Tourism Development Policy and Planning

Course Description:
This course focuses on tourism planning as a process and set of techniques for sustainable tourism
development. It examines the physical environment of tourism planning, and the social, cultural and
political realities of tourism planning and policy making. The emphasis of the course is on strategic
regional and community-based tourism planning. In addition the course aims to develop an
understanding of tourism policy-making processes, and to gain skills in the evaluation of tourism plans
and policies. The course also broadens the coverage of planning and development to include tourism
policy as well. Further more attention will be paid to the reasons of tourism planning, the purpose of
tourism and its barriers, the governmental frameworks at different levels, roles of global, multi-national,
national, state, provincial, regional, and local tourism organizations.

Course Objectives:

After completion of this course, you will be able:

 To describe theories of tourism planning and development

 To discuss the importance of tourism planning and development
 To outline different approaches to tourism planning
 To describe the elements of a tourism policy model and how these elements are used to form a
tourism policy for a destination
 To outline the tourism planning process and different phases of that process
 To analyze the tourism development of a destination
 To explain different strategies of managing tourism growth
CHAPTER ONE

Introductory Concepts of Tourism Development Policy and Planning

What’s A Policy?
A policy is a guiding principle used to set direction in an organization. It can be a
course of action to guide and influence decisions. It should be used as a guide to decision
making under a given set of circumstances within the framework of objectives, goals and
management philosophies as determined by senior management. But is it?
A policy is typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and achieve
rational outcome(s). The term is not normally used to denote what is actually done; this
is normally referred to as either procedure or protocol.
Policies can assist in both subjective and objective decision making. Policies to assist in
subjective decision making would usually assist senior management with decisions that
must consider the relative merits of a number of factors before making decisions and as a
result are often hard to objectively test e.g. work-life balance policy. In contrast policies
to assist in objective decision making are usually operational in nature and can be
objectively tested e.g. password policy.
A Policy can be considered as a "Statement of Intent" or a "Commitment". For that
reason at least, the decision-makers can be held accountable for their "Policy".
The term may apply to government, private sector organizations and groups, and
individuals. Presidential executive orders, corporate privacy policies, and
parliamentary rules of order are all examples of policy.
What sorts of policies do you know?
There are really two types of policies. The first are rules frequently used as employee
policies. The second are mini-mission statements frequently associated with procedures.
Think rules versus missions.
Is policy really mean rule or procedure?
Policy differs from rules or law. While law can compel or prohibit behaviors (e.g. a law
requiring the payment of taxes on income), policy merely guides actions toward those
that are most likely to achieve a desired outcome.
Policies are generally adopted by the Board of or senior governance body within an
organization whereas procedures or protocols would be developed and adopted by
senior executive officers.

What Impact does a policy have?

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Intended effects
The intended effects of a policy vary widely according to the organization and the context in
which they are made. Broadly, policies are typically instituted to avoid some negative effect that
has been noticed in the organization, or to seek some positive benefit.
Corporate purchasing policies provide an example of how organizations attempt to avoid
negative effects. Many large companies have policies that all purchases above a certain value
must be performed through a purchasing process. By requiring this standard purchasing process
through policy, the organization can limit waste and standardize the way purchasing is done.
Policy cycle

The policy cycle is a tool used for the analyzing of the development of a policy item. It can also
be referred to as a "stagiest approach". One standardized version includes the following stages:
1. Issue identification
2. Policy analysis
3. Policy instrument development
4. Consultation (which permeates the entire process)
5. Coordination
6. Decision
7. Implementation
8. Evaluation
What are common contents of a policy document?

Policies are typically promulgated through official written documents. Policy documents often
come with the endorsement or signature of the executive powers within an organization to
legitimize the policy and demonstrate that it is considered in force. Such documents often have
standard formats that are particular to the organization issuing the policy. While such formats
differ in form, policy documents usually contain certain standard components including
 A purpose statement, outlining why the organization is issuing the policy, and what its
desired effect or outcome of the policy should be.
 An applicability and scope statement, describing who the policy affects and which actions
are impacted by the policy. The applicability and scope may expressly exclude certain
people, organizations, or actions from the policy requirements. Applicability and scope is
used to focus the policy on only the desired targets, and avoid unintended consequences
where possible.
 An effective date which indicates when the policy comes into force. Retroactive policies are
rare, but can be found.
 A responsibilities section, indicating which parties and organizations are responsible for
carrying out individual policy statements. Many policies may require the establishment of
some ongoing function or action. For example, a purchasing policy might specify that a

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 purchasing office be created to process purchase requests, and that this office would be
responsible for ongoing actions. Responsibilities often include identification of any
relevant oversight and/or governance structures.
 Policy statements indicating the specific regulations, requirements, or modifications to
organizational behavior that the policy is creating. Policy statements are extremely diverse
depending on the organization and intent, and may take almost any form.
Some policies may contain additional sections, including:
 Background, indicating any reasons, history, and intent that led to the creation of the
policy, which may be listed as motivating factors. This information is often quite valuable
when policies must be evaluated or used in ambiguous situations, just as the intent of a law
can be useful to a court when deciding a case that involves that law.
 Definitions, providing clear and unambiguous definitions for terms and concepts found in
the policy document.

Other uses of the term

 In enterprise architecture for systems design, policy appliances are technical control and
logging mechanisms to enforce or reconcile policy (systems use) rules and to ensure
accountability in information systems.
 In insurance, policies are contracts between insurer and insured used to indemnify (protect)
against potential loss from specified perils. While these documents are referred to as
policies, they are in actuality a form of contract - see insurance contract.
 In gambling, policy is a form of an unsanctioned lottery, where players purport to
purchase insurance against a chosen number being picked by a legitimate lottery. Or can
refer to an ordinary Numbers game
 In artificial intelligence planning and reinforcement learning, a policy prescribes a non-
empty deliberation (sequence of actions) given a non-empty sequence of states.
 In debate, the term "policy" is slang for policy or cross-examination debate.

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Basics of Planning

What is planning?

It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who
is going to perform a specific job. Planning is a detailed programme regarding future
courses of action.

It is the basic management function which includes formulation of one or more detailed
plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources.

Planning is a mental predisposition to do things in orderly way, to think before acting

and to act in the light of facts rather than guesses. Planning is deciding best alternative
among others to perform different managerial functions in order to achieve
predetermined goals.
Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do and who is to do it. Planning
bridges the gap between where we are to, where we want to go. It makes possible things
to occur which would not otherwise occur.
It is rightly said “Well planned is half done”. Therefore planning takes into
consideration available & prospective human and physical resources of the organization
so as to get effective co-ordination, contribution & perfect adjustment.

Steps in Planning Function

Planning function of management involves following steps:-

1. Establishment of objectives
a. Planning requires a systematic approach.
b. Planning starts with the setting of goals and objectives to be achieved.
c. Objectives provide a rationale for undertaking various activities as well as
indicate direction of efforts.
d. Moreover objectives focus the attention of managers on the end results to be
achieved.

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 e. As a matter of fact, objectives provide nucleus to the planning process. Therefore,
objectives should be stated in a clear, precise and unambiguous language.
Otherwise the activities undertaken are bound to be ineffective.
f. As far as possible, objectives should be stated in quantitative terms. For example,
Number of men working, wages given, units produced, etc. But such an objective
cannot be stated in quantitative terms like performance of quality control
manager, effectiveness of personnel manager.
g. Such goals should be specified in qualitative terms.
h. Hence objectives should be practical, acceptable, workable and achievable.
2. Establishment of Planning Premises
a. Planning premises are the assumptions about the lively shape of events in future.
b. They serve as a basis of planning.
c. Establishment of planning premises is concerned with determining where one
tends to deviate from the actual plans and causes of such deviations.
d. It is to find out what obstacles are there in the way of business during the course
of operations.
e. Establishment of planning premises is concerned to take such ßstep that avoids
these obstacles to a great extent.
f. Planning premises may be internal or external. Internal includes capital
investment policy, management labour relations, philosophy of management, etc.
Whereas external includes socio- economic, political and economical changes.
g. Internal premises are controllable whereas external are non- controllable.
3. Choice of alternative course of action
a. When forecast are available and premises are established, a number of
alternative course of actions have to be considered.
b. For this purpose, each and every alternative will be evaluated by weighing its
pros and cons in the light of resources available and requirements of the
organization.
c. The merits, demerits as well as the consequences of each alternative must be
examined before the choice is being made.
d. After objective and scientific evaluation, the best alternative is chosen.
e. The planners should take help of various quantitative techniques to judge the
stability of an alternative.
4. Formulation of derivative plans
a. Derivative plans are the sub plans or secondary plans which help in the
achievement of main plan.
b. Secondary plans will flow from the basic plan. These are meant to support and
expedite the achievement of basic plans.
c. These detail plans include policies, procedures, rules, programmes, budgets,
schedules, etc. For example, if profit maximization is the main aim of the

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 enterprise, derivative plans will include sales maximization, production
maximization, and cost minimization.
d. Derivative plans indicate time schedule and sequence of accomplishing various
tasks.
5. Securing Co-operation
a. After the plans have been determined, it is necessary rather advisable to take
subordinates or those who have to implement these plans into confidence.
b. The purposes behind taking them into confidence are :-
a. Subordinates may feel motivated since they are involved in decision
making process.
b. The organization may be able to get valuable suggestions and
improvement in formulation as well as implementation of plans.
c. Also the employees will be more interested in the execution of these plans.
6. Follow up/Appraisal of plans
a. After choosing a particular course of action, it is put into action.
b. After the selected plan is implemented, it is important to appraise its
effectiveness.
c. This is done on the basis of feedback or information received from departments
or persons concerned.
d. This enables the management to correct deviations or modify the plan.
e. This step establishes a link between planning and controlling function.
The follow up must go side by side the implementation of plans so that in the light of
observations made, future plans can be made more realistic.
Characteristics of Planning

 Planning is goal-oriented.
a. Planning is made to achieve desired objective of business.
b. The goals established should general acceptance otherwise individual efforts &
energies will go misguided and misdirected.
c. Planning identifies the action that would lead to desired goals quickly &
economically.
d. It provides sense of direction to various activities. E.g. Maruti Udhyog is trying
to capture once again Indian Car Market by launching diesel models.
 Planning is looking ahead.
a. Planning is done for future.
b. It requires peeping in future, analyzing it and predicting it.
c. Thus planning is based on forecasting.
d. A plan is a synthesis of forecast.
e. It is a mental predisposition for things to happen in future.
 Planning is an intellectual process.

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 a. Planning is a mental exercise involving creative thinking, sound judgment and
imagination.
b. It is not a mere guesswork but a rotational thinking.
c. A manager can prepare sound plans only if he has sound judgment, foresight
and imagination.
d. Planning is always based on goals, facts and considered estimates.
 Planning involves choice & decision making.
a. Planning essentially involves choice among various alternatives.
b. Therefore, if there is only one possible course of action, there is no need
planning because there is no choice.
c. Thus, decision making is an integral part of planning.
d. A manager is surrounded by no. of alternatives. He has to pick the best
depending upon requirements & resources of the enterprises.
 Planning is the primary function of management / Primacy of Planning.
a. Planning lays foundation for other functions of management.
b. It serves as a guide for organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.
c. All the functions of management are performed within the framework of plans
laid out.
d. Therefore planning is the basic or fundamental function of management.
 Planning is a Continuous Process.
a. Planning is a never ending function due to the dynamic business environment.
b. Plans are also prepared for specific period f time and at the end of that period,
plans are subjected to revaluation and review in the light of new requirements
and changing conditions.
c. Planning never comes into end till the enterprise exists issues, problems may
keep cropping up and they have to be tackled by planning effectively.
 Planning is all Pervasive.
a. It is required at all levels of management and in all departments of enterprise.
b. Of course, the scope of planning may differ from one level to another.
c. The top level may be more concerned about planning the organization as a
whole whereas the middle level may be more specific in departmental plans and
the lower level plans implementation of the same.
 Planning is designed for efficiency.
a. Planning leads to accomplishment of objectives at the minimum possible cost.
b. It avoids wastage of resources and ensures adequate and optimum utilization of
resources.
c. A plan is worthless or useless if it does not value the cost incurred on it.
d. Therefore planning must lead to saving of time, effort and money.
e. Planning leads to proper utilization of men, money, materials, methods and
machines.
 Planning is Flexible.
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 a. Planning is done for the future.
b. Since future is unpredictable, planning must provide enough room to cope with
the changes in customer’s demand, competition, govt. policies etc.
c. Under changed circumstances, the original plan of action must be revised and
updated to make it more practical.

Advantages of Planning

 Planning facilitates management by objectives.

a. Planning begins with determination of objectives.
b. It highlights the purposes for which various activities are to be undertaken.
c. In fact, it makes objectives more clear and specific.
d. Planning helps in focusing the attention of employees on the objectives or goals
of enterprise.
e. Without planning an organization has no guide.
f. Planning compels manager to prepare a Blue-print of the courses of action to be
followed for accomplishment of objectives.
g. Therefore, planning brings order and rationality into the organization.
 Planning minimizes uncertainties.
a. Business is full of uncertainties.
b. There are risks of various types due to uncertainties.
c. Planning helps in reducing uncertainties of future as it involves anticipation of
future events.
d. Although future cannot be predicted with cent percent accuracy but planning
helps management to anticipate future and prepare for risks by necessary
provisions to meet unexpected turn of events.
e. Therefore with the help of planning, uncertainties can be forecasted which helps
in preparing standbys as a result, uncertainties are minimized to a great extent.
 Planning facilitates co-ordination.
a. Planning revolves around organizational goals.
b. All activities are directed towards common goals.
c. There is an integrated effort throughout the enterprise in various departments
and groups.
d. It avoids duplication of efforts. In other words, it leads to better co-ordination.
e. It helps in finding out problems of work performance and aims at rectifying the
same.
 Planning improves employee’s moral.
a. Planning creates an atmosphere of order and discipline in organization.
b. Employees know in advance what is expected of them and therefore conformity
can be achieved easily.

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 c. This encourages employees to show their best and also earn reward for the same.
d. Planning creates a healthy attitude towards work environment which helps in
boosting employees moral and efficiency.
 Planning helps in achieving economies.
a. Effective planning secures economy since it leads to orderly allocation of
resources to various operations.
b. It also facilitates optimum utilization of resources which brings economy in
operations.
c. It also avoids wastage of resources by selecting most appropriate use that will
contribute to the objective of enterprise. For example, raw materials can be
purchased in bulk and transportation cost can be minimized. At the same time it
ensures regular supply for the production department, that is, overall efficiency.
 Planning facilitates controlling.
a. Planning facilitates existence of certain planned goals and standard of
performance.
b. It provides basis of controlling.
c. We cannot think of an effective system of controlling without existence of well
thought out plans.
d. Planning provides pre-determined goals against which actual performance is
compared.
e. In fact, planning and controlling are the two sides of a same coin. If planning is
root, controlling is the fruit.
 Planning provides competitive edge.
a. Planning provides competitive edge to the enterprise over the others which do not
have effective planning. This is because of the fact that planning may involve
changing in work methods, quality, quantity designs, extension of work,
redefining of goals, etc.
b. With the help of forecasting not only the enterprise secures its future but at the
same time it is able to estimate the future motives of its competitor which helps in
facing future challenges.
c. Therefore, planning leads to best utilization of possible resources, improves
quality of production and thus the competitive strength of the enterprise is
improved.
 Planning encourages innovations.
a. In the process of planning, managers have the opportunities of suggesting ways
and means of improving performance.
b. Planning is basically a decision making function which involves creative thinking
and imagination that ultimately leads to innovation of methods and operations for
growth and prosperity of the enterprise.

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TOURISM PLANNING

Tourism is one of the most diverse sectors with significant political, economic, social, cultural,
and environmental implications. It is also the leading economic sector and one of the top
employment generators in the contemporary world. Hence, there is a need to plan its varied
activities.

Tourism planning also applies the same basis concepts & approaches of general planning, but
adapted to the particular characteristics of the tourism system.

In order to direct the development of tourism in the country or a destination there has to be a
policy / plan. This is more so necessary in order to maximise the benefits, remove per prevent the
negative impacts of uncontrollable mass tourism & go in for sustainable tourism.

Regulations, controls, standards should be there to maintain the quality of tourism offerings &
satisfying the travel experiences.

Major types of planning practiced today are:

1) Economic development planning

2) Physical land use planning (for town /country or urban planning)
3) Infrastructure planning for transportation facilities & services, water supply, electric
power, sewage & solid waste disposal & telecommunications.
4) Social facility planning (for educational, medical & recreational facilities &
services).
5) Park & conservation planning
6) Comprehensive planning (which integrates economic, physical, infrastructure &
social planning).
7) Corporate planning
Usually all types of planning are done by government agencies except for corporate planning
which is accomplished by Privet sector and corporation, and sometimes the detailed levels of
planning such as for residential sites & tourist resorts. (But these still must be approved by the
government & fit into the overall plan of the area).

