Journal of Social Work Education

ISSN: 1043-7797 (Print) 2163-5811 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uswe20

Identifying Student Competencies in Macro

Practice: Articulating the Practice Wisdom of Field
Instructors

Cheryl Regehr , Marion Bogo , Kirsten Donovan , April Lim & Susan Anstice

To cite this article: Cheryl Regehr , Marion Bogo , Kirsten Donovan , April Lim & Susan
Anstice (2012) Identifying Student Competencies in Macro Practice: Articulating the Practice
Wisdom of Field Instructors, Journal of Social Work Education, 48:2, 307-319, DOI: 10.5175/
JSWE.2012.201000114

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.5175/JSWE.2012.201000114

Published online: 16 Mar 2013.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 1777

View related articles

Citing articles: 7 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=uswe20
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 307

IDENTIFYING STUDENT COMPETENCIES IN MACRO PRACTICE:

ARTICULATING THE PRACTICE WISDOM OF FIELD INSTRUCTORS

Cheryl Regehr Susan Anstice

University of Toronto Community Care East York

Marion Bogo April Lim

University of Toronto University of Toronto

Kirsten Donovan
University of Toronto

Although a growing literature examines competencies in clinical practice, com-

petencies of students in macro social work practice have received comparative-
ly little attention. A grounded-theory methodology was used to elicit field
instructor views of student competencies in community, organization, and pol-
icy contexts. Competencies described by field instructors encompassed 2 broad
dimensions: meta competencies and procedural competencies. Meta competen-
cies included characteristics such as self-awareness, compassion, motivation,
and commitment to social justice. Procedural competencies included project
management and presentation skills, and the ability to articulate and imple-
ment steps to attain goals. These identified competencies provide a basis for
development of a tool to assess student performance of competencies in macro
practice.

ALTHOUGH DETERMINING THE practice compe- field practicum constitutes an important com-
tence of social work students has always con- ponent of any evaluation strategy. It is there-
cerned social work educators, the current fore imperative that educators develop effec-
Council on Social Work Education’s (CSWE) tive measures for evaluating student field
Educational Policy and Accreditation Stand- performance. The first step in this process is
ards (EPAS; CSWE, 2008) require more system- identifying the competencies that are required
atic approaches to obtaining outcome data for effective practice. Core competencies for
about schools’ success in meeting their objec- the foundation of practice articulated in the
tives. Obviously reliable and valid assessment EPAS for MSW programs are expected to
of students’ learning and performance in the also prepare for advanced practice through

Journal of Social Work Education, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Spring/Summer 2012).

© 2012, Council on Social Work Education, Inc. All rights reserved. DOI: 10.5175/JSWE.2012.201000114 307
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 308

