carrier signal changes to carry the
information.
• Example: Imagine flipping a switch between two positions to send a message. The
switch's position (phase) is what changes to communicate.

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Need for Demodulation
Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation. The receiver gets the modulated
signal and extracts the original message (like voice or data) from the carrier wave.
Without demodulation, the receiver can't understand the transmitted information.
• Example: If modulation is like putting a letter into an envelope for sending, then
demodulation is like opening the envelope to read the letter.

Introduction to AM, FM & PM

• AM (Amplitude Modulation): Changes the amplitude (strength) of the carrier
wave.
• FM (Frequency Modulation): Changes the frequency (how fast the wave repeats)
of the carrier wave.
• PM (Phase Modulation): Changes the phase (position) of the carrier wave.

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Advanced Modulation Techniques
There are other forms of amplitude modulation, including:

A. SSB-SC (Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier)

• Only one sideband (the part of the signal carrying information) is transmitted, and
the carrier is suppressed (not sent).
• Why?: This saves bandwidth and power, making communication more efficient.

B. DSB-SC (Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier)

• Both sidebands are transmitted, but the carrier is suppressed.
• Why?: It uses less power than standard AM because the carrier isn't sent, but still
transmits more information than SSB.

Block Diagram of AM and FM Transmitter

AM Transmitter Block Diagram:

1. Audio Input (like voice or music)

2. Modulator (modifies the amplitude of the carrier wave)
3. Amplifier (boosts the power of the modulated signal)
4. Antenna (sends the signal into the air)

FM Transmitter Block Diagram:

1. Audio Input
2. Oscillator (generates the carrier wave)
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 3. Frequency Modulator (modifies the frequency based on the message)
4. Power Amplifier (increases the power of the signal)
5. Antenna

7. FM Generation & Detection

FM Generation:
• An oscillator generates the carrier wave.
• The frequency of the wave is varied in response to the input signal (like voice or
music).

FM Detection:
• A demodulator extracts the original message (voice or data) from the frequency-
modulated signal.

8. AM, FM, and PM Comparison

Feature AM (Amplitude FM (Frequency PM (Phase
Modulation) Modulation) Modulation)
What Amplitude Frequency (how fast Phase (position of
changes? (strength) wave repeats) the wave)

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 Sound Lower (affected Better sound quality, Similar to FM
Quality by noise) less noise
Bandwid Requires less Requires more Similar to FM
th bandwidth bandwidth
Power More power Less power for same Similar to FM
Consumptio needed quality
n
Used In AM radio FM radio, TV, mobile Satellite, advanced
communication communication

Summary
• Modulation is used to send information (voice, data) over long distances.
• Demodulation is the process of extracting that information at the receiver's end.
• There are different types of modulation:
o AM: Changes in amplitude.
o FM: Changes in frequency.
o PM: Changes in phase.
• AM and FM Transmitters have similar blocks, but FM offers better quality and
less noise.
• Advanced techniques like SSB-SC and DSB-SC are used to save bandwidth and
power.

PART 3

Antenna: Fundamentals Of Antenna, Various Parameters,

Types Of Antennas & Application

1. Fundamentals of Antennas

An antenna is a device that converts electrical energy into radio waves and vice versa.
It serves as a crucial component in wireless communication systems, allowing the
transmission and reception of electromagnetic signals.

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Key Functions of an Antenna:

• Transmission: Converts electrical signals into electromagnetic waves for

transmission.
• Reception: Converts incoming electromagnetic waves back into electrical signals.

Parameters of Antennas

When evaluating antennas, several important parameters are considered:

1. Radiation Pattern

• Definition: A graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as

a function of space.
• Types:
o Omnidirectional: Radiates equally in all directions (e.g., dipole antenna).
o Directional: Concentrates energy in a specific direction (e.g., Yagi-Uda
antenna).

2. Gain

• Definition: The measure of an antenna's ability to direct radio frequency energy in

a particular direction compared to a standard (isotropic) antenna.
• Measured in: Decibels (dB).
• Importance: Higher gain means better signal strength and reach.

3. Directivity

• Definition: The measure of how focused the antenna's radiation pattern is in a

particular direction.
• Difference from Gain: Gain includes efficiency, while directivity does not.

4. Bandwidth

• Definition: The range of frequencies over which the antenna operates effectively.
• Significance: Wider bandwidth allows the antenna to transmit and receive a range
of signals.
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5. Input Impedance

• Definition: The impedance at the antenna's feed point.

• Importance: It affects how efficiently the antenna transmits or receives signals.

6. Efficiency

• Definition: The ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the power input to the
antenna.
• Factors: Losses due to resistance, mismatch, and other factors affect efficiency.

Types of Antennas

There are several types of antennas, each suited for different applications:

1. Dipole Antenna

• Structure: Consists of two conductive elements (wires) oriented in a straight line.

• Characteristics: Omnidirectional radiation pattern in the horizontal plane.
• Applications: Used in radio and television broadcasting.

2. Monopole Antenna

• Structure: A single conductor mounted over a ground plane.

• Characteristics: Similar to a dipole, but typically shorter.
• Applications: Commonly used in mobile devices and car radios.

3. Yagi-Uda Antenna

• Structure: Consists of multiple elements (one driven, one reflector, and several
directors).
• Characteristics: Highly directional with significant gain.
• Applications: Used in television reception and amateur radio.

4. Parabolic Reflector Antenna

• Structure: A parabolic dish that reflects signals to a focal point.

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 • Characteristics: Very high gain and directivity.
• Applications: Used in satellite communications and radio telescopes.

5. Patch Antenna

• Structure: A flat rectangular or circular radiating element mounted above a ground

plane.
• Characteristics: Low profile and lightweight.
• Applications: Used in mobile devices, GPS, and Wi-Fi.

6. Loop Antenna

• Structure: A loop of wire or other conductive material.

• Characteristics: Can be directional or omnidirectional, depending on design.
• Applications: Used in RFID systems and some communication systems.

Applications of Antennas

Antennas are used in various fields, including:

1. Communication Systems

• Mobile Phones: For voice and data transmission.

• Broadcasting: Radio and television broadcasting.

2. Satellite Communication

• Dish Antennas: For receiving signals from satellites.

3. Radar Systems

• Antenna Types: Used in aviation and military for detecting objects.

4. Wi-Fi and Networking

• Access Points: Antennas in routers for wireless networking.

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5. RFID Systems

• Loop and Patch Antennas: For tracking and identification applications.

6. Scientific Research

• Radio Telescopes: Antennas for astronomical observations.

Summary

Antennas play a vital role in wireless communication systems, enabling the transmission
and reception of signals. Understanding their fundamental concepts, parameters, types, and
applications helps in designing and selecting the right antenna for specific needs. Each
antenna type has unique characteristics that make it suitable for various applications, from
broadcasting to satellite communications.