Planning now implies the comprehensive & integrated approach, which recognizes that all
development sectors are interrelated with one another, & with natural & social environment of

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area. E.g. the national development plans- which are prepared for many countries are examples
of integrated & comprehensive plans. These are usually formulated for only 5 years periods &
are typically oriented to socio economic objectives.

Planning implies the optional use of scarce resource to achieve optional development at
national or sectional level. Through these level plans government aims to achieve certain
objectives.

a) Physical Objectives:
Relates to priorities in the use of natural resources / infrastructure requirement, land use,
human settlements etc.

b) Social Objectives:
It relates to manpower training, employment, education, leisure, recreation etc. (Benefit of
society).

c) Economic Objectives:
This relates to costs & benefits investment efficiencies, regional development etc. To steer
the economic towards achieving its objectives, government work through national plan,
development programs or overall policies & strategies.

One interest of government policy is the annual budget, which is a feature in any economy. This
involves fiscal measures, investment, incentives, and subsidies and infrastructure development.

It follows therefore, that the development of any economic sector should be in line with
government objectives.

Common types of tourism planning

• Tourism Policy

• Tourism master plan

• Destination Management plan

• Strategic plan /tourism sector development plan

• Operational plan/annual plan

• Site plan /site development program ( project)

• Visitors management plan

• Site conservation plan

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 The linkage of different types of tourism plan

Principles of tourism planning

 Recognition of the private sector and local community involvement in planning

and implementation ,

 Integration of tourism into the overall development policy and strategy of the
country,

 Awareness creation strategy for the locals about

 The importance of tourism

 The value of resources to tourism development

 Consider the principle of sustainable development

 Clustering of attractions

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  Strengthening attraction-services linkages

 Increase access to tourist attractions , services and facilities

Why we need to plan tourism?

There are several reasons, which make tourism planning necessary. The main reasons are
shown as follows:
 To define short & long term objectives, policies & implementation procedures for
developing tourism.
 To co-ordinate and control spontaneous development.
 To improve efficiency of the operation,
 To provide a basis for monitoring and evaluation of performances
 To maximize socio economic benefits and minimize costs. (Of investment &
operation) to the community & to the developers.
 To generate sites necessary for tourism development and are not reserved for other
economic activities.
 To enable the various public services to be organized and made available as they are
required.
 To attract international finance and technical assistance towards tourist development
and environmental conservation.
 To co-ordinate tourism with other economic activities integrative tourism
development in the overall economic and physical development plan of the country.
 To co-ordinate the role of public & private sector
 To properly direct development
 To de-market or market destinations
 To eliminate or reduce uncertainty,
 To determine the types of tourism to be promoted
 To prevent negative impacts
 To regulate & legislate
 To improve the quality of tourism

Tourism planning is:

 Multi-dimensional and complex activity since it deals with almost all human activities.
 Integrative by nature since it embraces social, economic, political, psychological and
technological factors.
 Concerned with past, present and future activities or achievements since it analyses,
evaluates and forecast activities or achievements.

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Challenges of tourism planning

• Cost for the process of planning is high

• The presence of diversified actors, both private and public sectors
• The diversity of tourism business (sector, size),
• The seasonality nature of tourist arrivals
• The high ownership turnover in tourism businesses
• Difficulty of showing benefits of the sector to get support from high level officials

Planning has five basic purposes:

1. Identify alternative approaches to

 Marketing
 Development
 Industry Organizations
 Tourism awareness
 Support services and activities

2. Adapting to the unexpected in

 General economic conditions
 Energy supplies demand situation
 Values & life styles
 Fortune of individual industries
 Other factors in the external environment

3. Maintaining Uniqueness in
 Natural features and resources
 Local cultural and social fabric
 Local architecture
 Historical monuments & landmarks
 Local events & activities
 Parks & outdoor sports areas
 Other features of the destination area

4. Creating the desirable, such as in

 High level of awareness of benefits of tourism
 Clear & positive image of area as a tourism destination
 Effective industry organization
 High level of co-operation among individual operators
 Effective marketing, signage and travel information programs
 Other objectives

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5. Avoiding the undesirable, such as in
 Fraction and unnecessary competition among individual tourism operators
 Hostile and unfriendly attitudes of local residents towards tourist
 Damage or undesirable, permanent alteration of natural features & historical
resources.
 Loss of cultural identities
 Loss of market share
 Stopping of unique local events and activities
 Overcrowding, congestion and traffic problems
 Pollution
 High seasonality
 Other factors

Levels of Tourism Planning

Tourism planning is done at different levels & each focusing on the different degree of
specificity.

1) International Level of Planning:

It is concerned with international transportation services the flow & tour programming of
tourists among different countries. Tourism attraction planning / multi country marketing
strategy & co-operative & promotion programs generally takes place at this level through
Organisation such as W.T.O, (I.C.A.O) International Civil Aviation Organisation, I.A.T.A,
P.A.T.A, (S.C.O.T) Sub Committee of Tourism, (O.E.C.D) Organisation for Economic Co-
operation & Development.

The planning is weak in nature because it depends on the co-operation of individual countries.

2) National Planning:
 Is focused on several elements.
 Tourism policy
 A physical structure plan, including diversification of major tourist regions &
attractions designation of tourism development regions, international access point &
internal transport network etc.
 Other major infrastructure considerations.
 Quality levels of accommodation & other tourist facility & service required & their
general amount.
 Major tour routes & their regional connections.
 Tourism organization structure/ legislation & investment policies.
 Overall tourism marketing strategies & promotion programs.
 Education and training programs.
 Facility development & design standards.

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  Socio cultural, environmental, economic considerations & impact analysis
 Stages of development short term development strategy & project programming.

3) Regional Planning:
It is for the region of a country often a state /province, plans & formulated with in the
framework of the national tourism policy and plan.

It focuses on elements such as:

 Regional policy
 Regional access & internal transportation network of facility & services
 Types & location of tourist attraction.
 Location of tourist development areas including resorts areas
 Amount/ type / location of tourist accommodation & other tourist facilities &
services.
 Regional levels environmental, socio-cultural & economic consideration & impact
analysis.
 Regional level education & training programs.
 Marketing strategies & promotion programmes.
 Organisational structures, legislation, regulation & investment policies &
implementation techniques & programs.

4) Sub regional planning:

In some countries or regions, there is need for sub regional planning, which is more specific
than the regional planning.

 It depends on situation of the sub region.

 Include typically tourist attraction features, general location of accommodation & other
tourist facilities & services.
 Access to sub region/ its transportation network & other infrastructure considerations.

5) Development area land use planning:

To do maximum use of land of tourism development area designated for resorts, tours, its
beautification program.

• Tourism development areas may be resorts, urban centres or other destinations

• It is more detailed and have Land use plan

• It indicates specific areas or sites for

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 • Tourist facilities and services,

• Recreational area,

• Park and conservation areas,

• The transport system like road and walk way

• Other infrastructure of water supply, electric power and the like.

Details of the following issues indicated in this level of planning:

• Prefeasibility and feasibility study,

• Evaluation of environmental and socio-cultural impacts,

• Staging of development/development program,

• Organizational structure and finance,

• Zoning for regulation, and

• Engineering standards for regulating the development of the sector etc.

6) Facility site planning:

It is specific planning for individual building or complex of building, such as hotels,
commercial centre & visitor facilities. The actual location of buildings, recreation facilities,
sheets & walkways, parking, landscaping areas & other land use are considered.

7) Facility design:
Architectural, landscaping & infrastructure design & engineering specifications must be
preferred for resorts, hotels, restaurants, attraction features such as visitor facilities at
national parks, archaeological & historical sites, information & cultural customs. The
design may be based on concept & standard of that have been adopted for general level &
good international planning standards

TOURISM PLANNING PROCESS

The basic tasks of planning are:

 To set goals and objectives

 To analyze the past and the present
 To prepare for the future
 To select the best course of action.

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 The complexity of tourism activity decision-making in general and the interconnectedness of
tourism with other areas of policy and planning have rendered obsolete the traditional
mechanistic, finite plan style. Such a style was usually very ambitious, inflexible, and target-
driven. A companion style rests on the adoption of performance standards, whereby, after
determining the likely amenities/facilities and services needed for a projected future level of
visitors, the performance standards are applied to reveal the necessary level of
accommodation and other services.

A collaborative, integrated process style, combining elements of the corporate management

process used in business and the systems process often adopted by government agencies,
may be used. Such a process usually consists of seven phases:

1) Study preparation
2) Determination of objectives
3) Surveys
4) Analysis and synthesis
5) Formulation of policies and plans
6) Preparation of the final, preferred plan
7) Determination of means of implementation and means of monitoring.
A brief description is given here of these seven principal steps.

1. Study preparation
 Realization of the need for planning and for the systematic preparation of a tourism plan
 Preliminary interpretation of:
 Current tourism circumstances
 Pending tourism development
 Latent tourism opportunities
 Potential problems for and because of tourism
 Decision to undertake systematic assessment
 Preparation of terms of reference. What is term of reference (TOR)?
 Specification of the problem to be addressed
 Specification of preferred end-product (e.g. set of guidelines, comprehensive tourism
plan, or specialist plan).

2. Determination of objectives
(The objectives expressed early in the study process will be provisional, and may be modified as
experience and information is gained)

 Setting Objectives
 Is this where we want to be?

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  Where would we like to be?
 In a Year
 In five years
 In ten years
 In twenty years
 Derived from:
 General government objectives
 Consultation process (mainly involving government and tourism industry)
 Usually referencing such matters as:
 Principal targets to be achieved
 Principal safeguards (especially culture, community and environment) to be
imposed
 Principal opportunities to be seized
 Objectives set in two categories:
 Those which are essential (quantities of visitors, protection of environment, or
limits to carrying capacity)
 Those, which are discretionary.

3. Surveys
 Each study will determine its own spectrum of surveys.
 Surveys will cover such matters as
 Existing tourist profiles
 Assessment of tourism features
 Assessment of complementary features
 Assessment of investment sources and capability (including entrepreneurship and
local leadership)
 Assessment of government structures and organizations, and their involvement in
Activities, which interact with tourism.
4. Analyses and Synthesis

 Market assessment of demand, supply and feasibility of matching demand and supply
 Integrated analysis of environmental, social and economic factors, to reveal
 Tourism opportunities
 Problems to be addressed
 Needs for tourism
 Interpretation of potential environmental, social and economic impact, and the
determination of management strategies to overcome any potentially negative or
detrimental impact

20
  Assessment of the impact of prevailing government policies and organizations and
industry bodies on the achievement of the set objectives - including assessment of the
suitability of existing tourism organizations, legislation and regulations.
 Listing Alternative Strategies
 Where will we go if we continue as before?
 Is that where we want to go?
 How could we get to where we want to go?
 Listing Threats and Opportunities
 What might prevent us from getting there?
 What might help us to get there?
 Preparing Forecasts
 Where are we capable of going?
 What do we need to take us where we want to go?
5. Formulation of policies and plans

 Preparation of a series of integrating policies concerned with

 Economic strategy
 Marketing
 Human resources development
 Environmental conservation (Conservation of cultural and environmental assets)
 Investment
 Organization
Cross-referencing with preliminary objectives -perhaps necessitating review and revision in the
light of further experience

 Preparation of integrated development options (not a single plan, but a number of

alternatives which may be tested against the reformulated objectives).
6. Preparation of final plan

 This may be either of the previously considered options, or a new hybrid with a mix of the
best compatible features from these options;
 Finalization of the plan in respect of:
 Tourism development regions/zones
 Transportation links
 Infrastructure systems
 Tourism attractions
 Labor skills
 Investment levels and sources
 Environmental and cultural conservation
 Organization (including legislation)

 Selecting Strategy Portfolio

21
  What is the best course for us to take?
 What are the potential benefits?
 What are the risks?

 Preparing Action Programs

 What do we need to do?
 When do we need to do it?
 How will we do it?
 Who will do it?
7. Means of implementation and monitoring

 Creation of an agency or agencies with the responsibility to ensure the finalized plan is
implemented and monitored,
 Preparation of a schedule of tasks to be completed within prescribed time frames and period
for review and revision
 Creation of an agency or agencies for on-going supervision to ensure the plan remains
relevant and feasible
 Monitoring and Evaluation
 Are we on course? if not why?
 What do we need to do to be on course?
 Can we do it?
The accurate and precise definition of the terms of reference is crucial, because it will set the
parameters of the study. As the preparation of the plan will contribute to the general economic
strategy of most island countries, it is important that the terms of reference are prepared at a
senior level of government, with cabinet endorsement.

As a matter of principle, preparation of tourism plans must follow a successful formula in which
the framework shall include:

 A general term of reference which links the tourism strategy to the government's general
Economic development strategy
 Specific terms of reference, which include:
 Linkage of new plans with any existing- strategy (to provide continuity)
 Inventory of the country's tourism resources, including existing attractions,
planned facilities, transport services and infrastructure systems
 Analysis of international, regional and domestic tourist markets
 Preparation of a nation-wide tourism plan within which tourism areas or zones
are designated, tourism activity types and levels of development for each area or
zone will be determined, local detailed plans are prepared, and development will
be set in designated time periods
 Preparation of an economic analysis of the present and projected levels of
tourism, especially in terms of GNP, foreign exchange earnings (and possible

22
 leakages), and employment and an indication of how economic benefits may be
optimized estimate of investment requirements and potential sources of
investment
 Preparation of an assessment of socio-cultural impact and the need for local
awareness programs
 Preparation of an environmental impact assessment, especially recommending
measures to mitigate any potentially serious detrimental impact
 Assessment of human resources needs and training programs
 Assessment of the relative participation and contribution of the government
agencies and private sector businesses and agencies in the implementation of the
plan
 Assessment of the traditional land tenure patterns, and recommendations on
means to bring benefits of tourism development to indigenous land owners
 Assessment of the efficiency of the data collection and compilation systems and of
marketing and promotion.
It may be considered appropriate to include the requirement of sets of guidelines or models for
tourism facility design, financing and operation.

One of the early stages of assessment will be of the resources available to conduct the required
study.

The nature of the task, the sources of sponsorship and level of funding, the timescale allowed for
the study, and the availability of the necessary skills influence the composition of the study team.

Study teams could include:

 A chief technical advisor/team leader

 Specialists in:
 Economic and financial analysis
 Environmental analysis
 Social-cultural analysis
 Marketing and promotion
 Human resources development and training
 Transportation and infrastructure planning
 Statistics and forecasting
Some team members may cover more than one area of specialization. In addition, particular
specialists may be co-opted for short periods to cope with such matters as architecture, resort
design, land tenure and land strategy.

The nature of the task is such that, in order for the plan to be produced in a suitable timeframe,
it will be necessary to select a specialist team rather than attempt to complete the task "in
house" -unless, of course, the government has an extensive and suitably qualified staff. This

23
latter case will be rare; it will be more usual for a special team to be established for the
duration of the study so that the work can proceed without distraction and interruption from
routine business.

There are planning manuals, which provide descriptions of complex tourism planning processes,
especially providing systems linkages to/from other policy areas.

Some points to consider in Tourism Planning:

 Sensitive - vulnerable to trends, fashions

 ‘Relatively new’ activity – especially in developing countries
 Complex - multi-sectoral activity
 Economic benefits - should be spread, reciprocal
 Impacts - environmental, social, cultural, economic
 Specific skills required - appropriate training needed
 Special structures and legislation - as the industry grows
 Worldwide phenomenon
 Symbiotic relationship - with conservation and recreation (cross-cutting theme: impacts
and sustainability)
 Tourism planning is pluralistic - has social, economic and physical dimensions
 Tourism planning is political - potential conflict between regulation and specific interest
groups
 Underlines the need for a strategic approach to tourism planning

Consequences of Unplanned Development

Physical Impacts:

1) Damage or permanent alternation of the physical environment

2) Damage or permanent alternation of historical / cultural land marks & resources
3) Over crowding
4) Pollution
5) Traffic problems. (traffic jams, Potholes)
Human Impacts:

1) Less accessibility to services & tourist attraction for local residents resulting in local
resentment
2) Dislike of tourists on part of locals/host community
3) Loss of education of tourism employee in skills & hospitality
4) Lack of awareness of the benefits of tourism to the destination area
Marketing Impacts:

1) Failure to capitalize on new marketing opportunities

2) Erosion of market share due to the action of competitive destination areas

24
 3) Lack of sufficient awareness in prime markets
4) Lack of clear image of destination area in potential markets
5) Lack of co-operative advertising among individual operators
6) Inadequate capitalisation on packaging opportunities.

Organizational Impacts:

1) Fragmented approach to the marketing & development of tourism, often involving

competitive splinter groups
2) Lack of co-operation among individual operator
3) Inadequate representation of tourism industry ‘s interest
4) Lack of support from local public authorities
5) Failure to act upon important issues problems & opportunities of common interest to
the industry.