308 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

“knowledge and practice behaviors specific to cies of professional practice that include rela-
a concentration” (p. 3). In this regard macro tionship, self-development, analysis, and
practice is seen as one such concentration. judgment. Bogo et al. (2006), in conducting
The scholarly literature with respect to interviews with experienced clinical field
the identification and evaluation of practice instructors with regard to student competen-
competencies has focused primarily on micro cies expected to identify a set of skills and
or clinical practice across disciplines including competencies that field instructors would use
medicine (Farrell, 2005; Resnick, 1993), pas- to describe the differences between exemplary
toral care (Gordon & Mitchell, 2004), respira- students and problematic students. What
tory therapists (Cullen, 2005), dentistry (Al- emerged instead was a constellation of per-
bino et al., 2008), psychology (Spruill et al., sonal qualities possessed by students that
2004), nursing (Bondy, Jenkins, Seymour, Lan- were perceived as affecting their approaches
caster, & Ishee, 1997), and social work (Bogo et to learning, their interactions with others in
al., 2004; Regehr, Regehr, Power, & Bogo, the organization, their relationship with the
2007). In this literature, two components of field instructor, and their ability to develop
competency have been identified (Bogo et al., relationships with clients. Exemplary students
2006; Kane, 1992; Talbot, 2004). One is a set of were described as bright, intuitive, motivated,
procedural skills including such aspects as enthusiastic, self-directed, engaging, and tact-
conducting an assessment, implementing an ful. Problematic students were described as
intervention strategy, and communicating irritable, defensive, judgmental, nonempathic,
that strategy to other members of the treat- shy, needy, and demanding. It was concluded
ment team verbally and in writing. These pro- that these personality characteristics seemed
cedural aspects of competency have been the to take precedence over skills and behaviors,
focus of competency-based assessments. This with the skills and behaviors used more as
is in part due to the overt observable nature of supporting evidence for these underlying
such skills and in part due to the fact that such traits than as evidence of having achieved or
skills are relatively amenable to measurement. failing to have achieved competence.
These skills can be taught by field instructors A more limited literature exists with
in the practicum and in practice courses. They respect to competencies in community, organ-
can be acquired by students with practice and ization, and policy contexts. No doubt this is
mentoring. largely due to the fact that only about 10% of
The second component of professional social work MSW practicum are in macro
competency involves personal qualities that practice (Raymond, Teare, & Atherton, 1996)
students possess when they enter the and few MSW programs offer macro concen-
practicum. Kane (1992) has described this as trations (Mor Barak, Travis, & Bess, 2004). The
the judgment needed to combine knowledge, existing literature generally focuses on specif-
skills, and abilities into effective solutions to ic issues such as projects to develop advocacy
client problems across a wide range of situa- skills (Hermoso, Rosen, Overly, & Tompkins,
tions. Talbot (2004) refers to meta competen- 2006), partnerships to develop leadership
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 309

STUDENT COMPETENCIES IN MACRO PRACTICE 309

skills (Mertz, Fortune, & Zendell, 2007), and were routinely available in mezzo–macro stu-
the satisfaction of macro practice students dent field practicum (Mor Barak et al., 2004).
with respect to their field practicum experi- Thus it appears that there is limited exposure
ences (Deal, Hopkins, Fisher, & Hartin, 2007). in the practicum setting to the range of skills
Hardina and Obel-Jorgensen (2009) sug- required in macro practice and thus limited
gested that eight skills or competencies are opportunities to develop these skills.
necessary for social action or advocacy Macro practice that aims to bring about
practice: self-awareness and cultural compe- change through community organization,
tency, engagement, problem identification administration, and policy development is
and assessment, facilitating constituent self- central to social work practice and in some
determination and empowerment, verbal and ways defines the identity of social work (Net-
written communication, weighing the ethical ting, Kettner, & McMurtry, 2008). Although
implications of strategies, taking action, and relatively few social work students specialize
evaluating outcomes. The National Network in this concentration, it is essential that we
for Social Work Managers (Wimpfheimer, articulate a set of advanced competencies,
2004) developed a set of core competencies for ensure they are included in MSW curricu-
social workers in administrative and manage- lums, and design methods for assessing the
rial practice based on a review of the literature degree to which students possess these com-
and further modified by Mor Barak et al. petencies at various points in their education.
(2004) that include advocacy; program evalu-
Method
ation; resource development and financial
management; program planning, develop- The purpose of this study was to elicit field
ment, and management; public relations and instructors’ views of student competencies in
marketing; governance; and human resource community, organization, and policy practica,
management. an area that has been largely neglected in the
However, limited evidence suggests that social work literature. The study was guided
these competencies may not be taught in by a discovery-oriented qualitative design.
MSW programs. Deal et al. (2007) found that This approach is particularly useful for identi-
macro students perceived that they had limit- fying and building knowledge and generating
ed learning opportunities that they believed theory in the relatively uncharted area of
were in part due to the complexity of the set- inquiries (Creswell, 2007). The long-interview
ting, in part due to the challenges in linking method of data gathering was selected to
theory and practice, and in part due to limited gather a wide range of views and experiences
availability of supervision. This perhaps sug- (McCracken, 1988).
gests an increased need for self-directedness A purposive sample (Padgett, 1998;
in students in macro practicum. In a survey of Patton, 2002) was drawn from all of the macro
200 social work managers and administrators, field instructors of a large graduate program
however, only program planning and devel- in social work who offered practicum in com-
opment, program evaluation, and advocacy munity, organization, and policy practice.
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 310