MCQs on Antennas

1. What is the primary function of an antenna?

a. A) Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
b. B) Convert electrical energy into electromagnetic waves
c. C) Increase signal frequency
d. D) Store electrical energy
e. Answer: B) Convert electrical energy into electromagnetic waves
2. Which parameter measures the concentration of an antenna's radiation in a
particular direction?
a. A) Gain
b. B) Directivity
c. C) Impedance
d. D) Efficiency
e. Answer: B) Directivity
3. What does the term "bandwidth" refer to in antenna terminology?
a. A) The range of power levels an antenna can handle
b. B) The frequency range over which an antenna operates effectively
c. C) The physical size of the antenna
d. D) The material used to construct the antenna
e. Answer: B) The frequency range over which an antenna operates effectively
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4. What type of radiation pattern does a dipole antenna typically have?
a. A) Unidirectional
b. B) Omnidirectional
c. C) Bidirectional
d. D) Isotropic
e. Answer: B) Omnidirectional
5. Which type of antenna consists of multiple elements, including a driven
element, reflector, and directors?
a. A) Dipole Antenna
b. B) Monopole Antenna
c. C) Yagi-Uda Antenna
d. D) Parabolic Antenna
e. Answer: C) Yagi-Uda Antenna
6. What is the main advantage of using a parabolic reflector antenna?
a. A) Compact size
b. B) Low cost
c. C) High gain and directivity
d. D) Easy to manufacture
e. Answer: C) High gain and directivity
7. Which parameter describes how well an antenna converts input power to
radiated power?
a. A) Directivity
b. B) Gain
c. C) Input Impedance
d. D) Efficiency
e. Answer: D) Efficiency
8. What type of antenna is commonly used in mobile devices?
a. A) Parabolic Antenna
b. B) Yagi-Uda Antenna
c. C) Patch Antenna
d. D) Loop Antenna
e. Answer: C) Patch Antenna
9. Which of the following is a characteristic of a monopole antenna?
a. A) It has two conductive elements.
b. B) It is mounted over a ground plane.
c. C) It is purely directional.
d. D) It is used only for television reception.
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 e. Answer: B) It is mounted over a ground plane.
10. What is the primary use of a loop antenna?
a. A) Satellite communication
b. B) RFID systems
c. C) TV broadcasting
d. D) Radio telescopes
e. Answer: B) RFID systems
11. Which of the following statements about antenna gain is true?
a. A) Gain is measured in Watts.
b. B) Higher gain indicates better directivity.
c. C) Gain is the same as efficiency.
d. D) Gain is always positive.
e. Answer: B) Higher gain indicates better directivity.
12. The input impedance of an antenna is important because it affects:
a. A) The radiation pattern.
b. B) The power transferred to the antenna.
c. C) The bandwidth of the antenna.
d. D) The antenna's weight.
e. Answer: B) The power transferred to the antenna.
13. Which of the following is NOT a type of antenna?
a. A) Yagi-Uda
b. B) Parabolic
c. C) Diode
d. D) Dipole
e. Answer: C) Diode
14. Which type of antenna is often used for television reception due to its
directionality?
a. A) Dipole Antenna
b. B) Loop Antenna
c. C) Yagi-Uda Antenna
d. D) Patch Antenna
e. Answer: C) Yagi-Uda Antenna
15. What is a common application for parabolic antennas?
a. A) Mobile phones
b. B) GPS systems
c. C) Satellite communication
d. D) RFID readers
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 e. Answer: C) Satellite communication
16. In which application would you typically find a patch antenna?
a. A) Amateur radio
b. B) Cellular phones
c. C) Satellite dishes
d. D) Shortwave radio
e. Answer: B) Cellular phones
17. What does an omnidirectional antenna provide?
a. A) Focused energy in one direction
b. B) Equal radiation in all directions
c. C) Variable radiation based on frequency
d. D) Higher gain in specific directions
e. Answer: B) Equal radiation in all directions
18. Which type of antenna is generally used for broadcasting at high
frequencies?
a. A) Loop Antenna
b. B) Yagi-Uda Antenna
c. C) Dipole Antenna
d. D) Parabolic Antenna
e. Answer: C) Dipole Antenna
19. What does the term "radiation pattern" describe?
a. A) The physical shape of the antenna
b. B) The relationship between input and output power
c. C) The distribution of radiated energy in space
d. D) The type of materials used in the antenna
e. Answer: C) The distribution of radiated energy in space
20. Which parameter indicates how well an antenna can operate over a range
of frequencies?
a. A) Gain
b. B) Directivity
c. C) Bandwidth
d. D) Radiation Pattern
e. Answer: C) Bandwidth

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 PART 4

Digital Modulation and Demodulation: Techniques, Sampling.

Quantization & Encoding, Concept of Multiplexing and De
Multiplexing. PAM/PPM/PWM Signals and principles

1. Digital Modulation and Demodulation

Digital modulation involves encoding information into a carrier signal using various
techniques. It is essential for transmitting digital data efficiently over communication
channels.

Key Concepts in Digital Modulation:

• Modulation: The process of varying a carrier signal to encode information.

• Demodulation: The process of extracting the original information from the
modulated signal.
Imagine you want to send a message, like "HELLO." Instead of sending it as a simple
wave, you modulate (change) a carrier wave.

2. Techniques of Digital Modulation

Several techniques are used for digital modulation, including:

1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• Definition: The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the
digital signal.
• Advantages: Simple and easy to implement.
• Disadvantages: Sensitive to noise and interference.
• In Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): You might represent "H" with a tall wave and
"E" with a shorter wave.
o Tall wave = "H"
o Short wave = "E"

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2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

• Definition: The frequency of the carrier signal is changed based on the digital
signal.
• Advantages: More robust against noise compared to ASK.
• Disadvantages: Requires more bandwidth.

3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

• Definition: The phase of the carrier signal is changed to represent the digital data.
• Types:
o Binary PSK (BPSK): Two phases to represent binary digits.
o Quadrature PSK (QPSK): Four phases to represent two bits per symbol.
• Advantages: More efficient use of bandwidth.

4. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

• Definition: Combines both amplitude and phase modulation to encode multiple bits
per symbol.
• Applications: Used in digital television and data communication.

3. Sampling, Quantization, and Encoding

1. Sampling

• Definition: The process of measuring the amplitude of an analog signal at discrete

intervals.
• Nyquist Theorem: To avoid aliasing, the sampling frequency must be at least twice
the highest frequency present in the signal.

Example:

Imagine you're recording a sound wave (like music). If you sample the sound every 0.01
seconds:

• At 0.00s, you measure 0.8V

• At 0.01s, you measure 0.6V
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 • At 0.02s, you measure 0.4V
• At 0.03s, you measure 0.7V

These measurements represent the audio signal at those specific moments.

2. Quantization

•Definition: The process of mapping sampled values to discrete levels. It involves

rounding each sampled value to the nearest available value.
• Types:
o Uniform Quantization: Fixed intervals between quantization levels.
o Non-Uniform Quantization: Variable intervals, often used to minimize
distortion in audio signals.
Example:

Continuing with the sampled values:

• 0.8V might be rounded to 1.0V

• 0.6V might be rounded to 0.5V
• 0.4V might be rounded to 0.5V
• 0.7V might be rounded to 1.0V.

3. Encoding

• Definition: The conversion of quantized values into binary code for transmission.
Various encoding schemes exist, such as:
o Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): Represents the quantized values as binary
numbers.
o Delta Modulation (DM): Transmits the difference between successive
samples rather than the actual sample values.

Example:

If your quantized values after rounding are:

• 1.0V → represented as 0001 (in 4-bit binary)

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 • 0.5V → represented as 0000

You now have binary representations that can be sent as digital data.

4. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

1. Multiplexing

• Definition: The process of combining multiple signals into one signal over a shared
medium. It allows multiple data streams to be transmitted simultaneously.
• Types:
o Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Divides the time into slots and
allocates each slot to a different signal.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Divides the frequency spectrum
into sub-bands, each carrying a separate signal.

Example:

Imagine you have three audio streams (A, B, and C) from three different sources.
Instead of sending each stream separately:

• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) could be used:

o For 0-2 seconds: Stream A is sent.
o For 2-4 seconds: Stream B is sent.
o For 4-6 seconds: Stream C is sent.

At the receiver end, each stream is extracted based on timing

2. Demultiplexing

• Definition: The reverse process of multiplexing, where a single combined signal is

separated back into its original components.
• Importance: Essential for retrieving individual signals at the receiving end.

Example:

Using the previous example, at the receiver:

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The combined signal is split back into separate streams based on the timing:
The data from 0-2 seconds goes to Stream A.
The data from 2-4 seconds goes to Stream B.
i
The data from 4-6 seconds goes to Stream C

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 PAM, PPM, and PWM Signals

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

• Definition: The amplitude of each pulse in a series of pulses represents the sample
value of the analog signal.
• Characteristics: Simple to implement but sensitive to noise.
• Applications: Used in applications like digital audio and video.

Example: If you have sampled values of 2, 4, and 3, the pulse heights could be:

Pulse 1 (2) = Medium height

Pulse 2 (4) = Tall height
Pulse 3 (3) = Slightly shorter than tall

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Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

• Definition: The position of each pulse in time represents the sample value of the
analog signal.
• Characteristics: More robust against noise compared to PAM.
• Applications: Used in optical communication systems and infrared communication.

Example: If you have signal values 1, 2, and 3:

A pulse occurs at 1ms for "1"

A pulse occurs at 3ms for "2"
A pulse occurs at 5ms for "3"

The timing of the pulse indicates the value.

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Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

• Definition: The width of each pulse is varied according to the sample value of the
analog signal.
• Characteristics: Allows for efficient power delivery; used to control devices like
motors and lights.
• Applications: Commonly used in audio signal processing and motor control.