Other Impacts:

1) Inadequate signage programs

2) Lack of sufficient attraction & events
3) High seasonality & short length of stay
4) Poor or deteriorating quality of facilities & services
5) Poor or inadequate travel information services

If you fail to plan, you are planning to fail!! ????

CHAPTER TWO

25
 Survey of Tourist Markets, Facilities, Infrastructure & Other Elements
This unit examines the types of surveys required & approaches to survey of the area
characteristics, tourist markets, facilities, infrastructure & the Institutional elements, which
provides the basis of input to the plan analysis & formulation.

1. General Survey Of The Area

 Natural environment
 Historical Influence
 Socio-cultural and economic pattern
 Land use, settlement and tenure patterns
 Environment quality
2. Tourist Facility & Services
 General approach
 Accommodation
 Other facilities and services

3. Transportation & Other Infrastructure

Importance of infrastructure
Transportation facilities & service
Other infrastructure

4. Institutional Elements
 Present development policies & plan
 Other institutional elements

5. Tourist Market Survey

 Tourist arrivals & characteristics
 Cruise ship tourist
 Tour operators
 General travel patterns & tourism trends

1. GENERAL SURVEY OF THE AREA:

The general geographic characteristics of the country should be surveyed to provide the
background for overall understanding of the area to help identifying areas suitable for
development of tourist facilities.

Natural Historical Socio cultural Land use, Environment

environment influence & economic settlement & Quality
patterns Tenure

26
 patterns

Climate Geographic Air quality

patterns distribution of
population

Topography Age-sex Water quality

profiles

Vegetation Employment Cleanliness of

public places

Wildlife Cultural Landscaping

patterns

Important Economic Building

ecological profile designs
systems

Natural Signs
resource areas
Environment
diseases

Noise levels

Open space &

parks

I. Natural environment:
1. Climate patterns: It includes rainfall, humidity, extent of sunshine; wind speeds, its intensity
& extent & frequency resulting in loss of life and property should be recorded. Climatic
characteristics can be plotted in maps.
2. Topography: means surface feature of the land. For e.g.: flat land, slopes, hilly & lakes,
rivers & wetlands. For national and regional planning levels, detailed mapping is not
required but topographic characteristics can be generalised into slope of land – steeps &
low, flood prone areas, major water features etc.
3. Vegetation: can be generalized into categories such as grassland, barren land, large tree,
forest covers etc.
4. Wildlife: is indicated by type, extent, & general location of habitat range (residential/living
area) of wildlife.
5. Coastal & marine: characteristics include type of coast line with the location of beaches,
islands, tidal ranges – high/low, underwater sea life of coral formation, fishes etc, should be
critically evaluated for any hazards present.

27
6. Important ecological systems: usually comprising a combination of climate, topography,
vegetation and wildlife and ecosystem of both land and water areas. Their conservation
values should be evaluated.
7. Natural resources of the area: include lands highly suitable for agricultural and mineral
resources areas, which perhaps should be preserved for those uses.

II. Historical influence:

Knowledge of history of an area is important in tourism planning because many aspects of
history are visually expressed as tourist attractions such as archaeological and historical sites and
places of historical events and have influences life styles and arts/handicrafts, present day social
values, socio cultural considerations. This should provide background needed for understanding
elements of tourism planning.

III. Socio cultural & economics patterns:

1. Number and geographic distribution of population: can be shown in tabular form for the
past and present population figures. Population distributions / migration patterns /
employment patterns should be researched.
2. Age – sex profiles: of the population and their geographic distribution can be indicated by
general age categories as related to numbers of employable age people available.
3. Education levels: play important role in manpower planning. Indication of literacy level for
primary, secondary schools & university & technical college may be relevant in planning.
4. Cultural patterns: It indicates values, customs, life styles and attitudes, religious values;
urban/tribal/ rural residents should be identified for consideration in the social impact
planning of tourism.
5. Economic profile: of the country should be researched including the major components of
the economy. G.N.P. – gross national product, income level and distribution, types of export
and import and balance of payments. Economically depressed areas should be identified for
planning.
GDP = Annual value of goods sold and services paid for inside a country.
GNP = Annual value of goods sold and services paid for inside a country
including income from another country.

IV. Land use, settlement and tenure patterns:

At the national and regional planning levels, the general land uses such as agriculture by
type industry, designated parks, recreation of conservation areas, settlement patterns of
rural, village, town and city, with transportation network, seaports, airport should be
mapped. Because, types of land ownership or rights may also be an important consideration
in determining the availability of land for tourism development.

V. Environment quality: for tourism development area should be survey and evaluated.

1. Air quality: Extent of air cleanliness or pollution and the type of pollution.

28
 2. Quality of water: appearance, cleanliness, and extent and type of any pollution of rivers,
lakes, and coastal waters.

3. Noise levels: extent of quietness or excessive noise levels, particularly in hotels

residential, park and recreation area.

4. Cleanliness of public places: walkways, streets, public grounds, recreation areas etc.

5. Landscaping extent, type and maintenance of landscaping, along streets, around

buildings and in parks and recreation areas.

6. Signs: type, size, location and general appearance of advertising, direction Signs.

7. Open space and parks: extent that urban areas have adequate open space and parks are
well maintained also.

2. TOURIST FACILITY AND SERVICES:

GENERAL ACCOMMODATION OTHER FACILITIES &

APPROACH SERVICES

I. General approach:

It is a combination of existing reports, documents, maps and other sources, holding meeting with
government officials, private sector spokesmen, other people from Institutes & Universities & field
inspections.

As a part of survey and evaluation stage of planning process, any existing tourist facilities and
services should be surveyed and evaluated with respect to their extent and suitability for present
and future tourism development. This survey should include personal interviews of hotels, tour and
travel agency, restaurant and other tourist enterprise managers to obtain the trades views on how
tourism could be improved and how tourists can get "reasonable value of money".

II. Accommodation: All types of accommodation – hotels, motels, holiday villages,

guesthouses, residential (self-catering) units, youth hostels, camping and caravan sites etc
should be surveyed and evaluated. The survey will include location, type and number of
establishments, and number of rooms and seasonal and average annual occupancy rates by
types of accommodation. The evaluation must include both physical plants, kind of facilities,
services and quality levels.
III. Other facilities and services:
 Tour and travel operations

29
  Eating and drinking establishments
 Tourism information
 Shopping and personal services
 Money exchange and banking
 Medical facility and services
 Public safety
 Postal services
 Entry and exit facilities
A. Tour and travel operations:
All activities related with tours and travel operations, their quality level should be included
in the survey and evaluation. E.g.: ticketing, hotel room reservations, outbound and inbound
tour operators, car rental, tour guide services, reliability of tour cars and buses, tour
itinerary should be carefully examined. Specialised types of tours such as hunting,
photographic safaris, hiking and trekking, mountain climbing, river rafting, and boating etc
should also be reviewed.

B. Eating and drinking establishments:

Restaurants, bars, hotels and other eating establishments for tourist must be evaluated with
respect to type and variety of cuisine offered, quality level of food, drink and services,
hygiene comfort level and stability of location and price.

C. Tourism information Centers: should be surveyed and evaluated with respect to – location,
access, capability of personnel (linguistic skills), type and suitability of printed material
available.
D. Shopping and personal services:
General shopping for convenience item e.g.: film, newspaper, magazines, toiletries,
handicraft and souvenirs, fashion clothes and jewellery.

Personal services such as barber, beauty shops, massage services are included in this
survey.
Evaluation should be made of types of services and goods available, their location and
convenience of access and pricing levels.

E. Money exchange and banking:

It is evaluated with respect to convenience of location and type and quality of services
offered, including at the airports or other arrival points of tourists.

F. Medical facilities and services:

It is all about Survey for availability of doctors, clinics, and hospitals, drugs, medical evacuation
services.

G. Public safety:
Survey should be made of availability and effectiveness of local police force, fire protection,
public safety related to political stability – tourism.

30
H. Postal service:
It should be evaluated with respect to both their convenient availability (location of post
office and other postal services) and reliability in terms of delivery time.

I. Entry and Exit facilitation:

Customs, immigrations should be evaluated with respect to physical facilities, convenience
of procedure and honesty, friendliness and efficiency of the personnel involved.

3. TRANSPORTATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE:

I. Importance of infrastructure: Adequate infrastructure is essential for proper development

of tourism and to satisfy future projected tourism development.
II. Transportation facilities and services:
a) Access to country or regions:
Proper transportation access to the country or region is essential. This access is typically an
international airport or regional airport but often also includes seaports, roads and
railways. All types of access to country should be survey and analysed with respect to
physical facilities, frequency of service from the major tourist market countries, pax capacity
and safety levels must be evaluated.

b) Internal transportation systems:

Such as airport, air services, roads, bus services, railways, water transportation and hiking
and trekking trails must be surveyed and evaluated and mapped and should be related to
mapping of tourism development areas and tourist attractions.

III.Other infrastructure:
Survey and evaluation of other infrastructure include

 Water supply for tourist attractions

 Electric power
 Sewage disposal
 Solid waste disposal
 Drainage
 Telecommunication
 Employee housing and community services viz.- schools, library, medical clinic, post offices,
retail shops etc. should be surveyed.

4. INSTITUTIONAL ELEMENTS:
The institutional elements to be surveyed and evaluated in the planning process include
development policies, plans, government and tourism organisational structures, investment
policies and availability of capital; tourism related legislation and regulations and training
institutions. These are researched and evaluated generally at this point for subsequent input into
the planning analysis, formulation and recommendations.

31
I. Present development policies and plan: Most countries have some form of adopted
development policies and plans. These may be long term or medium term, commonly for
five years period, and some time include a tourism sector component. These should be
carefully reviewed to determine any present overall policies, which may influence the
formulation of tourism policy.

II. Other institutional elements:

a) Government and tourism organisational structures: should be understood on the basis of
determining, the most suitable organisational role of tourism. E.g.: structure and
organisation of tourism department, advisory board, hotel organisations etc. Their
effectiveness should be assessed.

b) Investment policies and availability of capital: The present government policies for
investment in development project including tourism projects should be researched.

c) Tourism legislation and regulations: related to hotel, travel agency, tour guide services etc.
should be reviewed as a basis of formulating recommendations for tourism including any
modification to the present ones.

d) Tourism training institutions and programs: should be surveyed as input to the manpower-
planning component of the planning study.

4. TOURIST MARKET SURVEY:

If some tourism exists in the country or region, the survey of past and present tourist arrivals
provides important input to the market analysis and offer general framework for the market
analysis and planning.

Survey of both International and Domestic tourism should be made.

I. Tourist arrivals and characteristics: The past and present annual number of tourist
arrivals should be determined as an indicator of general growth of tourism, seasonal
fluctuations of arrivals.
The attitude and characteristics of tourist arrivals should be as certained with respect to:

a) Place of origin: means the nationality and country of residence for international tourist.

b) Purpose of visit: It includes categories of holidays business, study, official

mission/diplomatic and visiting friends and relatives. This characteristic is important for
marketing and facility planning inputs.

32
c) Length of stay: It is based on number of nights spent in the area, is an important factor
related to extent of facility use and total expenditures of tourists.

d) Age & Sex / number of family member travelling: These are important characteristics to
know in determining the tourist profile for marketing and tourist facility planning. Age can
be grouped into general categories.

e) Types of employment and income levels: Such as Managerial, Professional, Skilled worker,
Housewife, Student, Retired. Income level can also be based on broad categories.

f) Number of time visited: Whether this is a first or successive visit. This indicates a sustained
interest in the destination.

g) Independent or Grouped travel: Whether the tourist is travelling independently or is with a

group tour.

h) Expenditure pattern: The total amount spent by each tourist and the distribution of spending
based on categories of accommodation, food and drink, shopping, local transport and tour.
This information is essential to know the economic impact of tourism.

i) Visitors attitude and satisfaction level: about the country or region generally, and its tourist
facilities, services and attraction provide valuable information for improving tourism.

 The basic information for international tourists can be obtained from

the????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

II. Cruise ship tourist:

Cruise ship tourism, even though it does not typically involve overnight use of
accommodation, can be important in terms of expenditures that tourists make on share
for tours, shopping, meals and sometimes entertainment. Cruise ship visitors are
technically not tourists but are excursionists because their stay is less than 24 hrs in the
country.

Basic information on the passengers can be obtained from the cruise ship operators. And

special surveys of market can be conducted to determine expenditure patterns and

attitudes.

33
III. Tour Operators:
Interviews of tour operators in the existing and potential market origin countries can tell
us about problems that they may have had in arranging the tours, pricing and destination
attractions. Mail questionnaires or telephone interviews can also be used.

IV. General travels patterns and tourism trends:

General travels patterns and tourism trends can be obtained from WTO, regional
tourism associations such as PATA for some parts of the world.

For National Tourism Planning the general travel patterns to be the other countries in the
region and global travel patterns and tourism trends should be reviewed, viz.: emerging New
markets/Types of attraction improved means of Transportation/long distance tourist
markets/popular tourist destinations.

Questions:

1. Write detail note on general survey of area.

2. What do you mean by tourist market survey? Explain

CHAPTER THREE
Survey and Evaluation of Tourist Attraction
Definition and importance of tourist attractions
Definition:

34
Attractions of a particular area are the features and related activities of that area
which draws the tourist to visit the area.

Attraction is a thing which acts as push & pull factor

 Draws visitor
 Satisfies recreational needs
 Infrastructure & development of region
 Economical status
 Memories of hospitality/services/ attitude/behaviors’

Attractions can be divided into two types one is manmade attractions

(Architectural, Archaeological and Historical monuments) and natural attractions
(climate, scenic views etc)

 Under developed attractions are only potential resources & do not become
attractions unless some type of development, especially access takes place so
that the attraction can be used in some way.
 Attractions relate closely to the travel motivations because the tourist must
want to visit and experience the attractions.
 The success of particular attractions may change through time as travel
motivation and fashion changes.

Importance: attractions are the basis of tourism & without attraction tourism cannot
exist.

 Some attractions are developed in parts for reason of preserving natural

heritage or the scientific purposes and not only for economic reasons of
attracting tourist.
 Some time a particular feature such as restaurant or may both be an
attractions and service facility.
 It is essential to survey & critically enhance the attractions & its potential
tourism market before undertaking any construction of tourist facility.
 Tourism can be more successful in an area if more than one type of
attraction exists or can be developed.

Types of tourist attractions:

 Natural environment: attractions related to natural environment viz.

a) Climate
 Generally tourist from the colder climate especially cold winter seeks
warm/sunny, relatively dry climates.
 People from hot/humid may seek cooler climate.
 In many countries, seasonality of climate determines seasonality of tourist.
 Some tourist seeks different climate for health reasons.

b) Landscape beauty, unusual character & unique feature.

35
 Natural landscape beauty and characters such as mountains, valley, rivers, lakes
& deserts etc related to activities such as sightseeing, trekking, camping, rafting,
boating, and photography.
 Interesting landscape agricultural landscapes such as terraced rice fields flower
beds related to site seeing and photography.
 Development for attractions requires access/ scenic roads & viewpoints,
trekking trails, camping grounds with service facilities located in selected
places. Environmental considerations & preservation of outstanding features
are essential.

c) Beaches and shoreline: Many of the world's famous resorts are located in
beaches. E.g.: Miami Beach (USA), world's no.1 beach. Kovalum beach (India)
world's no.2 beautiful beach.
Beach tourism is the activities such as sun bathing, swimming, surfing, corals,
beach walking, and shell collection.

d) Marine environment: includes oceans, lakes, rivers, under water coral and fish
& activities related to it are swimming, surfing, water skiing, all types of boating,
fishing, scuba diving, coral viewing.
Tropical waters are especially important attractions for variety of coral colony's and
fishes.

Development requires conservation for maintaining quality of marine environment,

access, facilities, equipment, and infrastructure.

e) Floras & faunas: Interesting Representative and sometimes unusual

vegetation and animal life including birds.
 Unique and endangered species to be preserved for scientific purposes.
 Special feature types of development are zoos, including safari zoo & botanical
gardens.
Related to activities such as animal & bird watching, sightseeing & photography.

Development includes access, viewing areas, watching towers, trails,

security facility in selected areas, conservation & protection is essential.
f) Parks & Reserves (officially protected): Conservation (preservation &
protection) of important natural environment is essential for both scientific &
tourism reasons.
 Common approach for conservation is establishment of parks and reserves with
careful management & controlled use of the areas & its resources.

 Manmade: attractions related to culture, entertainment & special manmade

features.

1. Cultural patterns & life style:

a) Especially interesting to many tourists as an experience of cultural tourism

b) Includes – traditional cultural patterns, lifestyle & customs.

c) Include modern life style, which is different than that of the tourist.