310 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Inclusion criteria were: being an experienced ten communication, values and ethics, and
field instructor (i.e., 5 years or more); possess- dealing with diversity. Some of these factors
ing strong competencies as a field instructor were identified through reviewing research on
as determined by the practicum director; and competency in clinically focused students
recent supervision of students (i.e., within the (Bogo et al., 2004; Bogo et al., 2006) and others
last 3 years). Participants were recruited by were identified from the literature on macro
telephone. All who were contacted agreed to practicum placement (Hermoso et al., 2006;
participate. Approval was obtained from the Mertz et al., 2007; Mor Barak et al., 2004).
Research Ethics Board at University of Toron- Probing questions were used to elicit concrete
to and written informed consent was given by examples of student behaviors and practice
all participants at the beginning of each inter- interactions. The interviews were audio taped
view. The sample of 18 field instructors con- to ensure accuracy of data and transcribed.
sisted of 16 women and 2 men representing The data was then subjected to an itera-
community, organization, and policy practice tive process of data analysis that involved the
settings or some combination of these meth- research team engaging in open coding, which
ods. Participants had an average of 9 years allowed for the development of broad cate-
(range: 1–23) of practice experience with their gories for grouping data. Selective coding was
current employer. Sixteen of the field instruc- subsequently used to develop a theoretical
tors held master’s of social work degrees. In understanding of competencies in macro
total, participants had a mean of 21 years social work practice that was grounded in the
(range: 6–35) of social work or related practice themes that emerged. This theory was then
experience, with an average 13 years (range: challenged through reengagement with and
3–30) of experience with the school’s reexamining of the data. Further, theoretical
practicum program. The majority (89%) also triangulation with relevant literatures was
were field instructors for other schools of implemented after themes began to emerge.
social work. Member checking was used by presenting the
Trained qualitative interviewers conduct- emerging theoretical understanding to anoth-
ed all interviews. Each field instructor was er group of field instructors to assess transfer-
asked the same set of open-ended, guiding ability and confirmability (Creswell, 2007;
questions. First, they described one exemplary, Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993).
one average, and one problematic or strug-
gling student in general terms. Second, they Findings
described student performance in each of the
Snapshots of Student Competency in
following practice dimensions: engagement
Macro Practice
with learning, behavior in the organization,
linking policy and practice, relationships with- Field instructors were first asked to provide a
in the organization, differential use of self, brief description of each of the three types of
assessment and analysis, intervention plan- students they had taught in a macro prac-
ning, leadership, verbal communication, writ- ticum: exemplary, average, and problematic.
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 311