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 Example: For values 1, 2, and 3:

A pulse of width 1ms for "1"

A pulse of width 2ms for "2"
A pulse of width 3ms for "3"

Summary

Digital modulation and demodulation techniques are vital for modern communication
systems, enabling efficient data transmission. Sampling, quantization, and encoding
transform analog signals into digital form, while multiplexing allows multiple signals to
share the same transmission medium. PAM, PPM, and PWM represent different ways to
encode information in pulse signals, each with unique characteristics and applications.

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Summary Table

Concept Definition Example

Digital High/low waves for "1"
Encoding digital info into an analog signal
Modulation and "0"
Measuring voltage every
Sampling Measuring an analog signal at intervals
0.01s
Rounding sampled values to discrete
Quantization Rounding 0.8V to 1.0V
levels
Converting values to binary for
Encoding 1.0V becomes 0001
transmission
Time slots for audio
Multiplexing Combining multiple signals into one
streams
Demultiplexin Separating a combined signal back into
Extracting audio streams
g originals
Pulse heights for values 2,
PAM Modulating by varying pulse amplitude
4, 3
Pulses at 1ms, 3ms, and
PM Modulating by varying pulse position
5ms
Pulse widths of 1ms, 2ms,
PWM Modulating by varying pulse width
3ms

Here are 30 multiple-choice questions (MCQs) on digital modulation techniques,

including Sampling, Quantization, Encoding, Multiplexing, Demultiplexing, and
PAM/PPM/PWM signals:

PART 5
MOBILE COMMUNICATION. BASICS OF MOBILE COMMUNICATION. CONCEPT
CELL SITE, HAND OFF, FREQUENCY REUSE, BLOCK DIAGRAM AND WORKING
OF CELL PHONES, CELL PHONE FEATURES. GSM AND CDMA TECHNOLOGY

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 Mobile Communication

Basics of Mobile Communication

Mobile communication refers to the transmission and reception of signals between a

mobile device (e.g., smartphone, tablet) and a network infrastructure. This allows for
communication while on the move.

Key Concepts

• Cell Site: A base station that provides coverage for a specific geographical area
(cell).
• Handoff: The process of transferring a call from one cell site to another as the user
moves.
• Frequency Reuse: Using the same frequency band in different cells that are
sufficiently far apart to avoid interference.

EXPLAINATION

Cell Site

• A cell site (or cell tower) is a fixed point of communication that serves a specific
geographic area called a cell.
• Each cell site contains antennas and equipment to transmit and receive radio
signals, connecting mobile devices to the network.
• The area around a cell site is divided into cells to manage the frequency spectrum
effectively.

Handoff

• Handoff (or handover) refers to the process of transferring an ongoing call or data
session from one cell site to another as the user moves through the coverage area.
• There are two types of handoffs:
o Hard Handoff: The connection to the current cell is broken before
connecting to the new cell (break-before-make).

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 o Soft Handoff: The connection to the new cell is established before breaking
the connection to the current cell (make-before-break).

Frequency Reuse

• Frequency reuse is the concept of using the same frequency bands in different
cells to maximize the efficient use of available spectrum.
• By separating cells using adequate distance, interference is minimized, allowing
multiple users to share the same frequency without affecting each other.

Block Diagram and Working of Cell Phones

Block Diagram of a Cell Phone

A basic block diagram of a cell phone includes the following components:

1. Antenna: For sending and receiving signals.

2. Transmitter: Converts audio signals into radio waves for transmission.
3. Receiver: Converts incoming radio waves back into audio signals.
4. Modulator/Demodulator (Modem): Modulates and demodulates signals for
efficient transmission.
5. Microphone and Speaker: For input (speaking) and output (hearing) of audio.
6. Battery: Provides power to the device.
7. Control Unit: Manages all functions of the phone.
8. Display and User Interface: Allows users to interact with the device.

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Working of Cell Phones

1. The user speaks into the microphone.

2. The audio signal is converted into an electrical signal and sent to the transmitter.
3. The transmitter modulates the signal and sends it via the antenna as radio waves.
4. The radio waves are picked up by a nearby cell site.
5. The cell site forwards the signal to the intended recipient through the mobile
network.
6. The recipient's phone receives the signal through its receiver, demodulates it, and
converts it back to audio, which is outputted through the speaker.

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Cell Phone Features

• Voice Calling: Basic communication feature.

• Text Messaging: SMS (Short Message Service) and MMS (Multimedia Messaging
Service).
• Internet Access: Browsing, streaming, and email services.
• Camera: For capturing photos and videos.
• GPS: Global Positioning System for location tracking.
• Apps: Applications for various functionalities like social media, gaming, and
productivity.
• Bluetooth: Wireless technology for short-range data exchange.
• Wi-Fi: Enables wireless internet access.

GSM and CDMA Technology

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)

• GSM is a digital mobile communication standard used for transmitting mobile voice
and data services.
• It operates on a time-division multiple access (TDMA) protocol, dividing each
frequency into time slots for multiple calls.
• Key features:
o SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card for user identification.
o Supports voice calls, SMS, and mobile internet.
o Global compatibility and widespread adoption.

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

• CDMA is another digital mobile communication technology that uses spread-

spectrum technology to allow multiple users to share the same frequency band.
• Each call is assigned a unique code, enabling simultaneous communication without
interference.
• Key features:
o More efficient use of bandwidth compared to GSM.
o Enhanced voice quality and better call capacity.
o Used primarily in the US and some regions for 3G networks.

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Conclusion

Mobile communication encompasses various technologies and concepts, enabling users

to stay connected on the go. Understanding the basics, cell sites, handoffs, frequency reuse,
and the differences between GSM and CDMA technologies is crucial for comprehending
how mobile networks operate.

PART 6TH AND 7TH

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Communication equipment's. AM&FM RADIO Concept and Working, TELEVISION
Concept and Working and Optical Fiber Equipments Electrical and Electronic Gadgets:
UPS, Inverter, Stabilizer and SMPS working

Communication Equipment

AM & FM Radio: Concept and Working

AM (Amplitude Modulation) Radio

• Concept: In AM radio, the amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier wave is varied
in proportion to the information being sent (audio signals). The frequency remains
constant.
• Working:
o Audio Input: The audio signal is captured by the microphone.
o Modulation: The audio signal is used to modulate the amplitude of the
carrier wave, which remains at a fixed frequency.
o Transmission: The modulated wave is transmitted through an antenna.
o Reception: The receiver antenna captures the transmitted AM signals.
o Demodulation: The radio receiver demodulates the signal, extracting the
audio information.
o Output: The audio signal is amplified and sent to the speaker for playback.

FM (Frequency Modulation) Radio

• Concept: In FM radio, the frequency of the carrier wave is varied according to the
amplitude of the audio signal. The amplitude remains constant.
• Working:
o Audio Input: The audio signal is captured by the microphone.
o Modulation: The frequency of the carrier wave is varied based on the
amplitude of the audio signal.
o Transmission: The modulated FM signal is transmitted via an antenna.
o Reception: The FM receiver picks up the transmitted signals.
o Demodulation: The receiver demodulates the signal to retrieve the audio
information.
o Output: The audio signal is amplified and sent to the speaker.

32
Television: Concept and Working

• Concept: Television is a communication medium that transmits moving images and

sound over a distance, enabling broadcasting of video content.
• Working:
o Video and Audio Capture: Cameras capture moving images, and
microphones capture audio.
o Encoding: The captured video and audio signals are encoded into a
composite signal.
o Modulation: The composite signal is modulated onto a carrier wave (using
AM for audio and FM for video).
o Transmission: The modulated signal is transmitted through antennas or
cable systems.
o Reception: The TV antenna or cable system receives the transmitted
signals.
o Demodulation: The TV set demodulates the signal to separate audio and
video components.
o Display: The video is displayed on the screen, and the audio is played
through the speakers.

Optical Fiber Equipment

• Concept: Optical fiber equipment uses glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as
light signals, providing high-speed communication over long distances with minimal
signal loss.
• Working:
o Light Transmission: Data is converted into light signals using a laser or
LED.
o Propagation: The light travels through the optical fiber via total internal
reflection, allowing it to bend around corners.
o Reception: At the receiving end, a photodetector converts the light signals
back into electrical signals.
o Processing: The electrical signals are processed and used for
communication.

