Reviewer on the National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)

Definition
The National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) provides guidelines and standards for
the structural design and construction of buildings and other structures. It aims to ensure the
safety, serviceability, and durability of structures in the context of the Philippines' unique
environmental conditions, including seismic and wind forces.
Overview
The NSCP serves as the cornerstone for structural engineering in the Philippines, providing
essential guidelines for designing buildings and infrastructure to withstand various loads and
environmental conditions.

Main Sections of the NSCP

General Provisions:

Scope and applicability of the code.

Definitions of key terms and concepts.
Loads and Load Combinations:

Dead Loads: Permanent loads from the structure itself.

Live Loads: Temporary loads from occupancy and usage.
Wind Loads: Calculated based on local wind data, including considerations for building height
and exposure.
Seismic Loads: Detailed guidelines for assessing earthquake forces, including site-specific
seismic hazard assessment.
Structural Materials:

Concrete: Standards for mix design, curing, and reinforcement detailing.

Steel: Specifications for structural steel sections, connections, and fabrication practices.
Masonry: Guidelines for the use of bricks and blocks, including load-bearing and non-load-
bearing applications.
Design Principles:

Strength Design Method: A method focusing on ensuring that structural elements can support
the maximum expected loads without failure.
Serviceability Limit States: Criteria for acceptable levels of deflection, vibration, and overall
performance during normal use.
Foundation Design:

Guidelines for shallow and deep foundations, including soil bearing capacity assessments and
settlement considerations.
Special Design Provisions:

Provisions for specific types of structures, including:

Bridges: Unique load considerations and design challenges.
Tall Structures: Addressing lateral stability and wind-induced vibrations.
Retaining Walls: Design criteria to ensure stability against soil pressures.
Construction Practices:

Best practices for construction quality control, including material testing and inspection protocols
to ensure compliance with the code.
Key Features
Seismic Design Criteria: The NSCP adopts a performance-based approach for seismic
design, allowing engineers to tailor their designs to meet specific performance objectives.

Wind Design Parameters: Incorporates a detailed methodology for calculating wind loads,
taking into account local conditions and building geometry.

Sustainability and Innovation: Encourages the use of innovative materials and techniques
that improve structural performance while promoting sustainability.

Compliance and Regulatory Framework

Professional Responsibility: Licensed structural engineers must ensure that their designs
comply with the NSCP.
Local Government Units (LGUs): Responsible for enforcing compliance through the permit
and inspection processes.
Penalties for Non-Compliance: Structures found not to comply with the NSCP may face legal
actions, fines, or orders for corrective measures.
Importance and Implications
The NSCP is vital for ensuring public safety, particularly in a country prone to natural
disasters. By adhering to the NSCP, engineers not only comply with legal standards but also
contribute to the overall resilience of communities against seismic events, strong winds, and
other environmental challenges.

Abbreviations
NSCP: National Structural Code of the Philippines
ACI: American Concrete Institute (often referenced for concrete standards)
AISC: American Institute of Steel Construction (for steel design standards)
PBD: Performance-Based Design (a modern approach referenced in the code)
Compliance and Enforcement
Design Approval: Structural plans must be reviewed and approved by licensed professionals.
Inspections: Structural components are subject to inspection during construction to ensure
compliance with the NSCP.
Penalties: Non-compliance can lead to penalties, including fines and possible legal action.
Importance
NSCP: National Structural Code of the Philippines
RA: Republic Act
DPWH: Department of Public Works and Highways
ACI: American Concrete Institute
AISC: American Institute of Steel Construction
ASCE: American Society of Civil Engineers
BFP: Bureau of Fire Protection
BS: British Standards
ISO: International Organization for Standardization
UFC: Unified Facilities Criteria
PBD: Performance-Based Design
SLS: Serviceability Limit State
ULS: Ultimate Limit State
EQ: Earthquake
WL: Wind Load
LRFD: Load and Resistance Factor Design
SDC: Seismic Design Criteria
TMS: The masonry society

The NSCP is crucial for ensuring the structural integrity and safety of buildings in the
Philippines. Its emphasis on seismic and wind considerations reflects the country's vulnerability
to natural disasters. By adhering to the NSCP, engineers and architects contribute to the
resilience and sustainability of the built environment.