36
d) Development includes different types of tours with guide, model villages,
demonstration & home visit program, visiting professional counterparts, cultural
festivals & special features such as industrial archaeology. *
 Archaeology is studies of the society's and people of the part, by examine the
remains of their buildings/ tools/& other art facts.

2. Archaeological & historic sites & monuments:

a) All types of archaeological or pre historic sites including marine archaeology &
special features such as industrial archaeology.
b) All types of historic buildings, structures & areas including buildings of
representative traditional & historic architecture & building techniques.
c) Sites of important historical events such as battle fields
d) Monuments to important historical events or people.
e) Unusual & striking manmade structures such as large dams & bridges.
f) Development includes preservation/ conservation/ reconstruction of feature
access & parking appropriate environmental settings, service facilities &
interpretation.

The art:

 Includes visual art of paintings, carving etc and performing arts of dance,
drama & music
 May be related to either traditional or modern cultures.
 Development includes museums, art galleries, theaters, and regular
performances of dance, special festivals & interoperation. Sales of arts &
handicrafts are important sources of tourist revenue and appropriate retail
outlets are needed.

3. Museums: e.g.: National Museum, Addis Ababa. These are special features,
which exhibits and explain aspects of history, culture, arts & handicrafts
technology, natural historical and other special areas of interest.
 Development required good facilities access & suitable interpretation.
 Trends now towards museums, which offer educational, program
demonstration & assuming more active role in scientific & cultural
development.

4. Sports activities & events:

a) Many sports events are of local tourists interest and some of national &
international interest
b) Includes both speculation & participatory sports.
c) Participatory sports such as snow & water skiing, tennis, golf, skiing & scuba
diving are becoming increasingly popular although popularity of some specific
sports changes as current fashion.
d) Development requires access suitable environment appropriate sports facilities
& equipment & special skills and good organisation.
5. Entertainment:
 Includes dance/drama/films & music performance related to either traditional
or modern culture.
 Night life, especially night clubs & discos with dancing & music

37
  Gambling like casinos
 Development require facilities such as theaters cinemas, stage performance,
cultural shows, casinos with adequate access & parking facilities
 Special entertainment include amusement and recreation parks such as
Disneyland
6. Shopping:
a) Usually secondary attractions but in some areas may be primary attractions
e.g.: Dubai Shoppers paradise (Important part of itineraries)
b) Important means of tourist area to make money from tourism
c) It includes shopping for locally made clothing, arts & handicrafts, furniture &
locally processed items such as gems & stones
d) Duty free items such as cameras & electronic equipment
e) Antiques
f) High fashioned items designed & produced in area
g) Concentrated in certain areas with control & quality & prices of goods for locally
made arts & handicrafts, efficient marketing often needs to be emphasized

7. Dinning & Cuisine:

 Most people/tourist requires good quality but not necessarily high priced
food. Many and some tourists like to try local food at least once & some
tourists consider good quality food as a major attraction. High quality
restaurants can become important attractions in some areas.
 For foreign tourists need to have a variety of cuisine available in Ethiopia &
other countries
 Development includes both hotel & independent restaurants of various price
ranges available in accessible locales in attractive buildings with a clean &
sanitary kitchen and environment.
 Local (Addis)
 State (ONRS)
Attractions on the basis  National (Ethiopia)
of Location  International (Africa)
 Sites – manmade/natural
 Events/exhibitions/fairs/fashion
Attractions on the basis shows/Olympics(Sydney)
of Permanency
 Private
Attractions on the basis  Public
of Ownership
Attractions on the basis  Accessible (Ethiopia-Europe)
of Time factor / Access  Faraway (Ethiopia-USA)

Types of attractions on the Basis of drawing power:

Common attractions

Tourism attractions
Natural Manmade

38
  Cultural:
 Ways of life
 Climate :  Traditions
 Sunshine  Folk lore/songs
 Clouds  Arts/Crafts
 Temperature (hot/cold)  Museums
 Rain  Historical:
 Snow  Historical remains
 Archaeological remains
 Ancient towns
 Village & Civilisation (Indus valley
civilisation)
 Scenic:
 Zoo
 Beach resorts
 Mountain resorts
 Institutions
 Religion / Ethnic
 Scenic
a) Landform
 Mountains(Simians)
 Canyons(Simians)  Other attractions :
 Corals (Mauritius)  Transport ( airtaxis)
 Cliffs (Ras Dashen)  Hotels
b) Water forms
 Health resorts
 Rivers (Blue Nile)
 Lake (Phewa)
 Waterfall (Niagara falls, USA)  Entertainment:
 Geysers/hot springs  Participation & viewing sports
c) Vegetation form (adventure sports)
 Forest (Terrain- NP.)  Amusement parks
 Grasslands  Recreational parks
 Deserts (Sahara)  Theme parks
d) Space forms  Oceanarium
 Attractions in an island (Sri Lanka)  Cuisine
 Beach (Miami)  Planetarium
 Landlocked (Ethiopia, Austria)  Cinema Theatre
 Nightlife, Casino

Amusement park and theme park:

Amusement parks and theme parks are terms for a group of entertainment
attractions, rides, and other events in a location for the enjoyment of large numbers
of people. An amusement park is more elaborate than a simple city park or
playground, u. Theme parks, a specific type of amusement park, are usually much

39
more intricately themed to a certain subject or group of subjects than normal
amusement parks.

In common language, the terms "theme park" and "amusement park" are often
synonymous. However, a "theme park" can be regarded as a distinct style of
amusement park. A theme park has landscaping, buildings, and attractions that are
based on one or more specific themes or stories.

Oceanarium: An oceanarium can be either a marine mammal park, such as Marine

land of Florida, or a large-scale aquarium, such as the Lisbon Oceanarium,
presenting an ocean habitat with marine animals, especially large ocean dwellers
such as sharks.
Marineland of Florida, one of the first theme parks in Florida, USA, started in 1938,
claims to be "the world's first oceanarium", while Ocean Park in Hong claims to be
"the world's largest oceanarium".

Planetarium:

A planetarium (plural planetariums or planetaria) is a theatre built primarily for

presenting educational and entertaining shows about astronomy and the night sky,
or for training in celestial navigation. A dominant feature of most planetariums is
the large dome-shaped projection screen onto which scenes of stars, planets and
other celestial objects can be made to appear and move realistically to simulate the
complex 'motions of the heavens'.

3.2 SURVEY & EVALUATION TECHNIQUES

The existing & potential attractions of an area should be systematically &

objectively (defined), identified & evaluated as a part of the survey &
analysis stage of the planning process.

However, actual selections of attractions for development will be done

during the plan formulation stage. E.g.:

Study preparation

Determining objectives

Identification of
potential attraction of
an area
40
 Survey

Analysis

Actual selection of
Plan formulation attraction

Recommendation

Implementation

Monitoring

Identification & description of attractions:

 1st step in tourist attraction survey is document research & interviews of

government officials & other local resource person to determine - location of
attractions available
 then a list of category of attractions / its characteristics & evaluation criteria are
prepared ( this may be modified of redefined as the survey progresses)
 Next, field survey is under taken to visit the attractions & in separate page or
index card – name, type, location, accessibility, photograph, & a brief summary
of features of attractions written
 If the feature is likely to be the focus of development, then the description
should be specific indicating all relevant characteristics, e.g. for beach areas:
the length & width of sand area, type of sand, angle of slope, extent of tidal
action, types of beach vegetation, depth of water, type of bottom material,
clarity of water, water current & under tows (and any danger presented to
swimmers), wave conditions, suitability for beach sports (such as surfing, diving,
swimming), quality of corals & sea life, direction & extent of wind, any history of
erosion or deposition on the beach.
 Next the place – specific attraction is plotted on the map of the overall planning
area. So that they can later be analyzed with respect to the transportation
system & tourism development area.
 Then the evaluation of attraction should be made relation to their respective
importance at the regional/national/international levels. The evaluation must
take into account.
 The potential tourist market for the attraction features
 Accessibility to the attraction
 Socio-cultural & environmental considerations in developing them

41
 The attraction can be usually best be described or evaluated by using a numerical
evaluation matrix technique.

 If after evaluation, it is determined that the natural & cultural attractions are not
sufficient enough to attract tourist then consideration can be given to develop
special types of attractions like – casinos, theme parks, duty free shopping or
specialised recreation facility.

Matrix evaluation chart of tourist attraction

* The matrix evaluation technique is commonly used in planning analysis to apply a
systematic & objective approach to evaluation & decision – making.

Attractio Tota Comme

Evaluation factor l
n nts
features Access Econo Environ Socio- National/ Intern valu
ibility mic mental cultur regional ational e
feasibi impact al importan import
lity of of impact ce ance
develo develo of
pment pment develo
pment

Natural
feature

National
park A

National
park B

Trekking
area

Beach area

Botanical
garden

Cultural
feature

42
Archaeolo
gical site A

Archaeolo
gical site B

Historic
site A

Historic
site B

Traditional
dance

Traditional
music

Traditional
village A

Traditional
village B

Special
features

Casinos

Theme
park A

Theme
park B

Duty free
shopping

Questions:

43
1. Define tourist attraction and write down the importance?
2. What are the different types of tourist attraction?
3. Write short note on matrix evaluation technique of tourist attraction.

CHAPTER FOUR

Tourism Planning Synthesis and Analysis

The terms analysis and synthesis come from (classical) Greek and mean literally "to loosen up"
and "to put together" respectively. These terms are used within most modern scientific
disciplines -- from mathematics and logic to economy and psychology – to denote similar
investigative procedures. In general, analysis is defined as the procedure by which we break
down an intellectual or substantial whole into parts or components. Synthesis is defined as the
opposite procedure: to combine separate elements or components in order to form a coherent
whole.

Careless interpretation of these definitions has sometimes led to quite misleading statements --
for instance, that synthesis is "good" because it creates wholes, whereas analysis is "bad"
because it reduces wholes to alienated parts. According to this view, the analytic method is
regarded as belonging to an outdated, reductionist tradition in science, while synthesis is seen
as leading the "new way" to a holistic perspective.

Quite aside from the fact that it is the synthetic method which, historically, is associated with a
reductionist approach to scientific inquiry, such interpretations arise from a fundamental
misunderstanding of the relationship between these two methods.

Analysis and synthesis, as scientific methods, always go hand in hand; they complement one
another. Every synthesis is built upon the results of a preceding analysis, and every analysis

44
requires a subsequent synthesis in order to verify and correct its results. In this context to regard
one method as being inherently better than the other is meaningless.
REPRINT
There are, however, important situations in which one method can be regarded as more suitable
than the other. This concerns the question of which method is most appropriate as the primary
method or chief point of departure for the study of a given system or object of scientific inquiry.

In tourism planning process, the analysis phase is a major activity which analysis the
capabilities, but the quality & extent of analysis are very much dependent on the availability of
good survey data.

1. General analysis approach

 Elements of the analysis:
a) Market analysis & tourist projection: They provide the basis for accommodation projection
& other infrastructure requirement. These factors then feed into integrated analysis & plan
formulation.

b) Integrated analysis of physical (natural & manmade, social & economic factors include
tourist attractions and activities): From these analyses we can assess major opportunities &
constraints for tourism development. This integrated analysis is then feed into the plan
formulation stage.

c) Analysis of the institutional elements. E.g.: man power planning / training & education.

1. Market analysis:

a) Analysis impacts to planning: The market analysis is first prepared in a preliminary fashion,
& then based on the integrated analysis and especially analysis of carrying capacity; the
market analysis & projection may be modified.

The market analysis defines the type and extent of tourist markets, length of stay & other
characteristics of tourist by time period.
It also provides basis for formulating the marketing strategy and promotion program.

b) Projection techniques:
I. time series or straight line projection (historical growth pattern of planning area)
II. Experience of other matured destinations
III. Global & regional travel patterns, general tourism trends,
IV. capacity analysis,
V. Market segmentation.

45
 Market segmentation analysis is typically based on the four factors of:

 Socio-economic or demographic segmentation: which categorizes tourists based on their

socio-economic characteristics such as age & income level.
 Product – led segmentation: which relates the types of tourist to the particular tourist
product (attractions facilities etc) that the study area has to offer?
 Psychographic segmentation: which involves grouping tourists by their
attitudes/interests/life styles/ & travel motivations.
 Geographic segmentation: which, groups tourist by location of origin as related to the time
distance and cost of travelling to the tourist destinations, & also considers the environmental
& cultural contrasts and similarities between the origin & destination?

The market analysis provides the basis for making the projection of tourist arrival by
Number/Characteristics/types of Travel interests and length of stay. Market projections depend
on partially predictable international economic conditions & their impact on travel.

For long-term changes in market trends, planning should allow for future adjustments through
staging of development. At national level for e.g.: new destination development can be delayed,
if there is no increase in sufficient market demand.

Determining tourism facility & infrastructural needs:

On the basis of market analysis of targeted number & type of tourist arrival & their estimated
length of stay / Types of accommodation & other tourist facilities & Infrastructure needed in the
future can be calculated.

 Accommodation projection: The formula used for accommodation projection is set forth
below. This example is for only one type of tourist market & accommodation. It can of
course be applied to each of the types involved.

Formula for "Demand for Beds":

No. Of tourist (per time period) Average length of stay (in nights)

No. Of nights (per time period) Accommodation occupancy factor

For e.g.: Annual need

100,000 tourist / year * 7 nights = 700,000 = 2,555 Beds

365 nights / year * 75%occupancy factor 274

High season need

60,000 tourist / four month* 7 nights = 420,000 = 3,684 Beds

46
 120*95% 114

Demand for Rooms: No. Of beds demand

Average room occupancy (persons per room)

E.g. Annual need = 2,555 beds = 1,503 rooms

1.7

High season need = 3,684 beds = 2,167 rooms

1.7

As shown in the example, the seasonality factor must be taken into account and the
beds/room demand calculated for the high season months. It may be considered
uneconomic to develop a sufficient number of rooms for peak period which results in a
low year round occupancy factor & the demand will be calculated to achieve an
acceptable annual average occupancy rate realizing that tourist demand can't be totally
met during the high season.

In the example given, an extreme case of seasonality, provision of a sufficient no. Of

rooms to meet peak season demand and would result in an average annual occupancy of
about 52% which would likely not be financially acceptable to most hotel investors on a
long-term basis.

 Although it is impossible to eliminate seasonal factor but for very high peak period such as
when special event being held, an approach for providing paying guest accommodation can
be encouraged.
 Although both beds & rooms are used as a unit measure around the world, but
accommodation room seems to be preferable type of unit to use because the number of beds
can increase & decrease but no. of rooms are fixed
 Expectation to this is dormitory type facilities such as youth hostel. Where no. of beds is used
as measurement unit.
 Other tourist facility and service requirement:
The projection of tourist facilities and services needed such as tour and travel agencies,
restaurants, medical facility and services, is not as straightforward to calculate an
accommodation. However, depends on the type of tourism being developed & existing level
of development of the facilities and services. E.g.: sight-seeing tourism will require more
tour handling facilities & services than resort tourism.

 If only a modest level of tourism development is being planned & the existing community
facilities and services are well developed, then only limited additional developments of them
will be required without undue stress.

47
 If these facilities & services are not well developed & major growth of tourism is projected,
then the national & regional plan must account for their future development. (e.g.: resorts to
cater tourist needs, skilled manpower for tourism etc)
 Projection of tourist flow must be flexible to cope up with exchanging circumstances.
 Transportation requirements:
Transportation aspects access to origin/destination markets

Internal transportation network for access to tourism

development area
Market analysis &
Projection of tourist
Demand
Further tourist traffic transportation demand can be based on Length of stay
Seasonal
distribution
Likely tourist

Travel movement within

activities
study area
With respect to access to the country or region, the market analysis will have indicated the
present & expected future volume of tourist flow from various origin countries. The no. of
tourist coming on multi-destination tours and therefore perhaps from a different point of
origin than their countries of origin will also need to be considered.

If there is only one type & point of access –airport- then the planner should consider the
frequency and capacity of flight of convenience of arrival & departure.
Seasonality problem must be determined the demand during the peak season – often
additional schedule flights must be added during the peak period or charter flight to
supplement the schedule ones.
If more than two access points are there Air/Rail, the market analysis of origin and type of
tourist will provide the basis for determining tourist flow & Seasonality.

The analysis is same as for single access pax capacity / frequency of services and seasonal
variations are projected.

For land travel, capacity of buses can be calculated & projected the tourist flow by
automobile translated into road capacity needs.

Analysis of Internal Transportation looks into

Pax carrying capacity
Networks of roads/ rail &
regional airports

The network is reviewed In respect to connection of tourist access to attraction

Facilities of attractions like accommodation etc.
48
The transportation planner will project the tourist movement through the country in consultation
with planner. Then relate it to network /its present capacity for future improvement.
The analysis needs to include any improvement require din safety standards, reliability, comfort
levels, efficiency, convenience, capability, quality of customer relation of personal involved to
meet tourist needs and expectations.