33
Electrical and Electronic Gadgets

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

• Concept: A UPS provides backup power to connected devices during a power

outage or voltage fluctuations.
• Working:
o Normal Operation: The UPS charges its internal battery while supplying
power to connected devices.
o Power Failure: In the event of a power outage, the UPS automatically
switches to battery mode, providing power to the devices.
o Output: The inverter within the UPS converts DC power from the battery to
AC power for the devices.

Inverter

• Concept: An inverter converts DC (Direct Current) power into AC (Alternating

Current) power.
• Working:
o DC Input: The inverter receives DC input from sources like batteries or solar
panels.
o Conversion: The inverter uses electronic circuits to switch the DC power,
creating an AC output.
o Output: The AC output can be used to power household appliances and
electronic devices.

Stabilizer

• Concept: A stabilizer regulates and stabilizes voltage to protect electrical appliances

from voltage fluctuations.
• Working:
o Voltage Sensing: The stabilizer senses the incoming voltage and compares
it to a set reference level.
o Regulation: If the voltage exceeds or drops below the set level, the stabilizer
adjusts it using transformers or electronic circuits.

34
 o Output: The stabilized voltage is supplied to connected appliances, ensuring
their safe operation.

Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

• Concept: SMPS is a power supply unit that converts electrical power efficiently
using switching regulators.
• Working:
o AC Input: The SMPS receives AC input from the mains supply.
o Rectification: The AC is converted to DC using rectifiers.
o Switching: The DC is switched on and off rapidly using transistors, creating
a high-frequency signal.
o Transforming: The high-frequency signal is transformed to the desired
output voltage using a transformer.
o Output: The output is filtered and regulated to provide a stable DC voltage
for devices.

PART 8TH
E-Governance: Objectives. Origins In India, E-Governance Project In India. Work
plan And Infrastructure. DBMS, ANTI-VIRUS.

E-Governance: Objectives

e-Governance aims to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of government

operations and enhance service delivery to citizens. The main objectives include:

• Improving Service Delivery: Streamlining processes to provide quicker and more

efficient services to citizens.
• Enhancing Transparency: Increasing government accountability by making
information publicly accessible and reducing corruption.
• Empowering Citizens: Providing citizens with access to information and services,
enabling informed participation in governance.
• Reducing Red Tape: Minimizing bureaucratic obstacles and paperwork, making
government interactions smoother and faster.
35
 • Integrating Services: Connecting various government departments to provide
seamless service delivery.
• Encouraging Participation: Involving citizens in the governance process through
feedback and online platforms.

Origins of e-Governance in India

The origins of e-Governance in India can be traced back to several key developments:

• 1980s: Introduction of computer technology in government departments to

enhance efficiency and administration.
• National Policy on Information Technology (2000): This policy aimed to
promote IT usage in governance and laid the groundwork for e-Governance
initiatives.
• 2006: The Government of India launched the e-Governance Mission, aiming to
facilitate e-Governance across all sectors.
• Digital India Initiative (2015): A flagship program aimed at transforming India
into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy, with a focus on digital
infrastructure and services.

e-Governance Projects in India

Several e-Governance projects have been launched in India to improve service delivery
and transparency:

• National e-Governance Plan (NeGP): Launched to make all government services

accessible to citizens electronically.
• e-District: A project that allows citizens to apply for various certificates (like birth,
death, and caste) online.
• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
IT Project: Facilitates transparency in the rural employment guarantee scheme
through online management of funds and work details.
• Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP): Aims to
digitize land records to make them easily accessible and reduce disputes.
• Common Service Centers (CSCs): A network of physical centers providing
various government services to citizens, especially in rural areas.

36
Work Plan and Infrastructure

Work Plan:

• Needs Assessment: Understanding the requirements of citizens and the

government.
• Technology Implementation: Integrating suitable ICT solutions for service
delivery.
• Capacity Building: Training government officials and citizens in using e-
Governance platforms.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Continuously assessing the performance and impact
of e-Governance initiatives.

Infrastructure:

• Data Centers: Centralized facilities for hosting e-Governance applications and

databases.
• Networking: Robust connectivity solutions to facilitate communication between
government offices and citizens.
• Security Framework: Implementing cybersecurity measures to protect sensitive
data and ensure privacy.

Database Management Systems (DBMS)

DBMS plays a crucial role in e-Governance by managing the large volumes of data
generated by government services:

• Data Storage: Provides a structured way to store data efficiently.

• Data Retrieval: Facilitates quick access to information, allowing timely decision-
making and service delivery.
• Data Integrity: Ensures the accuracy and consistency of data, critical for
government operations.
• User Management: Controls access to data, ensuring that only authorized
personnel can view or modify sensitive information.

37
6. Anti-Virus Software

Anti-virus software is essential for maintaining the security of e-Governance

infrastructure:

• Threat Detection: Identifies and removes viruses and malware that can
compromise systems.
• Real-time Protection: Monitors system activity to prevent potential threats from
executing.
• Data Security: Protects sensitive information from unauthorized access and
cyberattacks.
• Compliance: Helps meet legal and regulatory requirements related to data
protection and privacy.

38
 TELEVISION TRANSMITTERS

Television transmitters are devices used to send television signals over the air to be received by
televisions. They are a critical component in broadcast television systems and work by
converting audio and video signals into radio frequency (RF) signals that can be broadcast over
long distances. Here’s a basic breakdown of how television transmitters work:

1. Signal Input (Audio and Video)

• The television transmitter receives input signals, which include both video (picture) and
audio (sound). These signals come from sources such as live TV studios or recorded
content.

2. Modulation

• Video Modulation: The video signal is usually amplitude modulated (AM). In older
analog TV systems, the video signal is converted into a radio wave using vestigial
sideband (VSB) modulation, which is a variant of AM designed to use less bandwidth.
• Audio Modulation: The audio signal is typically frequency modulated (FM) to allow
for better sound quality and noise resistance.

3. Combining Audio and Video

• After modulation, the audio and video signals are combined using a technique called
frequency division multiplexing (FDM). The audio and video signals are carried on
different frequencies within the same TV channel.
4. RF Amplification

• The combined modulated signal is then amplified to a high power level to ensure that it
can be transmitted over long distances without significant loss of quality.

5. Transmission

• The amplified signal is fed to an antenna that broadcasts the signal as electromagnetic
waves. The signal is transmitted over a specific frequency band assigned to the television
channel.

6. Reception

• The signal is received by TV antennas on the viewer’s end, and the television’s tuner
demodulates the audio and video signals, converting them back into sound and picture.

Types of Television Transmission

• Analog Transmission: This was the original method of broadcasting TV signals, where
audio and video signals were transmitted in an analog format. Analog systems like
NTSC, PAL, and SECAM were widely used.
• Digital Transmission: Modern TV transmitters use digital transmission, where the
video and audio are converted into digital data (binary format). This allows for better
picture quality (HDTV), more efficient use of bandwidth, and the ability to broadcast
multiple channels in the same frequency space. Technologies like DVB-T (Digital Video
Broadcasting - Terrestrial) are commonly used for digital television.

Important Components of Television Transmitters:

• Modulator: Handles the modulation of audio and video signals.

• Upconverter: Converts the baseband signal to the desired broadcast frequency.
• Power Amplifier: Amplifies the RF signal for transmission.
• Antenna: Broadcasts the signal to the viewers.

In digital TV, additional components include:

• Digital Encoder: Compresses the video/audio data.

• Multiplexer (MUX): Combines multiple streams into one signal for transmission.
Key Concepts:

• VSB (Vestigial Sideband): Used for efficient transmission in analog TV.

• OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing): Often used in digital TV for
better handling of multi-path interference.

ANTENNA, TYPES-DIPOLE ANTENNA , TRANSMISSION LINES FEEDERS, COAXIAL

CABLES.

ANTENNA
An antenna is a device that transmits or receives electromagnetic waves. In communication
systems like radio and television broadcasting, antennas convert electrical signals into radio
waves (for transmission) or radio waves back into electrical signals (for reception). Let’s break
down the main concepts:

1. Antenna Basics

• An antenna works by creating electromagnetic waves when an alternating current is

applied to it. These waves travel through the air and can be received by another antenna,
where the waves are converted back into electrical signals.
• Antennas come in various shapes and sizes, depending on their application (TV, radio,
mobile communication, etc.).