Reviewer on the History of Plumbing Code

History of Plumbing Practice

The birth of the plumbing profession in the Philippines is traced back to the 17th Century.
The W ALLED CITY known as Intramuros was established by the Spaniards as A model
conununity. The Friar Engineers who built the government buildings, residential And other
structures. Incorporated European standards in their plumbing installations. During the 18th and
1 cJh centuries, the Filipino plumbers were assigned the task of Maintaining, repairing and/or
remodeling plumbing systems in all “pueblos” or towns Including churches, convents and
government buildings. The recognized plumbers then were called upon by the ‘’ilustrados” or
the elite Group to act as consultants of plumber journeymen on matters pertaining to plumbing
Installations in villas and mansions. PLUMBING took a great lr.-ap at the tum of the 20 th century
with theo arrival of The American soldiers, engineers, Thomasite teachers, doctors and
evangelists. Health And hygiene became priority when epidemics including cholera, leprosy.
Schistosomiasis And other contagious diseases engulfed the Philippines. Alanned, Governor
General Harrison issued a letter of instruction on proper waste disposal in all municipalities.
Sometime in 1902, the PLUMBING TRADE was duly recognized by the Government. The City
of Manila was the model community. Master Plumber John F. Hass became the first Chief of the
Division of Plumbing Construction and Inspection. Through the initiative of the Filipino Master
Plumbers, a plumbing code based on The Plumbing Code of the United States was
incorporated into the Building Code for the City of Manila.

In 1935, Francisco Geronimo, Mariano de Ocampo, lgmidio Suarez, Eusebio. Mina. Jose
Rivera, Raymundo Reyes, Sr., Roberto Feliciano, Gregorio Lazaro, Raymundo Gumapac, John
Jones, Trinitario Ortiz, Valentin Casupanan, Catalino Casupanan. Crispin F11Ulcisco, Teodoro
Pastor, Cornelio Odvina and Jesus Tangbal Dera Organized the National Master Plumbers
Association of the Philippines (NAMP AP) and Had it registered with the Securities and
Exchange Commission. Initiated by N AMP AP, the Department of Public Services of the City of
Manila Was created by an Act of Congress. City Ordinance 2411, otherwise known as “the
Plumbing ~ode forth~ City of Manila” was enacted in consultation with NAMPAP. The Practice
of plumbing was eventually placed under the Department of Public Services, Manila.

The National Government, through the Bureau of Public Works, and other cities And
municipalities adopted the Plumbing Code of Manila. NAMP AP spearheaded the Enactment of
a law regulating the practice of master plumbing in the Philippines.

In 1954, the Third Congress of the Republic of the Philippines in its Second Session,
approved after the third reading House Bill No. 962. This became Republic Act No.l378. On
June 18, 1955, R.A. 1378, otherwise known as the “PLUMBING LAW OF THE PHILIPPINES”
was signed by President Ramon Magsaysay. On January 28, 1959, the National Plumbing
Code of the Philippines prepared by The NAMPAP was promulsated and approved by Malacai\
ang. NAMPAP also assisted in The passage of the law creating the National Waterworks and
Sewerage Authority (NAWASA).

In 1966-1969, the Board of Examiners for Master Plumbers and the NAMPAP Prepared
a Cuniculum for Plumbing Engineering that was approved by the Department Of Education and
was first introduced at the Feati University. ·

On November 28, 1967, the First Amendment to the National Plumbing Code was
Approved, which effected the inclusion of “Asbestos·Cement Pipe” as an approved Plumbing
material. Before Martial Law in 1972, Republic Act No. 6541 otherwise known as the
•Building Code of the Philippines” was passed with the “National Plumbing Code of 1959” as
referral code in full text.

In 1996, NAMPAP President JAIME M. CABASE spearheaded the updating of The

Revised National Plumbing Code. Finally, in October 1999, NAMPAP submitted the Draft Code
to the Board of Master Plumbers (BOMP) Chaired by Engr. FORTIJNATO H. AMOSCO. After
careful review, the Professional Regulation Commission under Chairman HERMOGENES
POBRE adopted the Revised Plumbing Code of 1999 wruch His Excellency, President JOSEPH
EJERCITO ESTRADA approved last December 21, 1999 pursuant to Section 4 ofR.A. 1378
known as the Plumbing Law.