 Other infrastructure consideration: It includes – water supply, sewage & solid waste
disposal, electric power, drainage & telecommunication.
 It is important to set standards for infrastructure & engineering design for future
development of infrastructure.
 Water supply is most critical elements in terms of availability & depends on type of
development & environment. For resort development, the no. of rooms will indicate the
water demand.
 For other infrastructure – demand analysis is prepared – i.e. to investigate capacity of
existing system & to what extent & to what cost the capacity will need to be increased.

The analysis should consider:

1. Initial installation & operational cost of system
2. Possibilities of conservation of infrastructure e.g.: alternative energy
solar/wind/geothermal, Recycling of sewage effluent to produce water for golf course
irrigation, use of fiber optics for telecommunication, reuse of solid waste material by
recycling etc.

2. Integrated analysis of physical, social & economic factors:

Analysis of physical/social/& economical factors is done with references to their relationship to

tourism.
 Analysis approach:
 Physical factors: It includes characteristics of natural environment such as
- climate
- resource area & ecological system
- land use & settlement feature & patterns
- existing & planned transportation facilities
- other infrastructure & accommodation

These are shown on map often together to see their interrelation. E.g.: planned road will provide
access to attraction & will tell us if there is any conflict between important tourism development
site with agricultural/industry area/mineral resource etc.

49
 Environmental factor analysis indicates climate & topography (steep slopes or low-lying
marshy areas), feature of area and carrying capacities.
Land tenure analysis will identify problem of tenure/, which may arise in making site
available for development.

Economic analysis: will tell us

Ω type & distribution of economic activities
Ω Types/level of location of employment
Ω Identify areas for tourism development that are economically weak/depressed when other
economic activities are not possible.

Socio-cultural patterns: are analysed with respect to population distribution, age-sex

distribution, education levels & population projection of area along with economic pattern
analysis – It will indicate when & the type of future labour supply will likely be available or
deficient.
It will also identify any particular pattern or attitudes of residents’ hostels/friendly for tourism
development, threat to culture etc.
The existing social/physical/economic plans need to be analysed with respect to adopted
development policies as they may influence tourism planning.
The conflicting aspects of policies like new roads, urban expansion & industrial areas should be
identified & mapped.
 Identification of opportunities & constraints: should be prime importance in policies & plan
formulation for doing a balanced development & meeting social/environmental & economic
objectives.
Major opportunities: It includes development of outstanding & unique type of tourist attraction.
- Present/existing tourism development should be retained.
- Potential tourist market segment should be promoted as a marketing advantage
- A well developed infrastructure can be used for tourism
- Highly motivated service oriented labour supply can be tapped.

Major constraints to be overcome may for example includes

- different access to area
- cumbersome/troublesome VISA & travel facilitation procedure
- negative environmental impacts
- negative social impacts
- poor market image of area, require special marketing plan
- limited number of existing tourism attraction

50
- poor quality of accommodation & infrastructure

3. Establishing carrying capacity:

Carrying capacity evaluation is a basic technique used in tourism determines upper limits of
development & visitor use & optimum utilization of tourism resources.
Establishing carrying capacity provides the basis for planning & organizing tourism so that it
doesn't generate undue congestion & results in environment degradation or social problems.
Carrying capacity can help fighting saturation levels for tourism areas & can suggest remedial
measures.

Measurement criteria of carrying capacity:

In determining carrying capacity, the two aspects to be considered are

 The tourism image & tourist product  The indigenous physical & socio-
economical environment
 The capacity or number of visitors  The capacity that can be achieved
that are compatible without resulting
 With the image of product  In physical damage to manmade
 The type of environmental environment
experience seek by visitors  Socio-culture
If saturation in tourism development  Economy
arises then the image of product will be  Local community
destroyed & destination's quality &  Proper balance should be maintained
between conservation & development
popularity also decline.
 If saturation arises, then it will go to
affect all the above mentioned factors
either temporarily or permanently.

Optimum carrying capacity levels for indigenous environment:

Physical environment

51
 Economic
Socio-cultural
Infrastructure
1. Physical:
 Overall cleanliness & lack of pollution of the destination environment
 Attractiveness of the landscape & townscape including architectural character
2. Economical:
 Cost of holiday & 'value for money"
3. Socio-cultural:
 Intrinsic (essential) interest of the indigenous (country's own) community & culture
 Friendliness of residents
 Quality of local handicrafts/cuisine/cultural performances
4. Infrastructure:
 Standards of transportation facilities & services
 Standard of utility services
 Standard of other facilities and services

Each area & its type of tourism are unique and the criteria for measuring carrying capacity
must be specifically defined for the area.

The evaluation of the carrying capacity based on criteria selected will in some cases be
measurable, for e.g. environmental pollution & employment benefits & in certain cases absolute,
for e.g. limited water availability, but many criteria can only be assessed qualitatively, e.g.
impact on cultural traditions.

The analysis of final carrying capacity level must establish balance between +ve & -ve factors
for optimum benefits to the country.

Carrying capacity doesn't replace environmental & socio-economic impact assessment of

destination areas. Rather, impact assessment should still be done as a complement to carrying
capacity evaluation.

CHAPTER FIVE

TOURISM POLICY AND PLANNING FORMULATION

52
Approach to Policy And Plan Formulation:

In formulation of the National or regional tourism development policy & plan, it is important to
first understand the various possible forms of tourism development in the area.
The policy is then formulated based on inputs of the objectives & integrated analyses. From
these, the physical plan is derived. The technique of preparing and evaluating alternative
policies and plan is used.
Feed back takes place throughout the formulation process to minimize negative impacts of
tourism and entrance/ optimize positive impacts. The final plan is then prepared.

Forms Of Tourism Development:

1. Resorts Integrated Resorts

Town Resorts

Retreat Resorts

2 Urban Tourism

3 Cruise Ship Tourism

Water Based Tourism
River Tourism

Yachting Tourism

4 Residential Tourism

5 Alternative Tourism Village Tourism

Agro Tourism
Guest house & Bed & Breakfast Accommodation

6 Other Forms of Tourism Transportation Oriented Tourist Facilities

Camping Parks
Caravan Parks
Youth Hostels
Safari, Trekking & Mountain Climbing Tourism

53
Forms of Tourism
Resorts:

1. Integrated Resorts:
These are planned development for virtual exclusive use by tourists.
- They are oriented to particular features such as a beach and Marine recreation area, Lake
recreation area, ski-slopes Mountain scenery, National park, major archaeological or historic
site, healthful climate, golf course etc. and sometime combination of features.
- These types of resort may vary in size from one hotel to several hotels, cottages to self-
catering apartments and villas.
- Development can vary from intensive high-density development with medium rise hotels to
low density, low profile types etc.
- Extensive open space and landscaping are typically an important aspect of planned resorts.
- Hawaii for e.g. is well known for integrated resorts.

2. Town Resorts :
It combines of the usual land use and activities of a town community but economically focused
on resort activities and contains hotels and other tourist facilities and services.
- They are also oriented to special attraction features such as beach /Marine recreation, spa
facilities, mountain scenery, desert climate, etc.
- E.g.: ski resorts in North America/ Europe/ Health spas resorts in Europe. Hill stations of
India & Sri Lanka functions as town Resorts.
3. Retreat Resorts:
They are a form of Integrated Resort, & these “retreat resorts “are becoming popular in several
places of the world.
- These are small scale (25- 50 rooms), high quality, planned resorts located in remote
areas e.g. islands /mountains, the only access may be by boat/ small air plane/ narrow
winding roads.
- They cater needs of the guests who wish a quite, isolated vacation environment but usually
with some recreation activity
Urban Tourism:
It takes place in large cities where tourism may be important but is not a primary activity of the
urban area. The tourist attraction are visited and used by residents as well as tourists
convention facilities are often developed in cities to attract more tourists. Hotels, Tourist
facilities, Transport etc. are an Integral part of urban tourism.
Water Based Tourism:
It is a potential tourism in some places and of three major types.
1. Cruise Ship Tourism:
In this form of tourism, visitors embark on a cruise ship, and cruise the region for several
days or weeks and then disembark.
2. River Tourism:
It involves taking riverboat cruises, accommodation and meals provided on board the
boat. This type of tourism is considered in Venice/ Bangladesh/ Southern part of India,
river rafting, canoeing and boating, often with overnight stops along the river can be
considered a special form of tourism as well as recreation.
3. Yachting Tourism:
In some coastal ports, which are located in interesting sailing areas and possess
protected anchorage; Yachting tourism may have potential for development. This

54
 tourism involves renting a Yacht for one or two weeks for local cruising and then flying
home.
Residential Tourism:
This tourism refers to houses, villas, town – houses and apartments, which are developed
expressly as vacation or retirement homes, and often, includes a combination of these uses in
one development. Vacation or holiday have developments are becoming popular in some areas
and can be an important form of tourism in terms of tourist expenditures.
Alternative Tourism:
The term "Alternative Tourism" is used to refer to small scale, non-mass, specialised types of
tourism and the term is synonymous with responsible & sustainable tourism. These types of
tourism may be desirable in an area where there is concern about the environmental and social
impacts of large-scale tourism, or where tourism resources are very limited or specialised.
Direct social contact between the tourist and residents is an important aspect of this form of
tourism.
It may include
1. Village Tourism:
It refers to development of simple tourist attraction in or near villages with the facilities
being owned by/ and operated by the villagers. The attraction for tourists is either the
traditional village activities, architecture and cultural ambience or a nearby features such
as beach/ archaeological site or nature area with the facilities such as local
transportation, guide services, handicraft production and sales, and entertainment.
In coastal areas boating, fishing, diving and other facilities for marine tourism/ in
mountain area, hiking, trekking facilities may be provided.

2. Agro – Tourism:
It refers to agricultural or rural tourism where the tourists stay in guestrooms of
farmhouses or small-scale purpose - built accommodation and enjoys the agricultural
environment, often engaging in and learning about agriculture activities.
Other Forms Of Tourism:
1. Transportation – Oriented Tourist Facilities:
Are being developed near the major transportation nodes, especially international
airports, to serve Pax in transit for several hours or overnight or those who stay
overnight near the airport for the convenience of taking an early morning flight. These
are generally termed airport hotels/ motels along roads/ restaurants; shops and perhaps
recreation and entertainment facilities are sometimes developed for road travellers.On
smaller scale rest – stops that provide sanitary facilities, picnicking and lounging areas
are commonly developed at selected places along side heavily travelled roads.
2. Camping Parks:
Camping is popular in many countries and regions, especially in association with scenic
areas or specific natural & cultural attractions, usually camping is developed for
domestic tourists but in some places they are also utilised by international tourist.
Camping can take various forms, with some tourists bringing all their own equipment of
tents, cooking gear etc. and others rent equipment at tented campsites for rents.
Camping parks should be carefully planned to be functional & attractive with generous
landscaping & provide basic water & sanitation.
3. Caravan Parks :
Serve tourist travelling by car with mobile trailers or single unit motorised camper which
function as the accommodation for tourist. Caravan parks are located at convenient

55
 places on or near major roads and needs to be carefully sited, planned and landscaped
with water and sanitation facilities.
Both camping and caravan parks may contain some retail shops for sale of food and
supplies, and may include recreational facilities.
4. Youth Hostels :
Are dormitory style accommodation developed for young people and are mainly located
in urban areas or near major attraction features suitable for sports and recreations.
Many youth hostels are oriented to domestic tourists but some also cater to international
young travellers.

5. Safari/ Trekking And Mountain Climbing Tourism:

Safari tourism involves travelling as a small group & or hunting and photographic or
scenic tours in wildlife areas and camping at different places along the way. It can also
be related to botanical, cultural or sightseeing tourism in remote areas.

Trekking and hiking, involving long walks with camping overnight along the way and
usually in remote scenic areas, are popular e.g. in the Himalayan region of Northern
Pakistan, Northern India, Nepal and Bhutan and in mountain regions of North America
and Europe. Mountain climbing expeditions are a much specialized form of tourism
popular in various mountain regions of the world.

Formulating Tourism Policy

Approach To Formulating Policy
 Tourism development policy is determined in the plan formulation stage of the
planning process.
 It is first formulated on tentative basis and there after evaluation of alternatives, it is
finalised.
 In large country or region, different policies may be adopted for different region, but
these together comprise an overall set of policies for the country.
 Policy is determined based on objectives of tourism development.
 Policy also evolves from the survey, analysis & synthesis of any present tourism
development pattern/ infrastructure/ tourist attraction & tourist markets.
 As policy affects the entire community and country. So government should assume
the lead role in determining it and should involve spokesman from community also
for decision making and government should not impose policy on people.
Policy Considerations:

Role of government
Relation between domestic and international tourism
Type of tourism / extent / growth
Location and staging of development
Other policies
Tourism policy can take many forms depending on objectives, tourism resources, national
development policy and other considerations. Some basic issues need to be resolved in
deciding policy are indicated below:

Role of government:
A policy decision which must be made is whether government assumes a passive / active/ or
intermediate role in developing tourism.

56
A passive involved is when government neither discourages and nor encourages tourism and
enact legislation on air traffic, employment of foreigner, investments, incentives, which apply to
general development including tourism, but not specifically for tourism.

An active involvement is when the government has adopted a general development tourism
policy and sets plan based on objectives and provides specific tourism related training
programs, offers investment, incentives to hotels, encourages air traffic agreements.

Relation between Domestic & International Tourism:

The relative extent of domestic and international tourism to be developed should be stated in
policy.
 International tourism is developed mostly for its economic reasons and benefits
 Domestic tourism is developed for economic, social reasons, political reasons.

Type / Extent / Growth of Tourism:

The type of tourism can range from general interest tourism related to nature/ culture or special
feature such as theme parks or casinos, or sometime combination of these quality level and
expenditure patterns should also be considered.

Extent:
Extent of tourism ranges from a very limited small-scale level to mass tourism involving millions
of visitors.

Growth:
Growth rate of tourism (slow/ medium / fast) may be controlled because of following reasons:
 For social reasons of allowing residents sufficient time to adjust to tourism
 For development reasons of balancing tourism with infrastructure development
 For balancing various demands on limited capital resources
 Manpower planning reasons of allowing sufficient time for training persons to work in
tourism.
 Economic reasons of maintaining balanced development of various economic sectors
including tourism.
Location & Staging of Development:
General geographic location and staging of development can also be a policy decision, i.e.
weather tourism should be developed or expanded in certain areas and whether.
0 it should be staging over a long time period.
Other Policies:
It may relate to multi use of tourism infrastructure, environmental protection, cultural
conservation, education and training, use of tourism as a catalyst for other economic sectors,
and investment and employment policies. The later, for e.g.: involves the consideration of
weather only national/ regional investment in tourist facilities or joint ventures with outside
capital is allowed, and weather only national/ regional employees are permitted to work in
tourism or outsiders can also be employed.
Techniques of Plan Formulation
Plan formulation is both an art and science. It is essential to apply a systematic approach to
provide a rational basis for planning, but the planner must also be imaginative in finding new
and different solution to problem. The experience learned from approaches to planning tourism

57
development, which have been applied elsewhere is very useful in formulating the plan.
Mapping is an essential technique in formulating plans. Various inputs on plan are plotted on
different maps and then map are overlaid to form a composite map which shows relationship of
the inputs.
Consideration of Development Objectives & Policies
The objectives and policies set forth the overall parameters for the type of development to be
planned and provide a guide for formulating plan. For e.g. if an objective id for minimization of
socio cultural impact and the policy is for the highly controlled and limited development, then the
development may be planned for only certain forms of tourism in a few areas of country.

Survey & Analysis Inputs

Survey and analysis inputs are very important in the systematic formulation of the plan, and
must be considered both qualitative and quantitative sense. Various inputs are as follows:

1. Tourist Attraction:
The survey and evaluation of existing and potential tourist attraction indicate the type and
location of major attraction, which is a basic input to the national or regional plan. It
sometime comprises transportation and accommodation, tour programs and sightseeing
activities.

2. Accommodation projection:
The projection of the number and type, size of accommodation, which was calculated from the
market analysis of number and types of tourist arrivals, will determine the general space
requirements for accommodation and other tourist facilities and services.

3. Transportation facilities and services, Infrastructure,

4. Analysis of physical factors (climatic patterns, environmental hazards), social factors
(attitude & traditions of residents) and economic factors.
5. Land availability
6. Major opportunities and constraints for tourism will provide a focus in the plan preparation.

Preparation & Evaluation of Alternative Plans:

Alternatives are evaluated with respect to how well each one meets the plan objectives and
development policies, generate economic benefits at acceptable costs, minimises
environmental and socio cultural impacts and is realistic to implement.
To systematically evaluate the alternative, the matrix technique is often employed.
Government and project steering committee should be involved, because there is a crucial
decision making step in the planning process.