STUDENT COMPETENCIES IN MACRO PRACTICE 311

This allowed for a beginning analysis of core ability to listen to divergent views. One
competencies that were viewed as important instructor noted, “She wasn’t imposing her
in these types of social work environments. idealistic viewpoint on them and she was able
Exemplary students. A number of common to hear, frankly, some very conservative
themes emerged in the description of exem- points of view from our participants and work
plary students. The first theme clustered without judging them.”
around the term “open-minded learners.” In Average students. Perhaps due to the
this domain, field instructors explained that in nature of the research interview, average stu-
fast-paced and diverse macro practicum set- dents were generally described in contrast to
tings, students needed to have an awareness exemplary and problematic students. Average
of their learning needs, an ability to articulate students, for instance, were described as “less
their needs, and flexibility with respect to confident” and not knowing exactly what
learning opportunities that would meet these they wanted to do in contrast to exemplary
needs. A second theme emerged regarding students. One instructor stated that “they
self-directedness and confidence, while main- need to get up to speed, while the exceptional
taining an ability to ask for assistance if it is student hits the ground running.” Another
required. Next, the ability to conceptualize stated, “The difference between an average
complex political and systemic issues and the student and an exemplary student is the aver-
manner in which politics directed practice age student needs support to encourage her or
interventions was viewed as a sign of exem- to push her a little bit.” Average students were
plary ability. Several instructors used the viewed to need a little more introduction and
terms seeing or developing “linkages” between a bit more guidance. But “once given, they can
issues and concepts. Other instructors noted carry out the project and be trusted with the
that these students were able to see the broad- work.” Further, the average student was
er picture, synthesize complex information, or viewed to produce work that benefits the
had highly developed analytic skills. Engage- organization. Yet, although “the exceptional
ment skills that resulted in productive rela- student produces work that stands on its
tionships with both colleagues and client own,” the average student’s work needs
groups were also viewed as important. Within greater supervisor involvement. “It would be
this was the ability to show respect and empa- more of a collaborative project. . . . Whereas the
thy for marginalized individuals. Terms fre- poor student, often the end product is some-
quently used in this domain included warmth, thing that looks like a make work project.”
caring, considerate, engaging, collaborative, cul- In contrast to problematic students, aver-
turally sensitive, and professional. Finally, a age students are described as having a good
commitment to social justice and a particular sense of judgment regarding what they know,
passion for community development and do not know, and what they need to know.
advocacy work were viewed as important. “The average MSW students tend to be really
Nevertheless, field instructors were quick to good at linking what they’re learning in the
note that this needed to be tempered by an classroom with what they are doing in the
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 312

312 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

practicum. So, they tend to be really active in changes. They don’t want to be part of solu-
vocalizing what they’re learning, what they’re tions to fix things.”
interested in, and then being able to ask for
Macro Competencies in Core Practice
opportunities in the practicum that they
Dimensions
want.” Average students were seen to need
some time to develop and grow. However, This next analysis considers core competen-
they are viewed as organized, responsible, cies that have previously been identified in
and punctual. To manage lack of confidence, clinical social work students (Bogo et al., 2004;
they tend to be well-prepared, but still need Bogo et al., 2006) and in the literature on
reassurance. Field instructors reported that macro practicum placements (Hermoso et al.,
average students respond to guidance and 2006; Mertz et al., 2007; Mor Barak et al., 2004).
fulfill tasks that are assigned, but they rarely The field instructors were asked to comment
initiate their own tasks. on engagement with learning, behavior in the
Problematic or struggling students.Themes organization, linking policy and practice, rela-
that emerged with respect to struggling stu- tionships within the organization, differential
dents included lack of self-confidence, “diffi- use of self, assessment and analysis, interven-
culty shifting gears and balancing a bunch of tion planning, leadership, verbal communica-
balls,” lack of compassion and empathy, lack tion, written communication, values and
of knowledge, lack of enthusiasm, and diffi- ethics, and dealing with diversity. In analyz-
culty working as a team member. Field in- ing the data, six categories emerged that relate
structors did not think that problematic stu- particularly to macro practice. Specifically
dents had a clear sense of their career goals. identified were learning and growth; behavior
They were viewed as needing a great deal of and relationships; leadership; critical think-
direction on tasks, seemed unmotivated, and ing, analysis, planning, and implementation;
took undue amounts of time to complete written and verbal professional communica-
tasks. In the end, it was reported that prob- tion; and values and ethics. In each category,
lematic students seem to have accomplished specific skills or attributes that are valued by
little in the practicum. field instructors are described below.
In a macro setting ideology can also be Learning and growth. The snapshot de-
problematic. As an instructor stated, “The one scriptions above demonstrate that learning
student who was the most difficult had a dif- and growth are central to the manner in which
ferent ideological base, and I wondered why student competencies are viewed in macro
they had come to the agency. There was not a practice. This included students’ interest in
good mesh between goals and what the learning and the extent to which they are able
agency does.” These students can have a neg- to identify learning goals. Core competencies
ative influence throughout the organization. in this area included being self-directed and
“I’ve had students who all they do is point out independent, self-aware, proactive in seeking
negative things that are happening but they learning opportunities, curious, enthusiastic,
don’t want to be part of implementing organized, and willing to challenge them-
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 313