2. Dipole Antenna

The dipole antenna is one of the simplest and most widely used antennas. It consists of two
conductive elements (usually metal rods) placed end to end, with a gap in the middle where the
feed line is connected. Key features of a dipole antenna:

• Half-Wave Dipole: The length of the dipole is typically half the wavelength of the signal
being transmitted or received.
• Radiation Pattern: A dipole antenna radiates in all directions perpendicular to the
antenna, creating an omnidirectional pattern in the horizontal plane.

Types of Dipole Antennas:

• Half-Wave Dipole: The most common, with a total length equal to half the wavelength.
 • Folded Dipole: A modified version where the two rods are folded back parallel to each
other, offering a wider bandwidth.

Applications: Used in radio, television transmission, and reception, as well as in Wi-Fi and
mobile communication systems.

3. Transmission Lines and Feeders

Transmission lines and feeders are used to transfer the electrical signals from the transmitter or
receiver to the antenna. Their primary role is to deliver the maximum amount of power with
minimal losses.

Types of Transmission Lines:

• Parallel Wire Line (Balanced Line): Consists of two parallel conductors, often used
with dipole antennas. They are known for low loss but are susceptible to interference and
noise.
• Coaxial Cable: A more common type of transmission line, consisting of a central
conductor, an insulating layer, and an outer conductor (shield). It is widely used due to its
superior shielding and reduced noise.

4. Coaxial Cables

Coaxial cables are commonly used for connecting antennas to receivers or transmitters. They are
favored because of their ability to minimize signal loss and interference.
 Or

Coaxial cable is a type of copper cable specially built with a metal shield and other components
engineered to block signal interference.

Structure of a Coaxial Cable:

• Inner Conductor: Carries the signal (usually copper).

• Dielectric Insulator: Surrounds the inner conductor and separates it from the outer
conductor.
• Outer Conductor (Shielding): Usually made of braided metal or foil, it prevents
interference from external sources.
• Outer Jacket: The outer insulating layer that protects the cable.

Advantages of Coaxial Cables:

• Low Loss: Coaxial cables have lower losses compared to parallel wire lines, especially at
high frequencies.
• Shielding: The outer conductor acts as a shield to block electromagnetic interference
from external sources.

Types of Coaxial Cables:

• RG-58: Common in radio systems.

• RG-6: Widely used for cable television.
• RG-213: Used in high-power applications such as transmitting antennas.
5. Transmission Line Matching

To ensure that maximum power is transferred from the transmitter to the antenna, the
transmission line and antenna impedance must match. If there is a mismatch, it results in
standing waves along the transmission line, leading to power loss.

Key Matching Concepts:

• Impedance Matching: Ensuring the impedance of the transmission line matches the
impedance of the antenna (typically 50Ω or 75Ω).
• Standing Wave Ratio (SWR): A measure of the efficiency of power transmission. An
SWR close to 1:1 indicates efficient power transfer.

Summary of Components:

1. Dipole Antenna:
a. Simple, widely used, particularly in radio and TV applications.
b. Types include half-wave dipole and folded dipole.
2. Transmission Lines:
a. Transfer signals from transmitter/receiver to antenna.
b. Types: Parallel wire and coaxial cables.
3. Coaxial Cables:
a. Highly shielded transmission lines that reduce interference.
b. Used in applications like TV, radio, and data communication.

Key Points:

• Antennas convert electromagnetic waves into electrical signals and vice versa.
• Dipole antennas are a basic type with two conductors.
• Transmission lines transport electromagnetic waves.
• Coaxial cables are a common type of transmission line with excellent shielding.
• Feeders are the transmission lines connecting antennas to equipment.

PERSISTENCE OF VISION OF EYE , PICTURE TRANSMISSION, SCANNING IN PICTURE

TUBE
HOGRESSIVE SCANNING INTER LACED SCANNING -COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL ,
NEGATIVE PICTURE
PULSES, VIDEO SIGNAL BAND WIDTH, CHANNEL BAND , WIDTH, SSB (SINGLE SIDE
BAND
TRANSMISSION) VHF, UHF RANGES

1. Persistence of Vision in the Eye

• Persistence of vision is a phenomenon where the human eye retains an image for a brief
moment after the object has been removed. This effect is responsible for the illusion of
motion in film and television. If images are flashed rapidly in succession, the brain
perceives them as continuous motion.

• Television relies on this by showing a series of still frames (called frames per second, or
FPS) quickly enough that the viewer’s brain blends them into a smooth moving picture.
Standard frame rates for TV are 25, 30, or 60 FPS.

2. Picture Transmission in TV

• Picture transmission in TV involves converting visual information into electrical signals

and sending them over a communication channel (like radio waves) to a television
receiver.
• In traditional analog TV, the video is amplitude modulated (AM), while the audio is
frequency modulated (FM). For digital TV, the picture is digitized into binary data
before transmission.

3. Scanning in Picture Tube

• In older analog televisions (CRT or picture tube TVs), the image is created by scanning
an electron beam across the screen. This scanning happens line by line, from left to right
and top to bottom.

Types of Scanning:

• Progressive Scanning: In progressive scanning, the lines are scanned sequentially from
top to bottom (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.). This method provides a smooth and high-quality image but
requires higher bandwidth.
• Interlaced Scanning: In interlaced scanning, the odd-numbered lines are scanned first
(1, 3, 5, etc.), followed by the even-numbered lines (2, 4, 6, etc.). This method reduces
bandwidth but can cause flickering, especially in fast-moving scenes. It was widely used
in analog TV (e.g., 480i, 1080i).
4. Composite Video Signal

• A composite video signal is a standard analog video signal that combines all the video
information, including brightness (luminance), color (chrominance), and synchronization
signals, into a single line-level signal.
• Composite video is often referred to as CVBS (Color, Video, Blanking, and Sync). It is
used in older video transmission systems but has been replaced by digital systems (like
HDMI) today.

5. Negative Picture Pulses

• Negative picture pulses refer to the synchronization signals in analog video systems.
The sync pulses are transmitted in a "negative-going" direction to help synchronize the
video display. In TV transmission, these pulses ensure that the receiver's scanning
process is aligned with the transmitted video signal.

6. Video Signal Bandwidth

• The video signal bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required to transmit the
video signal. For analog television:
o Standard Definition (SD): The video signal typically requires around 4-6 MHz
of bandwidth.
o High Definition (HD): Requires more bandwidth, usually in the range of 10-20
MHz depending on the resolution.

7. Channel Bandwidth

• The channel bandwidth refers to the total range of frequencies allocated for a television
channel. For example, in analog TV:
o In VHF (Very High Frequency) bands, channels are typically spaced 6 MHz
apart.
o In UHF (Ultra High Frequency) bands, channels may require 8 MHz or more
bandwidth, especially for digital broadcasts.

8. SSB (Single-Sideband Transmission)

• Single Sideband (SSB) is a type of amplitude modulation (AM) that uses less bandwidth
than standard AM by transmitting only one of the sidebands (upper or lower) and
suppressing the carrier and the other sideband.
 • In TV transmission, SSB is used in a modified form known as Vestigial Sideband (VSB)
modulation, where part of one sideband is retained to simplify receiver design and reduce
bandwidth.

9. VHF and UHF Ranges

• VHF (Very High Frequency) and UHF (Ultra High Frequency) refer to frequency
bands used for TV and radio communication.
o VHF: Frequencies from 30 MHz to 300 MHz. In TV, this corresponds to
channels 2 to 13 in most regions.
o UHF: Frequencies from 300 MHz to 3 GHz. In TV, this corresponds to channels
14 and above. UHF is used for digital television broadcasting and mobile
communications.

Differences:

• VHF has better long-distance propagation and can penetrate buildings more effectively,
but it has limited bandwidth and is prone to interference.
• UHF offers more bandwidth, which is useful for digital and HD broadcasting, but it
doesn’t travel as far and is more easily blocked by obstacles.

Summary:

• Persistence of vision enables us to perceive a series of still frames as continuous motion

in TV.
• Picture transmission involves converting images into electrical signals for transmission.
• Progressive and interlaced scanning are methods to display images on a screen.
• Composite video signals combine luminance, chrominance, and sync pulses into a single
signal.
• Negative picture pulses help with synchronization in analog TV systems.
• Video signal bandwidth and channel bandwidth are crucial in determining the quality
and capacity of TV transmissions.
• SSB transmission is used to reduce bandwidth in TV systems.
• VHF and UHF ranges are frequency bands used for TV and radio broadcasting, with
UHF being more common for modern digital TV.
 Amplitude Modulation (AM) kya hai?
Amplitude Modulation (AM) ek aisa tareeka hai jisme ek high-frequency signal (jo
"carrier" hota hai) ki amplitude (signal ki height) ko message signal ke mutabiq badla jata
hai. Matlab, jo bhi aapko bhejne wala signal hai (jaise aapki awaaz ya music), us signal ko
high-frequency wave par chadhaya jata hai, aur us high-frequency wave ki amplitude us
message ke according badalti hai.