The Final Plan:

The best alternative or combination of alternatives is selected based on the evaluation and
preparation in final form. The final structure plan will indicate:
Ω the major and secondary tourist attraction features
Ω the tourism regions/ development areas
Ω the transportation access points, or gateways to the country
Ω The internal transportation network
Ω Tour and excursion routes.

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The final plan should be evaluated in terms of social, environmental, economical impacts to
make it an optimum plan. Suitability and achievement of objectives should also be determined,
whether they are achievable or not. After the final plan is decided, the plan implementation
techniques are determined.

It includes various types of legislation, often including zoning regulations and environmental
impact and quality control staging of development and project programming with cost estimates.

Often, an action program which includes both physical and non physical elements is the most
suitable form of development programming because it is more comprehensive.

National & Regional Planning Principles

Each country or region must be planned according to its characteristic and development
objectives. But, there are certain basic concepts also which are applicable to most of areas
based on proved successful development of tourism.

The concepts are:

1. Gateway & staging area concept
2. Attraction development
3. Establishment of tourism regions and development areas.
4. Transportation and other infrastructure principles
5. Staging of development

1. Gateway (access points )& Staging Area Concept

Land, air, sea, border/ crossing points/ seaports/ international airports/ domestic – regional
airports are termed as gateway as they are the access points for tourists. Tourism must be
planned and developed around these factors.
According to access point,
 Single access : ( In small country )
Problem of back tracking, dull itineraries, and disadvantage of entering from one point

 Multiple access : ( In large country )

 Offers advantages of tourist entry point
 Saves back tracking
 Entry points, often encourage tourist to see more of the country
 Choice of planning itineraries
 Encourage greater tourist flow
The concept here is to diversify gateways (access points) especially international airports.

A principle of establishing a staging area has worked well in tourism development. The staging
area is generally near the point of entry of tourist and provides facilities and services at least for
overnight of tourists and often contains various attraction features, or can be developed with
some attractions which will induce tourists to stay for a while.

2. Clustering of Attraction
- Basic (major) Attraction :
- Major historic sites
- National parks
- Secondary Attraction :

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 - Cultural performance.
Mobile type secondary attraction

In order to attract more tourist and induce them to stay longer, as well as making it convenient
for organising tours, various attractions can be clustered and combined in one area, with out
allowing undue congestion, is a technique that is often used in planning tourism development.

3. Establishment of Tourism Regions And Development Areas

At the National level, the concept of establishing tourism development region is usually applied.
(e.g. of services available in tourism development region – tourist attraction/ accommodation/
regional transport facilities & other services.)

The tourism development regions are logical geographic units and are selected on the basis of
no. attractions/ access/ internal transport network.

Its advantages are: -

 It provides basis for integrated regional planning so that they can function efficiently
and is self – contained also.
 It also allows effective staging of tourism from one region to another over a period of
time.

In development region, it is desirable to establish a " tourism centre " which has good access
from outside the region and offers concentration of facilities and services, which private and
government sectors can develop easily.

At Regional level, a basic principle is concentration of tourist facilities and services in

specific areas in the form of tourist resorts.

Advantages of concentration of facilities are:

 More efficient provision of infrastructure of transportation, water supply, electric power,
sewage, telecommunication, convenience to tourists of facilities and services.
 Provides opportunities for integrated planning and application of development.
 Environment control
 Less contamination of any negative environmental and social impacts in one area.

The criteria for selecting development area sites include:

 Tourist attraction features on or relatively near the site such as a beach or lake ski
slopes or archaeological/ historic features.
 Desirable micro – climatic conditions related to the type of development.
 Attractive physical environment of the site and nearby area.
 Sufficient amount of available and developed land, which is not unduly expensive
and does not have a more important economic or conservation use.
 Good existing or potential access from the entry points or gateway of the region.
 Availability of, or possibility of developing infrastructure.
 Positive attitude of the residents.
 Availability of human resource or labour supply.
 Suitable general area, compatible to near by area and land use or the opportunity for
establishing buffers zone around the site.

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 No single site can meet all the criteria and it may be necessary to compromise on some
of criteria.

4. Transportation And Other Infrastructure Principles

Principle which applies at both the National/ Regional and Resort planning level is, where ever
possible, to develop tourism so that it makes use of existing infrastructure or if new
infrastructure is needed, develop it as a multi-purpose, i.e. serving residents (general) as well
as tourism needs.
If infrastructure is developed only for tourism, its cost revenue should be calculated for
economic justification.

5. Staging Of Development
The tourism plan should be organized so that it is easy to stage tourism development over a
period of time.
Various tourism regions and their related infrastructure planned in such a manner that each
area can be developed economically and efficiently as a separate unit when needed.

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 CHAPTER SIX

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION IN TOURISM PLANNING

Concept of Eco development:

Eco development refers to a form of planned growth which is
concerned mainly with the development of locally available resources
within the constraints of the local environment so as to maximise the
local capacities of the biosphere to support human life and assimilate
wastes.
UNEP has been encouraging the Eco development concept from the
angle of villages, so that development of villages throughout the world
takes place on the basic natural resources and human skills locally
available.

Relationship between the environment and tourism

Environment refers to all the surroundings or milieu of people. Physical

environments comprise of natural & built components. Natural environment
is what exists from nature – climate & weather, water features, topography
and soils, geology, flora & fauna etc.
The built environment is comprised of the man made physical features, e.g.:
all types of buildings, other structures and infrastructure development. In
comprehensive environmental impact analysis, socio-cultural & economical
factors of the environment are includes. It is essential that these
relationships be understood in order to properly plan, develop and manage
tourism.
The Manila declarations of the WTO adopted in 1980 emphasised the
importance of both natural & cultural resources in developing tourism &
conserve these resources for benefit of tourism as well as the residents of
the tourism area.
There are three types of related environmental concerns in developing
tourism.
1) Prevention or control of environmental impacts generated by the tourism
development.
2) Need for continuous management of the environmental resources for
tourism.

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3) Maintenance and where necessary, improvement of the overall
environmental quality of the tourism areas for the benefit of both tourism &
residents.

Types of environmental impact

Tourism can generate both positive/negative/or no appreciable impacts,
depending on how its development is planned & controlled.
 Negative impacts:
1) Water pollution: Lack of proper sewage disposal system has not been
installed for hotels, resorts or other tourist facilities. There may be
pollution of ground water from the sewage. There should be planned out
fall of sewage & its treatment so as to minimise the chances of pollution.
2) Air pollution: tourism is generally considered as a "clean industry" but air
pollution from tourist vehicle & tourism development areas can result into
excessive air pollution problem. If strict emission standards are fixed &
devegetated are probably planned & landscaped, then up to same extent
we can curb the problem of air.
3) Noise pollution: by tourist vehicle/aeroplanes/tourist attractions like
amusement, parks/car or motorcycle racetracks may reach irritating
levels for nearby residents. Very loud noise can result in ear damage and
psychological stress.
4) Visual pollution: poorly designed hotels/tourist facility/building, non
compatibility with local architecture/inadequate landscaping/use of large
and ugly advertising signs/mesh of overhead utility lines (electric,
telephone & telegraph poles & lines)/poor maintenance of building and
landscaping can result in an unattractive environment for both hosts and
tourists.
5) Water disposal problems: improper disposal of litter and solid waste from
resorts and hotel can generate environment & health problems, diseases,
pollution and unattractiveness to the destination.
6) Ecological disruption & environment hazards: several types of ecological
problems e.g.: overuse of fragile environment, killing of animals,
deforestation, excessive collection of corals by boat anchors, disruption of
animal habits & activities by photography etc can results from
uncontrolled tourism.
Poor sitting and engineering design of tourist facilities can generate
landslides, flooding, and disruption of any natural drainage channels etc
may lead to earthquakes, high winds, and flooding and land slippage.
7) Damage to historic/archaeological sites: over use or misuse of
environmentally fragile archaeological and historic sites can lead to
damage of these features through excessive wear, vibration, vandalism,
graffiti writing etc.
8) Land use problems
9) Congestion & overcrowding

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 Positive impacts:
Tourism if well planned & controlled can help maintain and improve the
environment in various ways. E.g.:
1. Conservation of natural areas
2. Conservation of archaeological and historical sites
3. Improvement of environment quality
4. Enhancement of environment
5. Improvement of infrastructure
6. Increasing environmental awareness
There may be other or more specific types of positive environment impacts
depending on the particular type of tourism development and the tourism
area characteristics involved.

Environment quality:
Maintenance of a high level of overall environmental quality is essential for
the success of most types of tourism areas. Tourists are becoming
increasingly sophisticated and demanding in their requirements for a high
level of environmental quality in their touring and destination areas, and will
often pay a premium to experience an attractive/clean & pollution free
environment.
Overall, an environmental quality includes not only control of the
environmental impacts from the tourism development in the area but
minimisation of all types of environmental problems.
Environmental planning approach:
According best way to avoid negative environmental impacts and reinforce
positive impacts is properly plan tourism, using the environmental planning
approach, before development actually takes place. Environmental planning
must take place at all levels – National / Regional / development area / site-
specific for hotels, resorts and tourist attraction features be done in a
comprehensive manner, be integrated with the overall planning of the area,
and consider possible environmental impacts throughout the planning
process as well as preparation of an environmental impact assessment of
the final plan.
The environmental planning approach puts more emphasis on
considerations of the physical environment in the survey / analysis and plan
formulation, with priority given to application of environmental planning

64
policies & principles, but still within the framework of achieving reasonable
economic objectives.
 Environmental policies and impact control measures:
There are various general policies and specific impact control measures
which can be applied to achieve environmentally sensitive & integrated
tourism development and maintain or where needed improve environmental
quality of tourism area.

 General environment policies:

Applicable to the planning in tourism includes the following –
- Development of tourism in a carefully planned and controlled manner
not exceeding carrying capacities. E.g. Bhutan and the Seychelles
have done, at least for certain time period.
- Use of tourism as a technique for conservation & enhancement of
quality of natural areas & environmental quality.
- Maintenance of moderate growth rate to allow sufficient time to
residents to adapt to tourism & monitoring & control environmental
impacts.
- Concentration of tourist facilities in certain areas to allow for the
efficient provision of infrastructure thus reducing possibility of
pollution, socio-cultural impacts & enhancing integrated land use
planning.
- Staging in tourism development so that when one area becomes
saturated, a new can be developed to better distribute tourist use of
the country or region.
- Use of selective marketing technique to attract environment friendly
tourists.
- Use of different techniques to reduce seasonal/peak use of facilities &
attractions thus evenly distributing tourist use throughout the year.
- In large scale mass tourism is expected to generate environmental
problems, give consideration to other forms of tourism development
such as :
1. Quality tourism & selective marketing attracting affluent tourist to bring
economic benefits.
2. Special interest e.g. marine diving, natural safaris
3. Village tourism/farm/water based tourism, which doesn't require intensive
development of land facilities.
 Environmental impact control measures:

In addition to the general environmental policies, there are many specific

environmental control measures to mitigate negative environmental quality
of the tourism area. They are as follows:
65
1. Installation of water supply and sewage treatment and disposal systems
for hotels and other tourist facilities meeting (WHO) World Health
Organisation standards.
2. Development of proper sanitary disposal of solid waste generated by
hotels and other tourist facilities.
3. Construction of adequate drainage systems to prevent flooding during
rainy periods and standing water which may cause health problems.
4. Careful management of visitor flows and, where necessary application of
visitor use controls at natural & cultural tourist attractions features to
avoid congestion and environmental deterioration of these place.
5. Provision of open space & parks and generous use of suitable landscaping
in resorts, at tourist attraction feature sin urban areas and along shore
line/roads & walkways.
6. Application of land use zoning regulations and site planning standards /
architectural design standards in tourism area.
7. Requirement of undergoing of utility lines in tourism areas.
8. Control of littering through public education.
9. Proper maintenance of tourist vehicle.
10. Encouragement of urban & village beautification & greening program
11. Maintenance of environmental health & safety standards for both
residents & tourists/incorporation of energy conservation techniques etc.

On some sites, tourist facility development will unavoidably disrupt the

natural ecosystem balance. In such situations, the plan should recommend
ways to establish a new ecological balance and stability in order to avoid
future environmental problems.
Planning of Natural Resources

The process of planning natural attractions is generally as follows:

1. Determination of the development & conservation objectives.
2. Environmental / ecological surveys of wildlife, flora & ecological systems
with identification of special environmental areas to be preserved such as
wildlife habitats.
3. Establishments of visitor carrying capacities.
4. Projection of tourist demands & if necessary, reconciliation made with the
carrying capacity to arrive at optimum visitor use levels.
5. Determination of types of visitors facilities needed & projection of facility
requirements.
6. Plan formulation including evaluation of alternative plans based on the
plan objectives and environmental impact.
7. Final environmental impact analysis.
8. Implementation of the final plan & continues management of the
resources.

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Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

The EIA procedure being increasingly applied throughout the world to all
types of development including tourism projects, to ensure that any
negative environmental impacts are analysed and minimised.

 EIA mode:

A basic model for environmental impact is presented here to provide a

guideline, but each country or region should adopt this to their particular
requirements. This model does not include economic or socio-cultural
factors, which can be added for a comprehensive assessment.
First, an environmental impact checklist is prepared on the particular
characteristics of the development being proposed & its environment, such
as follows:
1. Air pollution
2. Surface water pollution including rivers and streams, lakes and ponds and
coastal waters
3. Ground water pollution
4. Pollution of domestic water supply
5. Noise pollution, generally and at peak periods
6. Solid waste disposal problems
7. Water drainage & flooding
8. Damage/or destruction of flora & fauna
9. Ecological disruption and damage including both land and water areas
and plant and animal habitats.
10. Land use & circulation problems within the project area and problems
created in nearby areas by the project
11. Pedestrian and vehicular congestion generally and at peak period
12. Landscape aesthetic problems ( building design, landscaping, signs)
13. Environmental health problems such as malaria & cholera
14. Damage to historic, archaeological & cultural sites
15. Damage to specific important and attractive environmental features
such as large trees, helicopters and unusual geological formalities
16. Generation of erosion & landslide problems
17. Likelihood of damage from environmental hazards such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes etc

Each factor is then evaluated in terms of possible type & extent of impact. A
useful technique is to prepare an evaluation matrix, which summarises &
synthesises the impacts so that a comprehensive evaluation can be made of
all the factors.

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 Evaluation of impact
Types of No impact Minor Moderate Serious impact
impact impact impact
Air pollution
Surface
water
pollution
Ground
water
pollution
Water
supply
position
Noise
pollution
Solid waste
pollution
Drainage
problem

Evaluation Matrix of Environmental Impact

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

SOCIO CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION IN TOURISM

Introduction

Because of their close interrelationship / socio cultural and economic

consideration are examined together.

Tourism economics is specialised subject, which is only broadly outlined to

give the tourism planner a basic understanding of the subjects so that he
can work effectively with the tourism economist.

The socio economic impacts of tourism have made this field a rather
controversial one in recent years, especially in areas where tourism
development have been rapid and often uncontrolled with the results that
socio economic as well as environmental impacts have been detrimental.

However, the contemporary approach is that substantial economic benefits

can accrue (or advantage) from tourism and negative socio-cultural impacts
minimised with carefully planned and managed development.

Host and Guest Relationships

Before examining specific types of impacts, it is important to understand the

basis for these impacts taking place

1. Some types of socio economic impacts are the normal stresses resulting
from any economic development, even when the residents and tourist are
of the same cultural backgrounds and socio economic levels, as if often
the case with domestic tourism.
2. Other impacts result from socio economic differences between the
residents and tourists of either the same or different cultural
backgrounds. The states of social / economic / political development of
host society, relationship of host society with foreigners are the critical
factors to be considered.
3. Third type of impacts is the results of substantial cultural differences
between residents and tourists. These differences may relate to the basic
value system religious belief, customs, life styles, behavioural patterns,
dress code, and sense of time budgeting and other factors. Differences in
language between tourists and residents can create frustrating situations
and sometimes leads to misunderstanding. Even with in a particular
society, there are often considerable differences among regions and
especially between urban and village / rural areas, with urban dwellers,

69
 life styles, dress etc. While rural and village people are still very
traditional.
The basic goals of tourism are considered to be the generation of mutual
understanding and respect among different cultures. Therefore, the socio
cultural and economic considerations in tourism are of almost importance.