STUDENT COMPETENCIES IN MACRO PRACTICE 313

selves. Ability to accept corrective feedback two directions to apply policy to practice and
and understand the role of the student within practice theory to policy development and
the organization was also viewed as impor- implementation.” Competencies in this area
tant by field instructors. included the ability to see the broader picture,
Behavior and relationships. As noted, en- while understanding, articulating, and imple-
gagement skills were described by field menting the sequence of steps necessary to
instructors as critical to macro practice. It was achieve desired outcomes. Awareness of poli-
identified that it was important for students to cies and practices and their differential effect
have the ability to understand the importance on stakeholder groups were also noted as
of workplace relationships and the impact of important. The ability to critically evaluate
their behavior on the organization. Core com- organizational practices “without being offen-
petencies described in this domain included sive to staff,” while still being able to function
the ability to work collaboratively with others, within organizational constraints, was de-
contribute positively to the team and the work scribed as essential to macro practice.
of the organization, be respectful, adapt one- Professional communication. Competent
self to the organizational culture, maintain writing was described as demonstrating that
professional boundaries, and be self-reflective. the student had absorbed and understood the
Leadership. Competencies related to lead- issues, dimensions, and various perspectives
ership included three themes: self-leadership, regarding the policy or plan. Reports were
task-oriented leadership, and leadership of expected to be professional, well-researched,
others. Self-leadership involved the student’s and sophisticated. Basic skills such as using
ability to develop his or her own program of proper grammar; clear organization; and
work and identify opportunities. Task-oriented being succinct, concise, and cogent were iden-
leadership refers to the ability to identify ways tified. In preparing reports, understanding
to contribute to the agency, such as developing and appropriately addressing the audience
a new resource or tool, or making a presenta- was also identified as important.
tion. Project management skills were also Competent students are able to effective-
included in this domain. Leadership of others ly communicate ideas to others in a profes-
was described as effectively leading stakehold- sional manner suitable to the audience. This
er groups or making contacts with other organ- includes using appropriate tone and lan-
izations for the benefit of their practicum guage, being articulate and a quick thinker,
organization and its stakeholders. Another skill and paraphrasing ideas and insights well.
noted here was the ability to lead peers by tak- Oral presentations were viewed as critical in
ing on a role of a senior student or leading oth- macro practice. Competence in oral presenta-
ers by example. On a more general level, lead- tions involved being well organized, clear,
ership was described as the ability to take risks. accurate, dynamic, engaging, and inspiring.
Critical thinking—Analysis, planning, and Confidence in presenting and the ability to
implementation. This domain was summarized respond to both expected and unexpected
by one instructor as “the ability to move in questions was identified as important.
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 314

