The Classical Age

Extended outline:
👉🏻Social Context
The 18th century, also known as the Classical or Enlightenment Age, was a
period of transformation in England and Europe, marked by seismic shifts
in thought, governance, and societal structure.

1. Restoration (1660) and Glorious Revolution (1688):

• The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, after the period of the
English Commonwealth, brought Charles II to the throne. This led to a
resurgence of drama, literature, and the arts, often reflecting the
opulence and decadence of the restored court.
• The Glorious Revolution of 1688 saw the Protestant William of
Orange replace the Catholic James II. This shift bolstered
parliamentary authority over monarchical power, setting the stage for
constitutional monarchy and a growing emphasis on individual rights
and political stability.
2. Enlightenment Values:
• The Enlightenment emphasized reason, individual rights, and
skepticism of traditional authority. Thinkers like John Locke
promoted ideas of government by consent, natural rights, and
rational thought. This intellectual climate shaped literature to explore
human nature, morality, and societal structures.
3. Emerging Middle Class and Urbanization:
• Economic growth and urbanization led to a burgeoning middle
class, which became an increasingly influential audience for
literature. Literacy rates rose, and new forms of publishing, such as
newspapers, pamphlets, and magazines, catered to the urban middle
class’s interests in news, satire, and social commentary.
4. Colonial Expansion and Imperialism:
• As European powers expanded their empires, colonialism and
the idea of “civilizing” other lands and peoples became prominent.
This expansion influenced literature, contributing to the themes of
 travel, adventure, and encounters with the “exotic,” as well as
critiques of exploitation and cultural superiority.

👉🏻Literary Movements🏅
The Classical Age of 18th-century literature can be divided into three major
literary movements, each with distinctive characteristics and prominent
figures.

1. Restoration Literature (1660-1700):

• Characteristics: Restoration literature is known for its satirical
edge, realism, and exploration of human follies. Plays often reflected
the loosened moral standards of the time, with a focus on wit, sexual
innuendo, and social commentary.
• Genres: Comedy of manners, heroic drama, and Restoration
poetry.
• Notable Writers:
• John Dryden: Known for his satirical and political poems, as
well as his heroic plays and translations of classical works.
• George Etherege: A playwright known for his sharp social
satires in plays like The Man of Mode.
• Aphra Behn: One of the first professional female writers, known
for her plays and the proto-novel Oroonoko, which offers early
critique of colonialism.
2. Augustan Age (1700-1740):
• Characteristics: Named after the Roman Emperor Augustus,
this period emphasized formal structure, satire, and moral clarity.
Writers sought to emulate the balance, order, and elegance of
classical literature.
• Genres: Satirical poetry, essays, moral fables, and verse
epistles.
• Notable Writers:
• Alexander Pope: Master of satirical poetry, known for The Rape
of the Lock (mock-epic), The Dunciad (political satire), and An Essay
on Man (philosophical poem).
• Jonathan Swift: A fierce satirist, famous for Gulliver’s Travels,
A Modest Proposal, and his essays critiquing societal flaws.
 • Joseph Addison and Richard Steele: Their work in The
Spectator brought moral and social commentary to the forefront,
addressing middle-class values, virtues, and societal observations.
3. Neoclassical Movement (1740-1780):
• Characteristics: This phase saw a revival of classical ideals
with an emphasis on moral seriousness, decorum, and adherence to
literary rules. Writers aimed for a restrained, rational style.
• Genres: Satirical novels, moral essays, character studies.
• Notable Writers:
• Samuel Johnson: Known for his literary criticism, essays, and
A Dictionary of the English Language, Johnson’s work contributed
significantly to English language and literature.
• Henry Fielding: Often credited with the development of the
novel, his works like Tom Jones explored human behavior, society,
and moral dilemmas.
• Tobias Smollett: Known for his picaresque novels, such as The
Adventures of Roderick Random, highlighting the lives and struggles
of the lower classes.