In order to continuously upgrade the technical expertise of Master Plumbers and

Propagate the growth of the plumbing industry; NAMP AP have caused the holding of Regular
National Convention as well as Regional Conferences such as LUZON, VISAYAS and
MINDANAO, as well as the Midyear Forum where manufacturers, Dealers and suppliers of
plumbing tools, equipment, materials and services are given the Opportunity to conduct product
presentations for the benefit of the plumbing practitioners.

**History of Plumbing Practice in the Philippines**

The plumbing profession in the Philippines dates back to the 17th century when the
Spaniards established Intramuros, incorporating European plumbing standards. During the 18th
and 19th centuries, Filipino plumbers were responsible for maintaining systems in towns,
churches, and government buildings.

With the arrival of the Americans in the early 20th century, plumbing saw significant
advancements, especially in response to public health concerns. In 1902, plumbing was
officially recognized by the government, and the City of Manila became a model for plumbing
practices, with the first Plumbing Code based on U.S. standards.

In 1935, the National Master Plumbers Association of the Philippines (NAMPAP)

was formed, helping regulate the profession and guide the enactment of the “Plumbing Code of
Manila.” This code was later adopted nationwide.

In 1955, Republic Act No. 1378, known as the “Plumbing Law of the Philippines,” was
signed, followed by the approval of the National Plumbing Code in 1959. The curriculum for
Plumbing Engineering was introduced in 1966, and amendments to the code continued over the
years, with the most recent revision in 1999.

NAMPAP continues to promote plumbing standards and organize conventions to

enhance the industry’s growth and expertise.

Early Developments
Ancient Civilizations: Plumbing systems date back to ancient civilizations, such as the Indus
Valley (circa 2500 BCE) and Rome, which developed complex aqueducts and drainage
systems.
Medieval Period: Plumbing saw limited advancement in Europe during the Middle Ages,
primarily focused on basic sanitation.
19th Century Innovations
Health Reforms: The Industrial Revolution spurred urbanization and highlighted public health
issues, leading to the development of more organized plumbing systems.
First Plumbing Codes: In the late 1800s, cities like Chicago and New York began to establish
plumbing codes, addressing sanitation and safety concerns.
20th Century Standardization
Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC): Established in 1926 by the International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO), it aimed to standardize plumbing practices across
jurisdictions.
National Plumbing Code: Introduced in the U.S. in the 1950s, providing a comprehensive
framework for plumbing design and installation.
Modern Developments
International Plumbing Code (IPC): First published in 2000 by the International Code Council
(ICC), the IPC integrates plumbing requirements into a unified code for building safety and
efficiency.
Sustainability and Technology: Recent codes emphasize water conservation, green building
practices, and the use of advanced materials and technologies.
Key Changes and Trends
Water Efficiency: Modern plumbing codes promote fixtures and systems that reduce water
usage, responding to global water scarcity issues.
Cross-Connection Control: Stricter regulations on preventing contamination of potable water
supplies have been implemented.
Smart Plumbing Systems: The rise of technology has led to the inclusion of smart plumbing
solutions in codes, enhancing system monitoring and management.

The evolution of plumbing codes reflects a growing understanding of public health, safety,
and environmental concerns. From ancient practices to modern regulations, plumbing codes
have significantly improved sanitation, safety, and efficiency in building practices worldwide.