314 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Values and ethics. Competent students are they had previously supervised. First, this
described as having a clear sense of personal involved giving “snapshot” descriptions of
values on which they base actions, relation- students who demonstrated exemplary, aver-
ships, and their work. They understand the age, and problematic performance. Next,
values and ethics of both the agency and the instructors were asked to comment on specif-
profession of social work. Such students are ic competencies as they applied to macro
sensitive to diversity issues and are commit- social work practice. This data was then ana-
ted to antioppressive practice. They are able to lyzed thematically to derive a theoretical
integrate these values into their daily interac- model for understanding competency in
tions. They are able to actively raise questions macro social work practice.
about values and ethics in the conduct of their Previous research on clinical students
work. These students are able to examine their resulted in a model of understanding compe-
own values and biases and work with clients tency as having two primary and interrelated
in a nonjudgmental manner. dimensions: procedural skills and meta com-
petencies (Bogo et al., 2006). These meta com-
Discussion
petencies are higher order, overarching abili-
A considerable body of theoretical, education- ties and qualities that are of a different charac-
al, and empirical literature about field educa- ter than skills (Cheetham & Chivers, 1998,
tion for undergraduate and graduate social 2005) but affect the way students and profes-
work students exists with related field sionals learn, assess practice situations, and
practicum policies, field educator training, intervene to bring about change. Similarly in
best practices for field education, identification this study field instructors discussed students’
of competencies, and assessment of student performance in a holistic manner wherein stu-
learning. The literature is relevant and applica- dents’ qualities and abilities, knowledge, val-
ble to generalist social work practice taught in ues, and skills were evident as they engaged
baccalaureate programs and to micro, or clini- in learning and performed in a range of macro
cal practice, taught in master’s programs. practice assignments in the setting.
However, field education for macro practice at The snapshot descriptions provided by
the MSW level has received scant attention in field instructors of both exemplary and prob-
the social work education literature, despite lematic or struggling macro practicum stu-
estimates that approximately 10% of students dents focused primarily on what might be
focus their study in this concentration (Ray- thought of as personal characteristics or meta
mond et al., 1996). Accordingly, this study competencies, suggesting that these compe-
aimed to contribute to field education for stu- tencies are centrally important to macro social
dents in macro practicum through developing work practice. Exemplary students were
a theoretical understanding of core competen- described as self-directed, competent, open-
cies for macro social work practice. minded, analytic, respectful, caring, consider-
Interviews with experienced field instruc- ate, engaging, and professional. In contrast,
tors focused on their reflections on students problematic students were described as lack-
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 315

STUDENT COMPETENCIES IN MACRO PRACTICE 315

ing in compassion, empathy, knowledge, From the participants’ rich descriptions it

direction, motivation, and enthusiasm. Fur- appears that strong students at this level in
ther, commitment to social justice was seen as their practice development demonstrate ini-
differentially applied by students who were tiative and self-direction in all areas of the
exemplary versus those who were problemat- practicum. This is observed by field instruc-
ic. That is, exemplary students could be tors in the students’ ability to articulate their
respectful of other viewpoints and accepting learning needs and find opportunities to meet
of those who held them, whereas proble- those needs; in having confidence; being inde-
matic students were described as judgmental pendent, versatile, and flexible; and being
and negative when faced with divergent able to work on one’s own and produce high-
viewpoints. quality work. High levels of competency also
The focus on meta competencies was also involve strong conceptual and analytic ability
evident in the discussions regarding specific as seen in critical thinking and the use of
areas of competence. That is, in the areas of diverse theoretical perspectives, being open-
learning and growth, behavior in the organiza- minded, and thinking broadly and from a
tion, leadership, and values and ethics, per- social justice and empowerment perspective.
sonal characteristics were key elements of the Strong performance also includes the capacity
competencies described. In addition, the area to form and maintain respectful professional
of critical thinking, analysis, planning, and relationships—with colleagues in the work-
implementation also contained elements of place, in productive work in teams, and with
meta competencies, such as the ability to view a wide range of community stakeholders. As
issues broadly and from multiple perspectives. well, strong qualities include cultural compe-
Interestingly, although meta competen- tence, the ability to work with marginalized
cies clearly differentiated exemplary students client groups, and the ability to hear and con-
and problematic students, descriptions of sider divergent opinions. The organizational
average students contained more competen- context of macro practice and the social
cies that might be thought of as procedural or change goal requires the ability to work with-
practice skills. These included the ability to in rules imposed by the organization and to
carry out a project, writing skills, and linking appropriately challenge them as well. Proc-
classroom knowledge with the practicum edural or operational competencies such as
experience. Other practice skills fell into cate- project management, planning, implementa-
gories of planning and implementation, and tion, report writing, and presentation skills
professional communication. Such skills were all described as reflecting these broad
included awareness of policies, articulating dimensions.
and implementing steps required for produc-
Conclusion
ing change, project management, report writ-
ing, and presentation skills. A summary of As social work educators strive to articulate
meta competencies and procedural skills can and assess advanced practice specific to a con-
be found in Table 1. centration, they are confronted with the need
TABLE 1. Meta Competencies and Procedural Skills in Macro Social Work Practice
316