Carrier Signal:
• Ek high-frequency wave jo apne aap mein information carry nahi karti.
• Iska kaam bas message signal ko door tak pahunchana hota hai.
• Iska formula hai: c(t)=Ac sin(ωc t), jahan:
o Ac = carrier ki amplitude (fixed hoti hai jab tak modulate nahi hota).
o ωc = carrier ka angular frequency (high frequency wave ka frequency).

Message Signal:
Ye signal wo information hota hai jo aap bhejna chahte ho, jaise awaaz, music, ya data.
Is signal ki frequency low hoti hai.

Modulation ka kaam kya hai?

Modulation ka matlab hai ki carrier signal ki amplitude ko message signal ke hisaab se
badalna. Carrier wave ki height kabhi zyada, kabhi kam hoti hai, depending on message
signal.

Example se samjho:

• Agar aapki awaaz (message signal) soft hai, to carrier wave ki amplitude chhoti ho
jayegi.
• Agar aapki awaaz loud hai, to carrier wave ki amplitude badh jayegi.
Visual Example:
Socho ki carrier wave ek regular sine wave jaisi hoti hai, jo same height ke up and down
ja rahi hoti hai. Jab message signal aata hai, tab us wave ki height (amplitude) ko message
ke upar base karke chhota ya bada kiya jata hai.

Easy Analogy:
• Carrier wave ek gaadi hai.
• Message signal aapka load ya weight hai jo gaadi pe rakha gaya hai.
• Jab message signal (load) zyada heavy hota hai, gaadi (carrier wave) zyada neeche
jhukti hai (amplitude zyada hoti hai).
• Jab load halka hota hai, to gaadi kam neeche jhukti hai (amplitude kam hoti hai).
Aapke message ko modulate kar ke gaadi (carrier wave) ke through bheja jata hai, aur
receiver par demodulate karke original message ko wapas nikala jata hai.

Simple Terms mein Summary:

• AM mein aap ek high-frequency carrier wave ka height (amplitude) change karte
ho, jo aapke message signal ke according hota hai.
• Carrier signal ka frequency aur phase constant rehta hai, sirf amplitude change
hoti hai message signal ke hisaab se.
Chalo, aur easy karte hain:

Amplitude Modulation (AM) kya hai?

Socho, ek carrier signal ek wave jaisa hota hai, jaise samundar ki lehr. Yeh lehr apni
height (amplitude) ko barabar rakhte hue aage badhti hai.
Ab socho ki aapko ek message bhejna hai, jaise aapki awaaz. Aapki awaaz ka volume
kabhi zyada hota hai, kabhi kam. Amplitude Modulation (AM) mein hum kya karte hain?
Hum is wave ki height ko (amplitude) badal dete hain, aapki awaaz ke upar depend karke.
• Carrier wave toh ek simple wave hai, jo barabar up-down hoti rehti hai.
• Message signal (aapki awaaz) ko carrier wave ke upar "rakhte" hain.
• Jab aapki awaaz zyada tez hoti hai, to carrier wave ki height zyada hoti hai.
• Jab aapki awaaz dheemi hoti hai, to carrier wave ki height kam ho jaati hai.
Simple Example:
Socho aap ek radio station ho aur awaaz (message) bhej rahe ho. Aapki awaaz ko hum
ek wave par "ride" karwa dete hain. Ab ye wave (carrier signal) ka height (amplitude) aapki
awaaz ke according kabhi zyada, kabhi kam hoti hai.
Jab ye signal radio ke paas pahuchta hai, to radio us wave ki height ko padhta hai aur
samajh jata hai ki aap kya bol rahe the.

Aur Simple Samjhane ke Liye:

1. Carrier signal ek khali gaadi ki tarah hai, jo seedha chalti rehti hai.
2. Message signal aapka samaan hai, jo aap gaadi pe rakh rahe ho.
3. Jab gaadi pe zyada samaan hota hai (loud voice), to gaadi thodi neeche jhukti hai
(height barh jaati hai).
4. Jab gaadi pe halka samaan hota hai (soft voice), to gaadi zyada neeche nahi jhukti
(height kam hoti hai).
AM ka matlab yeh hai ki hum gaadi (carrier signal) ki height ko aapke samaan
(message signal) ke mutabiq adjust karte hain, taaki information door tak pahunc

Bandwidth – Kitni "Space" chahiye signal

ko?
Socho ki ek highway hai, aur signal ek gaadi hai jo highway par chalti hai. Bandwidth
ye batati hai ki gaadi ko kitni road chahiye:
• AM (Amplitude Modulation): Chhoti road chahiye, ek do lane wali. Kyunki AM
mein signal ki "height" badalti hai, frequency toh same rehti hai.
• FM (Frequency Modulation): FM mein zyada road (badi highway) chahiye,
kyunki FM mein signal ka frequency badal raha hota hai.

Summary:

• AM ka signal chhoti bandwidth leta hai.

• FM ka signal badi bandwidth leta hai.
AM Applications – AM kahan use hota hai?
• AM Radio: Jo aapko purani khabrein ya cricket commentary sunne ko milti thi, wo
AM radio hota tha. Aawaz thodi si clear nahi hoti thi, lekin door tak signal
pahunchta tha.
• Airplane Communication: Pilot aur air traffic control AM se baat karte hain,
kyunki door tak signal bhejna hota hai, aur halka sa noise chalega.
• Walkie-Talkie: Walkie-talkies ya chhote communication devices mein AM use
hota hai, taaki baat-cheet ho sake.
Summary: AM zyada door tak signal bhejne ke liye use hota hai, lekin noise thoda
zyada hota hai.

FM Applications – FM kahan use hota hai?

• FM Radio: FM radio pe aap jo music sunte ho, wo FM technology use karta hai.
Isme sound quality bahut acchi hoti hai, aur noise bilkul kam hota hai.
• TV Sound: TV ka purana sound system FM pe chal raha tha, jisme awaz bilkul clear
aati thi.
• Police aur Emergency Services: FM ka signal noise se pareshaan nahi hota, isliye
FM radios police aur emergency services mein bhi use hota hai.
Summary: FM zyada clear sound ya high-quality music ke liye use hota hai, lekin
signal door tak nahi pahunchta.

AM Receiver – Superheterodyne Radio

Receiver – Simple Explanation
Socho tum ek radio sun rahe ho. AM receiver wo device hai jo tumhare liye signal ko
samjhta hai aur awaz bana deta hai.
1. Antenna: Signal ko pakadta hai (jaise radio ki lehrain hawa mein hoti hain).
2. Tuning: Tum apne pasandida station ko tune karte ho (jaise 98.3 FM ya 720 AM).
3. Mixer: Signal ko ek aasan frequency mein badal deta hai, taaki radio usko samajh
sake.
4. Demodulation: Original awaz ya message ko signal se nikalta hai.
5. Speaker: Awaz sunne ke liye speaker mein bajta hai.
 Summary: AM receiver wo device hai jo signal ko samajh kar tumhe awaz sunata hai.

FM Receiver – FM kaise sunte ho?

FM receiver bhi waise hi kaam karta hai, bas yeh frequency changes ko samajh ke
message nikalta hai. Isme noise kam hota hai aur sound quality acchi hoti hai.
1. Antenna: Signal ko pakadta hai.
2. Tuning: FM station ko tune karta hai.
3. Mixer: Signal ko badal kar ek manageable frequency mein lata hai.
4. FM Demodulator: Frequency ke changes ko samajh kar original awaz ya music
nikalta hai.
5. Speaker: Clear awaz speaker mein bajti hai.
Summary: FM receiver wo device hai jo frequency changes ko samajh ke clear awaz
nikalta hai.