Chapter 2 plumbing code reviewer

1. Definitions
This section provides a glossary of key terms used throughout the code, such as:
Drainage System: The network of pipes that conveys wastewater.
Water Supply System: The system responsible for delivering potable water.
Fixture: A device that connects to a plumbing system for water use (e.g., sinks, toilets).
2. Scope
Specifies what is covered under the code, including:
Types of Systems: Residential, commercial, and industrial plumbing systems.
Components: Pipelines, fittings, fixtures, and appliances.
Exclusions: Certain systems or components that may not fall under the jurisdiction of the
plumbing code.
3. General Requirements
Materials: Standards for acceptable materials used in plumbing, including:
Pipes: Specifications for types (PVC, copper, etc.) and their properties.
Fittings and Valves: Requirements for compatibility and durability.
Design Criteria: Guidelines on system layout and design, covering:
Hydraulic Design: Considerations for flow rates and pressure.
Ventilation: Requirements for venting systems to prevent traps and odors.
Installation Practices: General installation guidelines to ensure compliance with safety
standards, including:
Connection Techniques: Approved methods for joining pipes and fittings.
Support and Alignment: Proper methods for securing pipes to prevent sagging or movement.
4. Permitting and Inspection
Permit Requirements: Outlines the process for obtaining necessary permits before installation
begins.
Inspection Process: Details the inspection stages, including:
Pre-Installation Inspections: Reviewing plans and systems before installation.
Post-Installation Inspections: Ensuring systems comply with code after installation.
Final Approvals: Criteria for obtaining final approval from local authorities.
5. Maintenance
Recommendations for maintaining plumbing systems, focusing on:
Routine Inspections: Importance of regular checks for leaks, corrosion, and blockages.
Cleaning and Servicing: Guidelines for cleaning drains, fixtures, and water heaters to ensure
optimal performance.
Record Keeping: Importance of documenting maintenance activities and any repairs
performed.
6. Special Considerations
Accessibility: Requirements for ensuring plumbing fixtures are accessible to individuals with
disabilities.
Backflow Prevention: Guidelines to protect potable water systems from contamination.
Energy Efficiency: Considerations for selecting energy-efficient fixtures and appliances.

Chapter 2 of plumbing codes establishes the foundational principles necessary for

understanding and implementing plumbing systems. It provides essential definitions, outlines
the scope of the code, and details requirements for materials, installation, inspection, and
maintenance. Mastery of these elements is crucial for plumbing professionals to ensure
compliance and promote public health and safety.

REPORTER 2: QUANTITY SURVEYING AND COST ESTIMATES

Quantity Surveying is broadly concerned with the estimation, planning and control

Of the cost on construction projects. It covers a wide range of activities including

Cost estimation, cost planning, value engineering, feasibility studies, cost benefit

Analysis, lifecycle costing and valuation.

The main objective of quantity surveying is to utilize resources like materials,

Manpower, and money, efficiently and effectively. A quantity surveyor is expected to

Be updated of the latest information about the market, tools, and equipment to help

In planning and scheduling of construction activities and resource allocation.

A quantity surveyor plays an important role in contract procurement, tender

Evaluation, and dispute resolution. Thus, it is a requirement for a quantity surveyor

To have a good knowledge of construction technology.

COST ESTIMATION

A cost estimate is a detailed assessment of the anticipated expenses required to

Complete a construction project. It provides a financial forecast that helps

Stakeholders understand the potential costs associated with the project and is

Essential for budgeting and financial planning

Project Cost Breakdown Structure

A cost breakdown structure (CBS) is a very important project costing tool that details

The individual costs of a project on a document. Like a work breakdown structure

(WBS), it’s a hierarchical chart where each row represents a type of cost or item.

This is done at the task level, which is called a bottom-up analysis.

Example of CBS: Creating a cost breakdown structure might be time-consuming, but one that’s
worth

Types Of Cost

Direct costs

-are those that occur in a project and are attached to specific activities. These are

Generally costs that are easier to accurately estimate. They include raw materials,

Labor, supplies, etc.

Indirect costs

-in a project are those that are in support of the project, such as administrative fees.

These can include everything from rent to salaries of the administrative staff to

Utilities, etc.

Fixed costs

- As the name suggests, are those that don’t change throughout the life cycle of a

Project. Some examples of fixed costs include setup costs, rental costs, insurance

Premiums, property taxes, etc. Variable costs

-are costs that change due to the amount of work that’s done in the project and are

Variable in nature. These costs can include hourly labor wages, materials, fuel costs

And so on.
Sunk costs

- In project cost estimating, when an investment has already been incurred and

Can’t be recovered it’s called a sunk cost or retrospective cost. Some examples of

Sunk costs include marketing, research, installation of new software, etc.

Project Cost Estimation Techniques

There are cost estimating techniques that can help with developing a more accurate

Cost estimation.

Analogous Estimating

Seek the help of experts who have experience in similar projects or use your own

Historical data. If you have access to relevant historical data, try analogous

Estimating, which can show precedents that help define what your future costs will

Be in the early stages of the project.

Parametric Estimating

There’s statistical modeling or parametric estimating, another cost estimation

Method that also uses historical data of key cost drivers and then calculates what

Those costs would be if the duration or another of the project is changed.