👉🏻Key Authors and Works

1. Alexander Pope:
• The Rape of the Lock: A mock-epic poem satirizing upper-class
frivolity through a humorous portrayal of a real-life incident.
• The Dunciad: A scathing satire that targets those whom Pope
viewed as enemies of good literature.
• An Essay on Man: A philosophical poem exploring human
nature, reason, and the pursuit of happiness within a divine order.
2. Jonathan Swift:
• Gulliver’s Travels: A satirical narrative that critiques human
nature, society, and politics through Gulliver’s encounters with
strange societies.
• A Modest Proposal: An ironic essay critiquing British
exploitation of Ireland, suggesting a shocking “solution” to poverty.
• Journal to Stella: Personal letters that reveal Swift’s inner
thoughts and feelings, blending wit and intimacy.
3. Voltaire (French Influence):
 • Candide: A philosophical satire on optimism and human
suffering, targeting blind optimism and the flaws in societal and
religious institutions.
• Zadig: A novel that critiques philosophical and religious
dogma.
• Letters Concerning the English Nation: Essays that reflect on

👉🏻Characteristics:
English society and contrast it with French institutions, promoting
Enlightenment ideals.

This period was characterized by a distinctive set of literary and cultural

values. This period emphasized reason, formality, and a return to classical
ideals, shaping literature, art, and philosophy.
1. Emphasis on Reason and Rationality
• The Enlightenment philosophy prized human reason and logic
over emotion or superstition. Literature of the period often celebrated
rational thought, moderation, and self-control. Writers aimed to illuminate
truth and teach moral lessons through reasoned argument and satire.
• Example: Alexander Pope’s An Essay on Man reflects this
commitment to reason by exploring humanity’s place in a rational, ordered
universe.

2. Imitation of Classical Ideals

• Inspired by Greek and Roman literature, writers valued
harmony, balance, and restraint. They sought to emulate classical forms
like the epic, satire, and ode, striving for an elegance and clarity
reminiscent of ancient ideals.
• Example: John Dryden and Alexander Pope adhered to the
principles of decorum, a structured use of language and poetic form,
emphasizing order and precision.

3. Satire and Social Critique

• Satire became a central literary tool, with authors using wit and
irony to expose human folly, social injustices, and corruption. The satirical
works often had a moral or didactic purpose, challenging the hypocrisy and
superficiality of society.
• Example: Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels uses satire to
critique politics, human nature, and the flaws of British society.
4. Focus on Morality and Didacticism
• Neoclassical writers believed literature should instruct and
improve society. Many works conveyed moral lessons, urging readers to
strive for virtue, humility, and adherence to social norms.
• Example: Addison and Steele’s periodicals, such as The
Spectator, promoted middle-class values, encouraging readers to cultivate
manners, morals, and good taste.

5. Structured, Formal Language and Style

• Precision, clarity, and restraint characterized the language of
the Classical Age. Writers used structured forms like the heroic couplet,
emphasizing rhyme, meter, and strict grammar, which conveyed a sense of
order and balance.
• Example: Pope’s The Rape of the Lock is written in heroic
couplets, showcasing a highly controlled, polished style that enhances the
poem’s mock-epic tone.

6. Realism and Attention to Human Nature

• Unlike the fantastical elements of Renaissance literature,
Neoclassical writers preferred realism and focused on the universal
aspects of human nature, portraying characters and social classes with
accuracy and subtlety.
• Example: Samuel Johnson’s essays and Henry Fielding’s Tom
Jones explore realistic human behaviors and societal norms.

7. Influence of Science and Empiricism

• Inspired by advancements in science and the ideas of
empiricism, Neoclassical literature often reflected a belief in observation,
experimentation, and the potential for human progress.
• Example: Scientific discoveries by Newton and philosophical
ideas by Locke influenced the period’s emphasis on logical exploration and
understanding of the world.

8. Themes of Social Order and Hierarchy

 • Many works of the Classical Age reinforced the importance of
social order, hierarchy, and decorum. They explored social roles and
expectations, reflecting society’s belief in stability and structured roles.
• Example: Addison and Steele’s The Tatler and The Spectator
encouraged adherence to social norms and etiquette, especially among the
growing middle class.