Macro Social Work Practice

Appproach
to Critical
Learning Relationships Leadership Thinking Communication Ethics

Meta Self-awareness; Engagement; Self-directed; Conceptualize Quick thinker Commitment to

Competencies Flexibility Respect; Risk-taking political and social justice
empathy systemic issues
Procedural Integrate Collaborative Project Articulate/implement Organized, Integrate ethics
Skills
corrective management; steps to goals concise, into work
feedback Presentation targeted
writing
JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 316
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 317

STUDENT COMPETENCIES IN MACRO PRACTICE 317

to conceptualize that practice in a way that tor participants drew upon when they dis-
authentically reflects student levels of per- cussed their students. These findings remind
formance in a practicum. A review of the lit- us that the traditional means for measuring
erature on macro practice competency finds competence using Competency Based Edu-
descriptions at a global level that need to cation models misses the essence of profes-
become more specific to assist in the con- sional practice. That is, not all skills are
struction of assessment tools for field equal. Rather, professional practice rests on
practicum. On the other hand, the tendency meta competencies that allow professionals
to describe competencies in longer and to differentially use skills based on a broader
longer lists of discrete skills appears ill- understanding of the social context in which
advised. A considerable literature critiques the skills are required and an understanding
such inventories as portraying social work of multiple outcomes of any given behavior
practice as mechanistic and reduced to a set (Ericsson & Charness, 1994).
of discrete operations (Kelly & Horder, 2001; In keeping with the spirit of the compe-
Skinner & Whyte, 2004). Such inventories tency framework of EPAS (CSWE, 2008)—
and assessment formats tend to omit the cru- that knowledge, values, and skills are evident
cial internal cognitive processes and inter- in complex practice behaviors—new assess-
personal and subjective factors that affect ment tools are needed that incorporate both
competence (Cheetham & Chivers, 2005; broad and specific factors, what we have
Eraut, 1994; Kane, 1992) and that appear to termed as meta competencies and procedural
constitute key dimensions these field instruc- competencies.

References

Albino, J., Young, S., Neumann, L., Kramer, G., Andrieu, S., Henson, L., & Hendricson,
W. (2008). Assessing dental students’ competence: Best practice recommendations in the
performance assessment literature and investigation of current practices in predoctoral
dental education. Journal of Dental Education, 72(12), 1405–1435.
Bogo, M., Regehr, C., Powers, R., Hughes, J., Woodford, M., & Regehr, G. (2004). Toward new
approaches for evaluating student field performance: Tapping the implicit criteria used by
experienced field instructors. Journal of Social Work Education, 40, 417–425.
Bogo, M., Regehr, C., Woodford, M., Hughes, J., Power, R., & Regehr, G. (2006). Beyond
competencies: Field instructors’ descriptions of student performance. Journal of Social
Work Education, 42, 191–205.
Bondy, K., Jenkins, K., Seymour, L., Lancaster, R., & Ishee, J. (1997). The development and
testing of competency-focused psychiatric nursing clinical evaluation instrument.
Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 11(2), 66–73.
Cheetham, G., & Chivers, G. (1998). The reflective (and competent) practitioner: A model
of professional competence which seeks to harmonise the reflective practitioner and
competence-based approaches. Journal of European Industrial Training, 27(2), 267–276.
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 318