Bottom-Up Estimating

A more granular approach is bottom-up estimating, which uses estimates of

Individual tasks and then adds those up to determine the overall cost of the project.

This cost-estimating method is even more detailed than parametric estimating and is

Used in complex projects with many variables such as software development or

Construction projects.

Three-Point Estimate

Another approach is the three-point estimate, which comes up with three scenarios:

Most likely, optimistic, and pessimistic ranges. These are then put into an equation
To develop an estimation.

Reserve Analysis

Reserve analysis determines how much contingency reserve must be allocated. This

Cost estimation method tries to wrangle uncertainty.

Cost of Quality

Cost of quality uses money spent during the project to avoid failures and money

Applied after the project to address failures. This can help fine-tune your overall project cost
estimation. Plus, comparing bids from vendors can also help figure out

Costs.

Steps in Estimating Project Costs

1. Define the cost estimate’s purpose: Determine the purpose of the cost

Estimate, the level of detail, which is required, who receives the estimate and

The overall scope of the estimate.

2. Develop an estimating plan: Assemble a cost-estimating team and outline

Their estimation techniques. Develop a timeline and determine who will do

The independent cost estimate. Finally, create the team’s schedule.

3. Define characteristics: Create a baseline description of the purpose,

System and performance characteristics. This includes any technology

Implications, system configurations, schedules, strategies, and relations to

Existing systems. Don’t forget support, security, risk items, testing and

Production, deployment and maintenance and any similar legacy systems. 4. Determine cost
estimating techniques: Define a work breakdown

Structure (WBS) and choose an estimating method that’s best suited for each

Element in the WBS. Cross-check for cost and schedule drivers; then create a

Checklist.

4. Identify rules, assumptions and obtain data: Clearly define what’s

Included and excluded from the estimate and identify specific assumptions.
 5. Develop a point estimate: Develop a cost model by estimating each WBS

Element.

6. Conduct a sensitivity analysis: Test the sensitivity of costs to changes in

Estimating input values and key assumptions and determine key cost drivers.

7. Conduct risk and uncertainty analysis: Determine the cost, schedule and

Technical risks inherent with each item on the WBS and how to manage them.

8. Document the estimate and present it to management: Having

Documentation for each step in the cost estimate process keeps everyone on

The same page with the cost estimate. Then you can brief the project

Stakeholders on cost estimates to get their approval.

10.Update the cost estimate: Any changes to the cost estimate must be

Updated and reported. Also, perform a postmortem where you can document

Lessons learned.

BUILDING PERMIT

UNDER TECHNICAL DOCUMENTATION

WHAT IS BUILDING PERMIT?

A building permit is an official approval issued by the local government agency that allows you
or your contractor to proceed with a construction or remodeling project on your property. It is
intended to ensure that the project plans to comply with local standards for land use, zoning,
and construction. These standards are intended to ensure the safety of current and future
owners and occupants and to provide enforcement of zoning and land-use policies. Specific
issues that the building permit process may address include structural integrity of the framing
work, zoning, sanitation, water, and sewer lines, fire protection, and electrical service.

The Application Process

Preparation of Plans: Architectural and engineering drawings , Project specifications

Submission: Required documents: site plans, ownership proof, structural calculations

Review: Evaluation by local authorities Possible consultations and inspections

TYPES OF BUILDING PERMITS

New Construction: Residential, commercial, and industrial buildings

Renovations and Additions: Expansions and significant alterations

Repairs and Maintenance: Major repairs affecting structural or safety aspects

Demolition: Permits for tearing down existing structures

Key Components of a Building Permit

Permit Issuance: Project address, permit number, description

Conditions: Specific requirements and regulations to follow.

Fees: Cost based on project type and scale

Inspections and Compliance

Types of Inspections: Pre-construction, during construction, and post construction

Documentation: Record-keeping for compliance verification

Final Approval: Issuance of a certificate of occupancy or final approval

Consequences of Non-Compliance

Fines and Penalties: Financial repercussions for unapproved work.

Project Delays: Potential halts and additional costs.

Legal Actions: Possible legal issues and required corrective measures.

Benefits of Building Permits

Safety Assurance: Adherence to safety standards and building codes

Legal Protection: Compliance with legal requirements

Property Value: Maintaining and enhancing property value

Insurance: Validating insurance coverage through compliance

Who is Responsible for Obtaining the Permit?