Types of Socio Economic Impacts

There can be both positive and negative socio economic impacts (socio
economic benefits and costs). They are as follows:

Positive impacts:

- Direct economic benefits of providing employment, income and foreign

exchange which leads to improving of living standards of the local
populations and overall national / regional economic development.
- Direct economic benefits of increased government revenues (through
various types of taxation on tourism) which can be used to develop
community facilities and infrastructure and general economic
development.
- Indirect economic benefit of tourism being a catalyst to the
development of other economic sectors such as agriculture and
industry (including cottage industry) through the supplying of goods
and services used in tourism.
- Indirect socio economic benefit of improvements to transportation
facilities and services and other infrastructure necessary for tourism
which also serves general community social and economic needs.
- Stimulus for conservation of important elements of the cultural
heritage of an area because they are partially justified and financed by
tourism attractions including;
 Preservation and sometime revitalisation of traditional arts,
handicrafts, dance, music, drama and customs, ceremonies, dress
and certain aspects of traditional life styles.
 Conservation of archaeological and historic sites and interesting
architectural styles.
 Financial assistance for the maintenance of museums and other
cultural facilities and activities and for supporting the organisation
of special cultural festivals and events.
- Renewal of sense of pride by residents in their culture when they
observe tourists appreciating it.
- Cross cultural exchange of tourists and residents learning more about
one another's cultures resulting in greater mutual understanding and
respect.
Negative Impacts

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If not well planned and controlled, tourism can generate negative impacts
including the following
 Loss of potential economic benefits to the local area and sometimes
resentment by residents. If tourist facilities are owned and managed by
outsiders, although sometimes there is, at least initially, no alternative to
this.
 Reduction of potential foreign exchange earnings when imported goods
and services are utilised in tourism, although there is also sometimes no
alternative to this.
 Economic distortions and resentment created if tourism is concentrated in
only on or a few areas of a country without corresponding economic
developments in other area.
 Economic distortions created if tourism attracts too many employees from
other economic sectors such as agriculture and fisheries.
 Inflation of local prices of land goods and services because of the demand
of tourism
 Resentment and conflicts within residents and families cultural conflicts
between residents and migrants.
 Overcrowding of amenity features / shopping and community facilities
and congestion of transportation systems by tourists to the extent that
residents cannot conveniently use them.
 Over commercialisation and loss of authenticity of traditional arts and
crafts, customs and ceremonies to suit tourist demand, for e.g. important
traditional dance and music performances may be greatly shortened and
modified to suit tourists tastes and schedules, and handy crafted objects
of religious significance may be produced as tourist souvenirs.
 Demonstration effects of residents especially young people imitating
tourists / their life style patterns.
 Deterioration of cultural monuments and loss of cultural artefacts through
over use by tourists.
 Pre-emption (right to do) of beaches and other amenity areas for
exclusive tourism use without provision of access to residents, which
leads to local resentment and loss of amenities.
 Misunderstanding and conflict arising between residents and tourists
because of difference in language, custom, religion, values and
behavioural pattern. e.g. Jootho concept in Nepal / Namaste for greeting.
 Violation of local dress codes by tourists for e.g. women must be properly
dressed in Islamic societies.
 Problems of drugs / alcoholism, crime, prostitution which may be
exacerbated (make worse) by tourism.

Socio Economic Policies and Impact Control Measures

To lessen the negative impacts and reinforcing the positive one

71
General Socio Economic Policies considerations

1. Develop tourism in a gradual manner, so that local residents have

sufficient time to adapt to and understand it, and the government can
properly plan, organise and monitor tourism development as it proceeds.
2. Maintain a form and scale of appropriate tourism development for the
local environment and society. Where possible develop other sector also
for balanced economic development.
3. Involve residents and their spokesmen in the decision making process of
planning and developing tourism so that residents can get guidance on
how they can get benefit from it.
4. Base tourism at least in part on the cultural resources of the area and
thereby use tourism to help justify and financially support the
preservation and maintenance of archaeological and historic sites,
conservation and revitalisation of traditional dance /music / drama / arts
and handicrafts unique to the area, development of museums and
cultural centres and organisation of cultural events.
5. Integrate tourism by -developing strong links with other economic
sectors
- Maximise local employment

-Encourage private ownership

6. Plan, develop and organise tourism apply regional distribution policies, so

that no area becomes too congested with tourists and residents can
easily use community facility and, services, and the income from tourism
is more evenly distributed.
Socio Economic Impacts Control Measures

Some more specific measures, which can be applied to lessen negative

impacts, include the followings:
 Maintain the authenticity of dance / music / drama performances and of
arts and handicrafts through establishing quality standards and
conducting training programs.
 Make certain that residents have easy access to tourist attraction /
facilities / services.
 If most residents of country can't afford to use the existing commercial
tourist facilities, provide special inexpensive / subsidised
accommodation / and recreation facility for development of domestic
tourism.
 Provide incentives for local ownership, management and operation of
hotels and other tourist facilities. Therefore, those residents can receive
direct economic benefits.
 Through techniques of selective marketing and controlling the types of
tourist attraction and facilities provided, encourage the kinds of tourist
who will appreciate and respect the local cultural traditions.

72
 Educate residents about the concepts / benefits / problems of tourism and
the customs, behavioural patterns and values system of tourists / do's
and don'ts for tourists to avoid misunderstandings with local employees.
 Design hotels and other tourist facilities to reflect local architectural
styles so that these facilities give unique sense of place to tourists.
 Train local people to work effectively in all levels of tourism including
managerial and technical positions. Foreign language training for better
understanding of tourists.
 Apply strict legal controls on drugs, crime and prostitution.
 Encourage home visit / paying guest concept.
Socio Cultural Programming

The national / regional tourism offices must take the lead role in identifying
socio-economic impacts and applying policies and measures to minimise the
costs and maximise the benefits.
With the help of programme and policies continuous monitoring of socio-
economic impacts must be maintained so that problems can be identified
and necessary actions can be taken.

Economic Enhancement Programming

There are various approaches which can be applied to optimise the

economic benefits of tourism to the country / region & local community.
Some approaches are:

1. Strengthening economic cross – sectoral linkages: - between tourism /

agriculture / fisheries / production of food items / poultry products in
restaurants.
2. Ownership of tourist facilities & services: - to maximise retention of profits
for the capital investment made.
3. Maximisation of local employment: - so that workers wages & salaries
remain in the society.
4. Local management of tourist facilities & services: - e.g. management of
international chain hotels / resorts like Dushit Bani / Tara Gaon (Hyatt) by
Nepalese citizens.
5. Local Tour & Travel services
6. Shopping for handicrafts / souvenirs, speciality items and duty free and
general consumer goods provide maximum earnings.
7. Expansion of tourist activities: - to increase length of stay / numbers of
tourist arrivals/earnings.
CHAPTER EIGHT

THE INSTITUTIONAL ELEMENTS OF TOURISM

Tourism Policy
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Tourism policy is an important antecedent to tourism planning. It is also an expression of
government’s commitment for the development of tourism. To guide a government's program
of action, and to provide a frame of reference for the tourism industry's actions, it is essential
that a distinctive tourism policy be developed. Such a policy should:

 Provide a set of guidelines for the actions of

 The government
 Private sector organizations, corporations, businesses
 Interest groups
 -Host communities
 Specify the broad objectives to be achieved
 Specify program actions
 Nominate responsibilities for implementation.
Various policy formulation models are readily available in the basic literature on tourism
planning and in case studies of practice by agencies at different levels of government.

The broad objectives present the first opportunity for integration within tourism and with the
linkages across to other responsibilities of the government. It is crucial that tourism objectives
not be set in isolation, and that they should be consistent with other, related arenas of
government action and responsibility.

The tourism objectives should be set in the context of (and contribute positively to the
achievement of) the broad economic, social, cultural and environmental objectives of the
nation/region/locality. Each objective should be tested for its general applicability and
contribution to broad objectives related to:

 Energy conservation
 Employment
 Economic growth
 Government operations
 Environmental and resources conservation
 Urban revitalization
 Heritage conservation
 Consumer protection
 Community welfare
 Taxation
 Business viability.
In a commitment to the achievement of a satisfactory tourism policy it is common for sets of
objectives to focus on the following issues:

74
 Economic
 To optimize the contribution of tourism and recreation to economic prosperity, full
employment, regional economic development, and improved international balance of
payments.

Socio-Cultural
 To contribute to the personal growth and education of the population and encourage
their appreciation of the local geography, history, and ethnic diversity.
 To avoid encouraging activities that has the potential to undermine or denigrate the
social and cultural values and resources of the area and its traditions and lifestyles.

Market Development
 To encourage the free entry of foreign visitors, while balancing this goal with the need to
monitor persons and goods entering the country with laws protecting public health.

Resource Protection and Conservation

 To protect and preserve the historical and cultural foundations as a living part of
community life and development and to ensure future generations an opportunity to
enjoy the rich heritage of the area.
 To ensure the compatibility of tourism, recreational, and activity policies with other
broader interests in energy development and conservation, environmental protection,
and judicious use of natural resources.

Human Resource Development

 To ensure that tourism has an adequate supply of professionally trained skilled and
managerial staff to meet its future needs.
 To ensure that the education and training programs and materials are available to
meet the needs of tourism.

Government Operations
 To coordinate government activities related to tourism
 To take a leadership role
 To support the needs of tourists, residents and tourism businesses with appropriate
legislation and administration.
It is likely that as the statements of objectives become refined and interpreted for
implementation, some will be found to be in conflict, not only within the domain of tourism, but
also in the linkages across broad social, cultural and other objectives. For example, the
facilitation of casino development may be consistent with an economic objective, but may be in
conflict with a socio-cultural objective, which intends to safeguard the local community.

75
A policy process progresses to strategies, plans, programs, legislation and regulations. It is
important that each stage at whatever level (national/regional/local) be carefully integrated
laterally and vertically.

TOURISM MANPOWER PLANNING

Tourism is a service activity, depending in large part of human resources for its success.
Manpower planning is applying a systematic approach to ensure that the right people are in the
right job at the right time. These days, manpower development is an important input to the
tourism development process.

 Approach to manpower planning

Tourism manpower planning is a specialized activity to be done by a manpower planning &
training expert, but the tourism planner should be aware of the basic techniques used.
Manpower planning should be approach systematically at all levels of tourism development
from national & regional tourism administrations to resorts, hotel, & other tourist facilities and
services. This planning takes into account both the types of jobs to be filled and the number of
people and their requisite training fill the jobs.
Manpower planning involves the four steps of:

1. Evaluating the present utilisation of manpower in tourism, and identifying any problems
and needs.

2. Projecting the future manpower needed by number of personnel required in each

category of employment and determining the qualifications for each category of job.

3. Evaluating the human resources available in the future.

4. Formulating the education and training programme required.

1. Evaluation of present manpower and training:

The first step is conducting survey of existing manpower working in tourism in public & private
enterprises. But if tourism is quite large, a sampling approach may comprise the tourism sector
– hotels tour/travel operations, tour guide, restaurants, tourist oriented shopping (handicraft,
duty free etc), govt. tourism offices, transportation services.
The survey should include – job classification, No. of employees & their characteristics (age-sex
profiles, education level etc).
With any particular needs & problems identified as high turnover, insufficient training &
deficiency of qualified job applications, prevailing attitudes of employees towards their work.

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This survey should take into account the seasonality factor of employment & also the
information from which employment ratios can be divided, particularly the no. of employee per
hotel room by type of hotel. This is very useful information for projecting future employment
need.

2. Projecting the future manpower needs:

 If prepared as a part of comprehensive planning study, future manpower needs are

projected on the same horizon year as the tourism plan, often with intermediate projections
periods (usually 5-yr. period).

 The basis for manpower projections at the national/regional level of the projection of tourist
arrivals and accommodation by no. & by type of other tourist facility & services required,
along with the type of tourism which is being planned for the future.
For gross employment projection, a common technique is to (include the direct employment in
hotels and other tourist facilities and services) establish a ratio of number of jobs per
accommodation unit.
Higher quality hotels will require more employment for room than do lower quality
accommodation where less service is provided.
Other employment needs are also influenced by tourism; for example sightseeing tourism
requires more tour guides than does beach tourism. Tourism, but beach/marine tourism will
necessitate specialised jobs such as lifeguards, diver guides & sport fishing operators & guides.
With respect to government personnel in tourism, the employment needs will depend upon the
type and extent of government involvement in tourism sector and the recommended
organization for tourism.
Once the type of jobs are determined, a job classification system based on type of work & skill
level can be formulated for all aspects of tourism & if the tourism is already existing in the area,
the present employees are indicated by job classification including vacant positions. Account
must be taken if attrition factor i.e. persons who leave their jobs and the tourism sector for
whatever reasons, and create vacant position, which must be filled with need trained,
professional.
Model manpower-planning table
It includes managerial supervisory & higher level skills, middle level skills, & basic skills.
Job classification Existing Vacant Projection of Attrition Total
employmen positions new positions factors manpower
t needed
2013 2014
HOTEL & CATERING

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 ADMINISTRATION
Manager
Asst. Manager
Chief Accountant
Asst. Accountant
Secretary
Typist
RECEPTION/FRONT OFFICE
Front Office Manager
Receptionist
Asst. Receptionist
Reservation Clerk
Cashier
Switch board Operator
Head Porter
Porter
HOUSEKEEPING/LAUNDRY
Executive Housekeeper
Asst. Housekeeper
Room Maid
Head Linen keeper
Head of Laundry Service
RESTAURANT/BAR
Restaurant Manager
Heart Bar tender
Asst. Restaurant Manager
Head Waiter
Waiter
Barman

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 Asst. Waiter
Cashier
KITCHEN
Executive Chef
Asst. Chef
Pastry Chef.
Cook
Cook Assistant
MAINTENANCE
Building Maintenance Engineer
Gardener
Watchman
Cleaner
NOTE: Specialised persons may be required such as Hairdresser, Entertainer, Recreation Leaders etc.
TOUR & TRAVEL OPERATIONS
Agency Manager
Head of Ticketing
Head of Tour Programme
Sales Manger
Ticketing Clerks
Tour Leaders
Tour Guides
Cashier
Driver
TOURISM MANAGEMET
Director of Tourism
Chief of Marketing
Chief of Planning & Development
Marketing & Promotion Specialist

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 Public relation Officer
Tourism planning Specialist
Tourism Statistician
Tourism facility standards Specialist
Tourism training Specialist
Tourism information service Clerks

Human Resource Evaluation:

 An evaluation should be conducted of the general human resources available at present & in
the future.

 Population projections can be analysed to determine future total manpower resources

available. Specially considering

- No. of young persons available for employment

- Likely basic education level

- Distribution between males and females

 The human resource evaluation should take into account any special cultural considerations
for E.G:

- The attitude of people towards working in tourism

- Social constraints on women working in tourism

- Need for public education to change attitudes

-A decision should also be made whether to allow migration of workers into the
country or region
4. Education & Training programs:
Formulation of education & training programme requires first that job description and
employment qualifications be each of the job classification and then determination of the type
of training required to provide the necessary qualification.
Various types of education & training should be considered in a comprehensive training plan.
Often combined into one program to satisfy the needs, (skill requirement/language capability,
level of responsibility involved, social skills, motivation to do good works etc). These types of
training include the following:

80
 On-the-job training provided in the place of employment such as a hotel or restaurant for
low skill level employees, on the job training may be sufficient without the need for formal
training.

 Short courses on various aspects of tourism

- On new subjects

- Upgrading of skills

 Formal, regular vocational program of 6 months, 1,2 & 3 years, usually in hotel & tourism
training institutions or department of multi-programme vocational school.

 Regular university type B.A and MA (3-2 yrs.) programs in hotel, tourism or transportation
management.

 Study a tour, which includes visiting places that offer examples of tourism development such
as resorts, hotels and visitor attractions, and holding meetings with tourism officials and
administrators.

 Tailor – made programs which may include some academic courses, study tours, in the
job attachments or a combination of these, these are often arranged as overseas programs.

 Correspondence courses, which are available on all respect of hotel, catering, tourism
management, and tour operation.
Training for travel & tourism should be viewed as a continuous process for the benefit of both
the employees & tourism sector & training programs oriented accordingly.
Manpower training programs should consider both public & private training institutions, as
sector in-house training.
The private sector in-house training is being conducted by Pvt. Sector enterprises, especially
large hotels & hotel chains, project their specific employment needs.
But disadvantage from the overall sectoral point of view is that the training may be highly
specialised in the particular techniques and approaches of the company offering the training &
not is completely transferable to the entire industry.
Monitoring & Updating plan:
The manpower plan needs to be monitored to make certain that it is fulfilling its objectives and
any necessary modifications made as time passes.
Tourism trends may change requiring a somewhat different mix of employment and type of
training. The human resources base may develop differently then expected, or tourism may
expand faster or slower than projected which requires adjustment to the intake of participants

81
in the training programme & the scale of the programme. Formal review and revision of the
manpower plan should be undertaken about every 5 years.
Training methodology and content should also be kept up-to-date for e.g.: use of computers in
hotels, airline and tour & travel operations and application of current tourism planning &
marketing concepts & techniques.

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
There is considerable evidence of the need for an effective institutional framework if tourism
development is to be coordinated, efficiently supervised, monitored, and integrated into the
overall scope of national economic, environmental and social planning. It is important that the
institutional framework encompasses organizations from both the public and the private
sectors. A coordinated framework is necessary because of the fragmented nature of the tourism
industry. This diverse nature and its susceptibility to pragmatic decision-making within
particular industry sectors, coupled with the possibility that different government policies for
tourism may not always be synchronized, creates the need for a coordinated institutional
framework.