Ek Dum Simple Example

Socho tum apne friend ko door se sandesh bhejna chahte ho:

• AM (Amplitude Modulation): Aap apne friend ko zyada zor se bolte ho,

"HELLO!" agar tumhe lagta hai wo door hai, aur dheemi awaz mein bolte ho
"hello..." agar wo paas hai. Aapki awaz ki volume (amplitude) change ho rahi hai.
• FM (Frequency Modulation): Aap apne friend ko "HELLO!" bolte ho, lekin
volume nahi badalte, bas speed change karte ho. Kabhi jaldi "HELLO!" bolte ho,
kabhi dheere "HELLO..." Ye speed (frequency) change hoti hai, jo message ko
bhejne ka tarika hota hai.
AM receiver wo hai jo aapki volume change ko pakad ke samajhta hai, aur FM
receiver speed change ko samajhta hai.

Radio Wave Propagation Kya Hai?

Radio wave propagation ka matlab hai ki radio waves kaise travel karte hain
transmitter se receiver tak. Socho jaise aap kisi dost ko door se bulane ki koshish kar rahe
ho.
1. Ground Wave Propagation
Ground wave waise waves hain jo zamin ke saath-saath chalte hain.

• Kaisa hota hai: Jaise aap zameen par koi cheez fenk rahe ho, wo zameen ke saath
saath chhoti doori tak ja rahi hai.
• Kahaan use hota hai: AM radio mein.
• Example: AM radio ka signal zameen ke saath chalta hai aur door tak sunai deta
hai. Lekin agar koi barrier hai, toh signal kamjor ho sakta hai.

Sky Wave Propagation

Sky wave waise waves hain jo aasmaan ki taraf jaati hain aur phir wapas zameen par aati
hain.

• Kaisa hota hai: Socho jaise aapne ek ball ko upar feka aur wo waapas aakar kisi
aur jagah girti hai.
• Kahaan use hota hai: Shortwave radio mein.
• Example: Agar aap shortwave radio sun rahe ho, toh signal aasmaan se bounce
karke door tak jaata hai. Isse aap duniya ke dusre kone ki khabrein sun sakte ho.

Space Wave Propagation

Space wave waise waves hain jo seedha chalte hain bina kisi bounce ke.

• Kaisa hota hai: Jaise aapne ek flashlight on kiya ho aur light seedhe chale.
• Kahaan use hota hai: FM radio aur TV signal mein.
• Example: FM radio aur TV mein, signal seedha transmitter se receiver tak jata hai.
Isme direct line-of-sight hona chahiye, matlab beech mein koi rukawat nahi honi
chahiye.
Frequencies Kya Hain?
AF (Audio Frequency)
• Kya hai: Ye wo frequency hai jise hum sun sakte hain, 20 Hz se lekar 20,000 Hz (20
kHz) tak.
• Kahan use hota hai: Ye music aur voice signals mein hota hai.

IF (Intermediate Frequency)
• Kya hai: Ye ek middle frequency hai jo radio signals ko process karne ke liye use
hoti hai.
• Example: Jab aap radio sunte ho, signal ko pehle IF mein badla jaata hai, taaki wo
samajhne mein aasan ho.

RF (Radio Frequency)
• Kya hai: Ye un frequencies ka range hai jo radio communication ke liye use hoti
hain, 30 kHz se lekar 300 GHz tak.
• Kahan use hota hai: Isme sabhi wireless communication aata hai, jaise AM, FM,
TV, aur Wi-Fi.

Summary
1. Ground Wave: Zamin ke saath chalta hai, AM radio mein use hota hai.
2. Sky Wave: Aasmaan se bounce karke chalta hai, shortwave radio mein use hota
hai.
3. Space Wave: Seedha line-of-sight mein chalta hai, FM radio aur TV mein use hota
hai.
4. Frequencies:
a. AF: Sunne ki frequency (20 Hz - 20 kHz).
b. IF: Radio signal ke liye intermediate frequency.
c. RF: Radio communication ki frequency range (30 kHz - 300 GHz).
 ELECTRICITY
Electrical units, Effects of electric current, conductors and insulators. Types of

solder and flux. AC Circuits

1. Electrical Units

Electrical units are the fundamental measurements used to describe electric quantities in circuits.
Here are some of the key electrical units:

• Voltage (V): Measured in volts (V), it represents the electrical potential difference
between two points in a circuit. It’s like the "pressure" pushing electrons through the
conductor.
• Current (I): Measured in amperes (A), current represents the flow of electric charge
through a conductor. It's the "flow rate" of electrons.
• Resistance (R): Measured in ohms (Ω), resistance quantifies how much a material
opposes the flow of electric current.
• Power (P): Measured in watts (W), power represents the rate at which electrical energy
is consumed or produced. The formula for power is:

P=V×IP = V \times IP=V×I

• Capacitance (C): Measured in farads (F), capacitance is the ability of a component (like
a capacitor) to store electric charge.
• Inductance (L): Measured in henries (H), inductance quantifies a coil’s ability to store
energy in a magnetic field when current flows through it.

2. Effects of Electric Current

Electric current can produce various effects when it flows through a conductor:

• Heating Effect: When current passes through a conductor, it generates heat. This effect
is the basis of devices like electric heaters and incandescent light bulbs. The heat
produced is proportional to the square of the current (I2×RI^2 \times RI2×R).
• Magnetic Effect: Electric current flowing through a conductor creates a magnetic field
around it. This is the principle behind electromagnets and transformers.
• Chemical Effect: When current flows through an electrolyte (a solution of ions), it can
cause chemical reactions, such as in electroplating or electrolysis.
• Luminous Effect: In certain materials, electric current causes light to be emitted. This is
how light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and fluorescent lamps work.
3. Conductors and Insulators

• Conductors are materials that allow electric current to flow freely because they have a
large number of free electrons. Examples include:
o Copper: Widely used in wiring due to its excellent conductivity.
o Aluminum: Lighter and cheaper than copper but slightly less conductive.
• Insulators are materials that do not allow electric current to flow freely. They have very
few free electrons, making them good at resisting the flow of current. Examples include:
o Rubber: Used in insulating gloves and wires.
o Plastic: Used as an outer covering in electrical cables.
o Glass and ceramics are also excellent insulators, often used in high-voltage
systems.

4. Types of Solder and Flux

Soldering is the process of joining two metal components by melting solder between them.
Solder and flux are crucial for making strong, reliable electrical connections.

Types of Solder:

• Lead-based Solder: This is a mixture of tin and lead (commonly 60% tin and 40% lead,
or 63/37 for better precision). It melts at a lower temperature and is easy to work with,
but lead-based solders are being phased out due to health and environmental concerns.
• Lead-free Solder: Used in modern electronics to comply with environmental regulations
(e.g., RoHS). It's typically made from tin, silver, and copper (e.g., SnAgCu or SAC). It
requires a higher melting temperature and is harder to work with than lead -based solder.
• Silver Solder: Contains a higher percentage of silver, offering stronger joints, higher
melting points, and better conductivity. It's commonly used in sensitive electronics or
applications requiring high strength.

Types of Flux:

Flux is a chemical cleaning agent used during soldering to prevent oxidation of metals and
improve the flow of solder.

• Rosin Flux: Commonly used in electronics, it is a resin-based flux that cleans the metal
surfaces and allows solder to bond better. It can be cleaned off afterward using isopropyl
alcohol.
• No-Clean Flux: Does not require cleaning after soldering, leaving minimal residue
behind. Often used in mass production.
 • Water-Soluble Flux: Requires cleaning with water after soldering, but it offers strong
cleaning action for surfaces.

5. AC Circuits

AC (Alternating Current) circuits use current that reverses direction periodically, unlike DC
(Direct Current), where the flow of current is constant in one direction. AC is the form of
electricity commonly used in households and industries because it can be easily transformed to
different voltages and transmitted over long distances with low losses.

Key Concepts in AC Circuits:

• Frequency (f): In AC circuits, the current reverses direction at a specific frequency,

measured in hertz (Hz). In many countries, the standard frequency is 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
• Peak and RMS Values: The voltage and current in an AC circuit vary sinusoidally. The
peak value is the maximum value reached by the waveform, while the RMS (Root
Mean Square) value is the effective or average value used for practical calculations.

• Impedance (Z): In an AC circuit, impedance is the total opposition to the current flow,
considering resistance RRR, capacitance CCC, and inductance LLL. Unlike resistance,
impedance has both magnitude and phase (since voltage and current may not be in phase
in AC circuits).