318 JOURNAL OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION

Cheetham, G., & Chivers, G. (2005). Professions, competence and informal learning. Cheltenham,
UK: Edward Elgar.
Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions (2nd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Council on Social Work Education. (2008). Educational policy and accreditation standards.
Alexandria, VA: Author.
Cullen, D. (2005). Clinical education and clinical evaluation of respiratory therapy students.
Respiratory Care Clinics of North America, 11(3), 425–447.
Deal, K., Hopkins, K., Fisher, L., & Hartin, J. (2007). Field practicum experiences of
macro-oriented graduate students: Are we doing them justice. Administration in Social
Work, 31(4), 41–58.
Eraut, M. (1994). Developing professional knowledge and competence. London, UK: Falmer Press.
Ericsson, K., & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition.
American Psychologist, 49, 725–747.
Erlandson, D., Harris, E., Skipper, B., & Allen, S. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry: A guide
to methods. London, UK: SAGE.
Farrell, S. (2005). Evaluation of student performance: Clinical and professional performance.
Academic Medicine, 12(4), 302e6–302e10.
Gordon, T., & Mitchell, D. (2004). A competency model for the assessment an delivery of
spiritual care. Palliative Medicine, 18(7), 646–651.
Hardina, D., & Obel-Jorgensen, R. (2009). Increasing social action competency: A framework
for supervision. Journal of Policy Practice, 8, 89–109.
Hermoso, J., Rosen, A., Overly, L., & Tompkins, C. (2006). Increasing aging and advocacy
competency: The intergenerational advocacy pilot project. Journal of Gerontological Social
Work, 48, 179–192.
Kane, M. T. (1992). The assessment of professional competence. Evaluation in Health Professions,
15(2), 163–182.
Kelly, J., & Horder, W. (2001). The how and the why: Competences and holistic practice.
Social Work Education, 20, 689–699.
McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
Mertz, L., Fortune, A., & Zendell, A. (2007). Promoting leadership skills in field education:
A university–community partnership to bring macro and micro together in gerontological
field placements. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 50, 173–186.
Mor Barak, M., Travis, D., & Bess, G. (2004). Exploring managers’ and administrators’
retrospective perceptions of their MSW fieldwork experience: A national study.
Administration in Social Work, 28(1), 21–44.
Netting, F., Kettner, P., & McMurtry, S. (2008). Social work macro practice (4th ed.). Boston, MA:
Allyn and Bacon.
JSWE-S12-Regehr-3f_JournalFall2006 Sun/June/3/2012 Sun/Jun/3/2012/ 6:14 PM Page 319

STUDENT COMPETENCIES IN MACRO PRACTICE 319

Padgett, D. (1998). Qualitative methods in social work research: Challenges and rewards. Thousand
Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Raymond, G., Teare, R., & Atherton, C. (1996). Do management tasks differ by field of practice.
Administration in Social Work, 20(1), 17–30.
Regehr, G., Regehr, C., Power, R., & Bogo, M. (2007). Can we build a better mousetrap?:
Improving measures of social work practice performance in the field. Journal of Social Work
Education, 43, 327–344.
Resnick, R. (1993). Teaching and testing technical skills. American Journal of Surgery, 165,
358–361.
Skinner, K., & Whyte, B. (2004). Going beyond training: Theory and practice in managing
learning. Social Work Education, 23, 365–381.
Spruill, J., Rozensky, R., Stigall, T., Vasquez, M., Bingham, R., & Olvey, C. (2004). Becoming
a competent clinician: Basic competencies in intervention. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
60(7), 741–754.
Talbot, M. (2004). Monkey see, monkey do: A critique of the competency model in graduate
medical education. Med Educ., 38(6), 587–592.
Wimpfheimer, S. (2004). Leadership and management competencies defined by practicing
social work managers: An overview of standards developed by the National Network
for Social Work Managers. Administration in Social Work, 28(1), 45–56.

Accepted: 03/11

Cheryl Regehr is vice-provost and professor, Marion Bogo is professor, Kirsten Donovan is
research assistant, and April Lim is a PhD candidate at the University of Toronto. Susan Anstice is
a social worker at Community Care East York.

Address correspondence to Cheryl Regehr, Factor-Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of

Toronto, 27 King’s College Circle, Toronto, M5A 1S1, Canada; e-mail: [email protected].

This research was generously funded by the Sandra Rotman Chair in Social Work.