9. Interest in the Human Condition

• Neoclassical literature often explored the limitations and virtues
of human beings, examining themes of pride, vanity, and ambition. Writers
were interested in humanity’s place within a grand, ordered universe and
often conveyed this through philosophical reflection.
• Example: Voltaire’s Candide and Pope’s An Essay on Man

👉🏻Themes and Motifs

explore questions of fate, free will, and the nature of happiness.

1. Reason vs. Passion: Reflecting Enlightenment ideals, writers

explored the conflict between rational thought and human emotions,
questioning the supremacy of reason.
2. Nature vs. Civilization: Many works compared the simplicity of
nature with the perceived corruption of city life and social
conventions.
3. Social Commentary and Satire: Through irony and satire,
authors critiqued social norms, politics, and morality.
4. Morality and Ethics: Literary works often presented moral
questions, especially on class, wealth, and human conduct.
5. The Human Condition: Authors probed into the complexities of
human nature, moral dilemmas, and social issues.
6. Colonialism and Imperialism: Writers began to critique the
ethical implications of colonial exploitation and the imposition of
European ideals on other cultures.
7. Emerging Individualism: There was a growing focus on
personal identity, self-awareness, and individual rights, aligning with
the rise of the middle class.
➡️. The Classical Age, particularly seen as the 18th and early 19th
centuries in Western history, typically didn’t focus on individualism,
nationalism, or romanticism in the same sense as later movements.
However, these themes emerged significantly towards the end of this
period and transitioned into the Romantic era. Here’s a look at how each
concept connects and evolved around this time:

8. Individualism:
Classical thinkers like Rousseau and the Enlightenment philosophers
began exploring the importance of individual rights, personal freedom, and
self-expression, laying the groundwork for modern individualism. This was
not a major focus during the strict order and formality of the early Classical
Age, but Enlightenment ideas started to shift views on personal autonomy
and self-worth.
9. Nationalism:
Nationalism wasn’t a central Classical Age theme; instead, loyalty to
monarchies and empires was dominant. However, by the end of the
Classical Age, revolutionary ideas in the U.S. and France fueled the idea of
national identity and pride. This sense of collective identity would come to
full expression in the 19th century, with nationalism becoming a defining
Romantic theme.
10. Romanticism:
While Romanticism fully developed as a reaction against Classical ideals of
order, reason, and restraint, its seeds were planted in the late Classical Age
as thinkers like Rousseau emphasized emotion, nature, and individual
expression. Romanticism was more of a response to the Classical era’s
emphasis on logic and structure, as artists and writers started valuing raw

👉🏻Literary Forms and Genres

emotion, the supernatural, and personal experience.

1. Poetry: Satirical verse, heroic couplets, and philosophical

reflections were dominant, often expressing moral judgments and
societal critique.
2. Drama: The comedy of manners highlighted the wit and moral
ambiguity of the upper classes, while tragedy and farce continued to
explore the complexities of human nature.
 3. Prose: Essays and periodicals gained popularity, with figures
like Addison and Steele writing on daily life and moral lessons in
publications like The Spectator.
4. Fiction: Early novels, such as Robinson Crusoe and Evelina,
began exploring individual experiences and middle-class concerns,
setting the stage for modern narrative forms.

👉🏻Influences and Legacy

The Classical Age deeply influenced Romanticism, 19th-century realism,
and modern literary criticism. Writers revived and adapted classical works
while establishing literary genres and criticism as serious disciplines. The
period’s emphasis on satire, wit, and societal critique left a lasting impact
on Western literature, shaping how writers approached the interplay
between the individual, society, and morality.

Critical Perspectives

1. Marxist: Examines class conflict, social hierarchy, and

economic structures reflected in the literature.
2. Feminist: Looks at gender roles, female agency, and
representation, especially in the works of women writers like Aphra
Behn.
3. Postcolonial: Analyzes representations of colonialism and
critiques Eurocentric attitudes and imperialism.
4. New Historicism: Places literature within its historical context,
interpreting texts in light of the political, cultural, and social forces of
the time

Prepared by: Haseeba Kanwal

Presented to: prof.Muhammad Ijaz