• Power in AC Circuits: Power in AC circuits can be a bit more complex due to the phase
difference between voltage and current. The real power (P), reactive power (Q), and
apparent power (S) are key measures:
o Real Power (P): Power that actually performs work, measured in watts (W).
o Reactive Power (Q): Power stored in the magnetic or electric fields, measured in
VAR (volt-amp reactive).
o Apparent Power (S): Combination of real and reactive power, measured in VA
(volt-amperes).
1. Magnetic Terms and Units

Magnetic concepts are fundamental to understanding how electromagnets, motors, generators,

and transformers work. Below are the essential magnetic terms and units:

a. Magnetic Field (B):

• The magnetic field represents the region around a magnetic material or a current-
carrying conductor where a magnetic force can be felt. It is measured in teslas (T).

b. Magnetic Flux (Φ):

• Magnetic flux refers to the total number of magnetic field lines passing through a given
area. It is measured in webers (Wb).
2. Magnetic Materials

Magnetic materials are categorized based on their magnetic properties. There are three
main types of magnetic materials:

a. Ferromagnetic Materials:

• These materials exhibit strong magnetic properties. They have high magnetic
permeability and can be magnetized easily. Examples include iron, nickel, cobalt,
and alloys like steel.
o Domains: In ferromagnetic materials, small regions called domains are
magnetized in random directions. When an external magnetic field is
applied, these domains align, resulting in a strong magnetic effect.
o Hysteresis: Ferromagnetic materials show hysteresis, meaning that once
they are magnetized, they tend to retain some of their magnetization even
after the external field is removed. This is important in materials like
permanent magnets.

b. Paramagnetic Materials:

• These materials are weakly attracted to magnetic fields. They have small, positive
magnetic susceptibility, meaning they are slightly magnetized in the presence of an
external magnetic field but do not retain magnetism when the field is removed.
Examples include aluminum, platinum, and magnesium.

c. Diamagnetic Materials:

• Diamagnetic materials are weakly repelled by magnetic fields. They create an

opposing magnetic field when exposed to a magnetic field. Examples include
copper, bismuth, lead, and water.

3. Properties of a Magnet

A magnet exhibits several key properties:

a. Attraction and Repulsion:

• A magnet attracts ferromagnetic materials like iron, cobalt, and nickel. Like poles
repel each other (north repels north, south repels south), while unlike poles attract
(north attracts south).

b. Magnetic Poles:

• Every magnet has two poles: north and south. The magnetic field lines flow from
the north pole to the south pole outside the magnet and within the magnet from
south to north.

c. Magnetic Induction:

• When a non-magnetized piece of ferromagnetic material is brought near a magnet,

it temporarily becomes magnetized by the external field. This is called magnetic
induction.

d. Retentivity:

• Retentivity is the ability of a material to retain magnetization after the external

magnetic field is removed. This property is crucial for making permanent magnets.

e. Coercivity:

• Coercivity is the amount of reverse magnetic field required to demagnetize a

material. Materials with high coercivity are used for permanent magnets, while
those with low coercivity are used for electromagnets.

4. Laws of Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism describes the interaction between electric currents and magnetic

fields. There are several key laws governing electromagnetism:
a. Ampere’s Law:

• Ampere's Law states that the magnetic field generated by a current-carrying

conductor is proportional to the current and inversely proportional to the distance
from the conductor.
Wiring, IE rules, Wiring accessories- switches, fuses, MCB, ELCB, MCCB,

PART 3

RCCB, relays Earthing- megger, earth tester, DC generator- Principle,

parts and functions, types, EMF equation. Voltage buildup.Three phase
induction motor Principle, parts and functions. Slip, speed, rotor
Frequency, torque, copper loss, applications.

1. Wiring

Electrical wiring involves the installation of electrical cables and accessories for
distributing electricity within a building or structure. There are several types of wiring
methods:

• Cleat Wiring: Open wiring supported on insulated cleats. It’s simple and used
temporarily.
• Conduit Wiring: Wires are enclosed in a conduit (plastic or metal pipe) for
protection.
• Batten Wiring: Conductors are laid on wooden battens, secured by clips.
• Casing and Capping: Wires run through wooden or plastic channels with protective
capping.

2. IE Rules (Indian Electricity Rules)

Indian Electricity (IE) Rules govern the safe installation and operation of electrical
equipment to prevent electrical hazards. Key aspects include:

• Rule 29: Ensures protection against electrical shock.

• Rule 46: Requires inspection and testing of electrical installations.
• Rule 61: Defines proper earthing for safety.
These rules emphasize safety in wiring, installation, and maintenance.

3. Wiring Accessories

a. Switches:

• Single-pole switch: Controls one circuit, commonly used for lights.

• Double-pole switch: Controls two circuits simultaneously.

b. Fuses:

• A fuse protects circuits by breaking the connection if the current exceeds a safe
level, preventing overheating and fire hazards.

c. MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker):

• Protects against overcurrent and short circuits. It automatically disconnects the

circuit when the current exceeds the limit.

d. ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker):

• Protects against earth faults. It trips when leakage current to the earth is detected,
preventing electric shocks.

e. MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker):

• Protects circuits from overloads and short circuits with adjustable trip settings,
used in high-power industrial applications.

f. RCCB (Residual Current Circuit Breaker):

• Similar to ELCB, but more advanced. It trips if there is a mismatch between live and
neutral currents, protecting against earth leakage faults.

g. Relays:

• Relays are electrically operated switches used for controlling a high-power circuit
using a low-power signal.
4. Earthing

Earthing ensures that in the event of a fault, the excess electricity flows directly to the
ground, protecting equipment and individuals from electric shock.

a. Megger:

• A megger is an instrument used to measure the insulation resistance of electrical

systems to ensure safety and detect faults.

b. Earth Tester:

• An earth tester measures the resistance of the earthing system, ensuring proper
grounding.

5. DC Generator

A DC generator converts mechanical energy into direct current (DC) electrical energy.
Let’s cover its principle, parts, and equations.

a. Principle:

• It operates on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction: When a conductor

moves through a magnetic field, an EMF (electromotive force) is induced in the
conductor.

b. Parts and Functions:

• Yoke: Provides mechanical support and acts as a protective cover.

• Field Windings: Produce the magnetic field.
• Armature: Rotating part where the EMF is induced.
• Commutator: Converts the AC generated in the armature into DC.
• Brushes: Provide contact between the rotating commutator and the external
circuit.

c. Types of DC Generators:

• Series Generator: Field windings are in series with the armature.

 • Shunt Generator: Field windings are in parallel with the armature.
• Compound Generator: Combination of series and shunt windings.

d. EMF Equation:

The EMF generated in a DC generator is given by:

e. Voltage Build-up:

Voltage build-up in a DC generator occurs due to the residual magnetism in the field
windings. As the generator starts, a small voltage is induced, and this causes current to
flow through the field windings, strengthening the magnetic field and building up the
voltage.

6. Three-Phase Induction Motor

A three-phase induction motor is a self-starting motor commonly used in industries. It

operates based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

a. Principle:

• The rotating magnetic field created by the three-phase AC supply induces a current
in the rotor, generating torque that causes the rotor to rotate.
b. Parts and Functions:

• Stator: The stationary part, containing the windings to which the three-phase
supply is given.
• Rotor: The rotating part, either squirrel cage or wound rotor, which interacts with
the magnetic field generated by the stator.
• Slip Rings (for wound rotor motors): Facilitate current to flow into the rotor
windings.
f. Torque:

• The torque produced by an induction motor is proportional to the rotor current and
the strength of the magnetic field. For maximum torque, the slip should be
optimum.

g. Copper Loss:

• Copper loss occurs due to the resistance of the windings. In an induction motor,
copper losses occur in both stator and rotor windings.

h. Applications:

• Induction motors are widely used in pumps, compressors, conveyors, fans, and
other industrial machinery due to their robustness and efficiency.

Summary of Concepts:

1. Wiring: Safe and efficient methods of electrical wiring are crucial for residential and
industrial installations.
2. Wiring Accessories: Protection devices like MCBs, ELCBs, and RCCBs ensure
electrical safety.
3. Earthing: Proper grounding and use of testers like the megger and earth tester
prevent electric shocks.
4. DC Generator: Converts mechanical energy into DC electricity using parts like the
yoke, field windings, armature, commutator, and brushes. The EMF equation
explains the voltage generated.
5. Three-Phase Induction Motor: Operates on electromagnetic induction, with slip,
torque, and speed being key performance parameters. It’s used in a variety of
industrial applications.