Architects and Engineers: Prepare and submit plans.

Contractors/Builders: Typically handle the permit application process.

Property Value: Maintaining and enhancing property value

Homeowners/Property Owners: May be responsible in smaller projects or DIY renovations.

Conclusion:

Building permits are essential to ensure that all

Construction projects meet safety, legal, and

Environmental standards. Always ensure that proper

Permits are obtained before starting any construction

Work to avoid costly consequences.

REPORTER #4:

Building Envelope and Assemblies

The building envelope refers to the physical barrier between the interior and exterior of a
building, including walls, roofs, windows, doors, and floors. It plays a critical role in controlling
environmental factors such as temperature, air, moisture, and light. The design and composition
of the envelope directly affect the building’s durability, energy efficiency, and material resource
use. Building assemblies, meanwhile, are the specific configurations of materials used in the
construction of these envelope components. Let’s break down the three key areas—moisture
transfer, building durability, and energy & material resources—as they relate to building
envelopes and assemblies.

1. Moisture Transfer

Moisture transfer is a critical factor in the performance of building envelopes. Moisture in the
form of water vapor, liquid water, or condensation can infiltrate the envelope through a variety of
mechanisms, such as:

Vapor diffusion: The movement of water vapor through materials, driven by differences in vapor
pressure between the inside and outside of the building.

Capillary action: The movement of water through porous materials.

Air leakage: The unintended movement of air (and moisture) through gaps and cracks in the
envelope.

Impact on Building Assemblies:

Moisture can degrade insulation, reduce the thermal performance of the envelope, and lead to
mold growth and structural damage.

Vapor barriers, air barriers, and drainage systems are commonly used in assemblies to manage
moisture and prevent it from causing damage.

Effective moisture management in building assemblies helps maintain indoor air quality,
structural stability, and the energy efficiency of the building.

2. Building Durability

The durability of the building envelope determines its ability to resist environmental stresses and
remain functional over time. Factors that affect durability include moisture exposure, air
pollutants, wind loads, temperature fluctuations, and solar radiation.

Water Ingress and Absorption: Envelopes must be designed to resist water ingress through
effective drainage systems and moisture-resistant materials. Materials that absorb water need
to be allowed to dry to prevent degradation.

Condensation: This occurs when warm, moist air comes into contact with cooler surfaces.
Building assemblies should be designed to manage condensation through proper insulation and
ventilation.

Temperature Extremes: Thermal expansion and contraction due to temperature changes can
cause cracks or other failures in the envelope, so materials used in assemblies need to
accommodate these stresses.

Assembly Considerations:

Assemblies should include weather-resistant barriers, thermal breaks, and durable cladding
systems to protect against these environmental factors.

Using durable materials that can withstand these conditions reduces the need for frequent
repairs and extends the building’s operational life, thus improving sustainability.

3. Energy and Material Resources

The energy performance of a building is significantly influenced by its envelope, as it controls

heat flow between the inside and outside. Efficient design and material choices can lead to
substantial energy savings. Additionally, using sustainable and energy-efficient materials
contributes to a building’s environmental performance.
Thermal Insulation: Proper insulation reduces heat transfer, keeping the building warmer in
winter and cooler in summer, and lowering the energy demand for heating and cooling.

Selective Glazing: High-performance windows allow natural light while reducing heat gain, thus
improving both energy efficiency and occupant comfort.

Solar Shading Devices: Overhangs, fins, and shading devices help minimize heat gain,
especially in hot climates, reducing the need for air conditioning.

Material Resource Considerations:

Sustainable Materials: Using materials with a lower environmental impact, such as recycled
content, or those sourced from sustainably managed forests, reduces the carbon footprint of the
building.

Energy Simulation Tools: These tools help analyze and optimize the performance of the building
envelope, allowing designers to choose assemblies and materials that provide the best balance
of thermal comfort and energy efficiency.

Conclusion

The building envelope and assemblies serve as the primary defense against environmental
stresses, influencing how a building handles moisture transfer, retains durability, and utilizes
energy and material resources. By selecting appropriate materials, incorporating advanced
assembly techniques, and ensuring proper moisture control, a building can achieve greater
longevity, energy efficiency, and sustainability.