The tourism planning process provides the catalyst for the inputs of the various stakeholders in
the outcome of decisions affecting tourism development. Even after the preparation of a
tourism development plan, the final outcome is dependent upon the integrated realization of a
series of independent development decisions based upon the pursuit of individual opportunities.

The public sector, the private sector, non-profit organizations, the community, and tourists play
important roles in tourism planning and development.

In each case, there will be particular perspectives on tourism development and on the need for
tourism planning and the shape of that planning. The principal perspective of the public sector is
to manage development so as to achieve community goals within the public interest. For the
private sector, the principal function is to provide facilities and services to tourists while
maximizing returns on the investment. The private sector has come to accept that it has social
and environmental responsibilities. It is also recognized that entrepreneurial flair may create
tourism development opportunities beyond those identified in the prepared tourism plan. The
formal plan should be composed with sufficient latitude and flexibility to accommodate such
initiatives, especially if it is responding to shifts in tourist preferences. Some of these changes in
preferences may be identified through the constant monitoring and evaluation of tourism
activity by consultants, market research investigators, design professionals, and project
managers. Financial institutions and corporate lending agencies will pay particular interest in
the changes of fashion and the dictation of the tourism market.

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The World Tourism Organization (WTO) has described the distinctiveness of the roles of the
public and private sectors by the principle that governments should not seek to do what the
private sector is able and willing to do. However, in many cases of large-scale development the
private sector and government may work in a partnership. Other partnerships may develop
where governments assist indigenous landowners with the commencement of an enterprise to
be managed eventually by indigenous communities.

The perspective of the tourist on tourism planning is different from the other stakeholders. The
interests of every tourist cut across the various independent decisions made' by governments
and the private sector; the tourist is concerned with the experience which can be gained. In
most cases, the tourist is little concerned with who provides the service, who built the facility,
who owns the land, or which regulations were applied. In the conduct of tourism planning, the
interests of the tourist must be considered with those of the host community. If that is not the
case, the sustainability of tourism activity at that destination may be in jeopardy.

One of the principal purposes of tourism planning is to bring into harmonious balance the
different interests of the various stakeholders. This balance may be achieved through the
establishment of an appropriate multi-faceted institutional framework.

In tourism development plans, an effective institutional framework is considered to be one of

the principal determinants of successful tourism development. This section considers the most
important elements of an institutional framework related to the special needs of developing
countries like Ethiopia.

Consideration of institutional framework for tourism sector

Consideration will be given to the following:

 Public sector organizations

 Structure of national tourism offices (NTO)
 Legislative framework
 Private sector organizations
 Facilitation systems and procedures.
Public sector organizations

Reasons for public sector involvement in tourism

There are three groups of reasons for public sector involvement in tourism: political, environ-
mental, and economic. International tourism involves the crossing of national boundaries, a
matter that necessitates policies and procedures regarding the entry and exit of travelers. The
encouragement of international tourism raises the international profile of the host nation, and

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promotes international agency support in the development of infrastructure systems and
services, which are of benefit also to national residents.

It is becoming apparent that one of the potential debilitating aspects of tourism development is
the impact on the environment, the history and cultural heritage, and even the routine quality
of life and lifestyles of the resident community. The protection and conservation of the natural
environment and heritage is a responsibility of the national government. As tourism generates
employment, income, economic diversification, export earnings and foreign exchange, it is
incumbent upon governments to ensure that’ the maximum benefit accrues to the national
economy and the welfare of the host nation through the development of policies and practices
which achieve the retention of high levels of benefit within the nation.

There is considerable diversity in the type and degree of government involvement in tourism
activity, but generally there is evidence that levels of government involvement parallel the
degree of importance, which is attached to tourism as a generator of social and economic
benefit and as a potential cause of debilitation of natural and heritage resources. Another
important determining factor is the political system; the range extends from considerable
involvement in governmental systems of highly centralized economies, to very loose
involvement in systems of a predominantly free-enterprise philosophy.

A third important determinant is the level of socio-economic development. In general, when the
level of economic development is greater, the need for government involvement is lesser and
vice versa. An aspect of this level of socio-economic development is the maturity and financial
capabilities of the private sector; the greater the competence of the private sector, the less need
there is for public sector involvement. In the cases of many of the developing countries, there is
a strong rational for high levels of government involvement in tourism because of all three of
these factors.

What are the possible roles of the public sector?

The principal public sector roles and functions are as follows:

 The preparation and administration of tourism policy

 The preparation, administration and monitoring of the tourism plan
 The coordination of public and private sector groups
 The preparation and administration of tourism-related legislation and regulation
 The provision and maintenance of infrastructure services
 The stimulation of investment and development
 The conduct of promotion and marketing strategies
 The provision of education and training programs to support the tourism, travel and
hospitality industries
 The collection of tourism-related data.

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In addition to these overt roles and functions, public sector roles include:

 Supervising immigration procedures

 Maintaining quarantine regulations
 Supervising and coordinating tourism-related activities across different levels of
government
 Coordinating private sector initiatives
 Coordinating policies and programs
 Monitoring and enforcing building, planning and health regulations
 Administration of national assets (such as national parks and heritage buildings)
 Coordinating off-shore borrowing for tourism development
 Supporting indigenous cultures and land ownership systems.
Without a clearly defined role for involvement of the public sector in tourism planning and
development, there is the possibility of a destination being developed in a haphazard and
potentially negative manner, possibly neutralizing the original attractiveness. For a tourism
policy and plan to be brought into effect, it is necessary to have an organization responsible for
its implementation. This is the principal justification for public sector involvement.

Some countries have a separate department and ministerial portfolio, which is responsible for
policy, planning, and administration in tourism. In some of these countries, the tourism function
is handled as one activity within a department or portfolio concerned with Commerce, Economic
Development, Transport, Trade, Industry, or any combination of these. Sometimes, the word
"tourism" occurs in the departmental title, a factor that gives it some visibility and status. In
some cases, a specially created bureau, agency, authority, or commission performs the tourism
function. This diversity of the tourism function in governments may be indicative of a degree of
ambivalence about that function.

In some African countries, especially those in which the significance of tourism is only emerging
slowly, it may be that tourism is not accorded a high governmental profile. What is important is
the degree of serious attention given to the policy-forming and planning processes, the systems
of administration and supervision, and the degree of government support given to the tourism
development function. It will be recognized that a distinct government department and portfolio
for tourism is indicative of the degree of significance attached to tourism as an aspect of
national policy direction.

In Ethiopia tourism in its modern form was organized and started in the early 1960s with the
establishment of the Organization of African Union (OAU) and the United Nations Economic
Commission for Africa (UNECA) in Addis Ababa. Since the beginning of 1970s it started
operating as an independent institution with the necessary departments by the name of the
Ethiopian Tourism Commission. Recognizing the political, socio/cultural, economic and
environmental impacts of tourism the current government of Ethiopia has elevated tourism at a

85
rank of ministry by the name of “Ministry of Culture and Tourism”. At present tourism is
structured with the necessary departments responsible for policy, planning, administration of
tourism at federal and regional levels. However, these departments are not well staffed due to
lack of tourism professionals at all levels.

National tourism offices (NTO)

In general, a national tourism organization responsible for planning, coordination, regulation,

information, and promotion and marketing, with the status of a statutory body, but located
outside the conventional civil service structure, is indicative of a government’s commitment to
serious tourism administration, promotion, marketing and legislation.

A particular hazard of an NTO structure that is outside but part of the government structure is
the potential for under-funding and the under-development of suitable professional tourism
expertise.

Alternative designations include tourism/visitors bureau, tourist authorities, tourism offices,

tourism commissions, tourism promotion authorities, or national tourism offices.

Principal functions

Among the principal functions performed by a NTO are:

 Planning and development

 Marketing and promotion
 Manpower development, tourism education and training
 Compilation of research and statistics
 Visitor information services
 Industry regulation, inspection and licensing
 Public education and awareness.
The nature and size of many NTOs is such that the discrete functioning of these activities is not
possible. In many cases, organizational principles of flexibility and multi-functional staffing are
adopted. No matter what the adopted structure is, the principal activities will remain:

 To achieve an increase in visitor numbers

 To achieve an expansion of the tourism plant by attracting investment
 To develop the destination's product base
 To develop the necessary human resources
 To ensure idle capacity is taken up and new opportunities created.
The size, scope, configuration, staffing complement, skills, and the functions required of a NTO
will be determined by the:

 Tasks allocated to it by the government

 Degree of significance accorded tourism planning and development
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  Degree of autonomy or integration within conventional government structures
 Professional competence
 Budget allocation.
Public Organizational Models

 A separate government ministry with responsibility for all aspect of tourism management.

 A government ministry with a mixed portfolio, part of which is responsible for all aspects of
tourism.

 A separate or mixed – port folio government ministry which is responsible for policy,
planning, setting, and enforcing industry standards, licensing, requirements and procedures,
and often some development and research with marketing and perhaps some development
and research being done by a non – statutory or statutory board or tourism development
corporation.

 A non- statutory board appointed by government, which has no legal powers, is therefore
subordinate to a government department, and is responsible for all or certain aspects of
tourism.

 A statutory board, which is established by law, comprises an autonomous legal entity, and is
responsible for all or certain aspects of tourism.

 A tourism development corporation, which is responsible for all tourism development and
related matters, or for development of particular tourism projects such as resorts or tourist
attraction features.
In highly socialised economics, a government department or corporation, this is responsible
for all aspects of tourism management including hotel operations and tourist facilities and
services. A separate government ministry for tourism is justified when tourism has become an
important sector of economy. The best or optimum combination of ministry and tourism is to
combine tourism with transport and communication because they all are closely related.

In the mixed economy, an effective approach is to place the tourism policy, planning and
industry (facility) standards functions in a government ministry because the government
should determine integrating tourism policy, planning and development standards for any
sector, and give the responsibility for marketing and perhaps some development and research
to a statutory board. For specific tourism project sponsored by government establishing of an
autonomous development corporation is often an effective technique. This can be responsible
for large integrated projects, which can't be implemented easily.

Since co-ordination is essential in the effective development and management of tourism, the
private sector and other institutions often needs to be organised for discussing, reaching
agreement on matters relevant to the smooth and co-ordinated operation of tourism. It can
co-ordinate on issues such as immigration and customs procedures, transportation

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development and operation, other infrastructure development and operation, licensing
requirements, park development, environment protection etc.

Typical National Tourism Organisation Chart

Ministry of Tourism

Tourism Advisory Committee

Department Of Tourism

Administrative Services

Marketing & Information Research & Education & Planning &

Statistics Training Development
Services

Market Planning Special Planning & Development

and Promotion Studies Programming Policy &
Planning

Statistical Training
Overseas Offices
Compilation Institution Facility
SOURCES OF FINANCING & Collection Standards

There is little consistency across the various models of NTO in the funding procedures.
Local Tourist Information Offices
The options include: Development
Implementation
 Full funding by the national government by grant
 Partial funding from information, publications and advisory services
 Revenue from fees charged for registration and licensing
 Revenue from taxes, including airport taxes, taxes levied on accommodation, and
entertainment, funding from regional agencies, and development grants from
international agencies.
Organization at sub-national level

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In the case of Ethiopia, tourism offices are organized at regional and zonal levels. The regional
states in Ethiopia are able to support the development of their own, independent tourism
offices. The NTO in this case the Ministry of Culture and Tourism may need to consider providing
support services, including professional staff.

Some African countries operate under processes of government devolution to provinces or

states, with these devolved units empowered to develop and promulgate their 'own tourism
strategies and to pursue independent administrative practices. Such discretion may lead to
problems, especially of competition, lack of consistency and integration. As tourism is an
international activity, it is necessary for governments to deal with international airlines, cruise
lines, and tour wholesalers, each of which is more likely to acknowledge the total national entity
rather than its component parts. Essentially, tourism development in any nation is indivisible,
irrespective of the different degrees of geographical concentration or dispersion. Unilateral
action by any province or sub-national unit will have repercussions on the entire nation. If it is
the governmental preference that regional autonomy should be practiced, then it becomes
incumbent upon the NTO to facilitate coordination, integration, consistency, and compatibility
of policies and practices. It may be necessary to establish a nation-wide tourism consultative
committee to facilitate liaison and coordination.

International and regional affiliations

To achieve regional coordination and cooperation, it is appropriate for NTOs to become

affiliated with appropriate international and regional organizations such as the United Nations
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) or any other regional organizations. In addition, to
pursue efficient tourism strategies in the context of sustainable development the NTO should
become affiliated in a suitable way with and draw on the services of other international and
regional agencies.

LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK

The role of the public sector in setting and enforcing various forms of legislation and regulation
is both essential and controversial, especially in free-enterprise driven tourism destinations. The
controversy arises because governments may consider it essential to introduce legislation and
regulations because the private sector cannot be relied upon to regulate and control its
operations effectively, and the private sector considers governments may go too far in their
interference, involvement, and enforcement.

It is not unusual for the tourism industry to allege that the optimization of its contribution to the
national economy is impeded by the degree and range of intervention from all levels of
government. In large economies, there is often an extensive range of government agency

89
programs and regulations, some of which directly affect tourism and others, which indirectly
affect tourism.

The description, which follows here, may not be strictly relevant across all developing countries.
The range and scope of legislation and regulation will depend on the scale of the tourism
activity. However, there are some basic health, safety, environment, and facilitation
regulations, which may be considered necessary for every nation, which is a tourism destination
including Ethiopia.

Legislation and regulation taxonomy/arrangements

Even if the government and the tourist industry agree that the government should avoid
unnecessary regulation of the industry, there remain crucial areas of government responsibility
for which suitable forms of regulations may be necessary. These include protection of the
environment, economic development, border controls, public health and safety, and planning
and building codes. In addition, there are cases, which can be made for government regulation
of classification, and grading of hotels, and restaurants, licensing of liquor sales, consumer
protection, visitor liability, employment conditions, taxes and tariffs, and weights and capacities
of vehicles.

These matters may be controlled by regulation generally or by particular tourism sectors -

accommodation, restaurant and catering, transport, entertainment, and so on. In addition,
there may need to be specific regulations, which will apply to retailing, car rental, commercial
attractions, and theme parks.

Specific legislation for tourism bureau

Some governments have enacted legislation specifically to encourage a preferred model of

public sector tourism operation and organization. Such legislation establishes the bureau,
commission, or authority and confers nominated powers and responsibilities.

Complementary Regulations

A number of spheres of complementary regulations will influence the conduct of tourism

planning and development, and if not within the control of the NTO or tourism agency, will at
least need input and advice from that source. Such complementary regulations may include:

 Review processes for tourism development project proposals

 Applications for loan financing for tourism projects
 Applications for building permits
 Licensing and regulation of hotels, restaurants and other tourism businesses
 Consumer protection

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  Licensing and regulation of tour guides, tour wholesalers, travel agents, transport
operators, and tourism business operators.
In addition, some agencies may be empowered to impose levies on hotels in order to raise
revenue for nominated tasks such as tourism marketing and promotion, or for tourism facility
construction (such as airport expansion).

Of particular significance is legislation and regulation of land use planning, infrastructure

servicing, building and construction, and building and heritage conservation.

Concluding comments

The general purposes of the legislative framework include:

 The protection of the general interests of the citizens of the host country and of visitors
to the tourism destination
 The protection and conservation of the destination's natural, historical and cultural
resources
 The assurance of health and safety of visitors
 The protection of visitors from unscrupulous tourism practices.
There may be a danger that the decision-making process and the system of regulations will
become over-bureaucratized, and the pace of decision-making too slow. Such a situation may
be the outcome of a lack of coordination and cooperation between government agencies. The
key should be the adoption of a legislative system, which facilitates suitable and sustainable
tourism development, while allowing the tourism industry to be innovative.

PRIVATE SECTOR ORGANISATION

Tourism related private sector organisation serve several important purposes. Including - providing a

forum for discussion and resolution of common problem of tourism enterprises.

 Making co-ordinate recommendations to the government tourism offices for improvements in the
tourism sector.

 Conducting research and training that is relevant to the private sector and sponsoring special
events.
Private sector organisations are typically organised by type of enterprises: hotels, restaurants, tour and

travel agencies, and sometimes retail or duty free shops. Normally they are organised separately such as

Hotel Association, but may be combined for e.g. a hotel & restaurant association etc.

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Financing of private sector tourism organisation is through dues paid by the member tourism

enterprises of the organisation.

INVESTMENT POLICIES

The survey & analysis steps of the planning process on investment policies will determine the present

investment policies of the country for mobilisation of capital for all types of development including

tourism.

The availability of capital for investment, whether international or local or a combination of these, will

also have been examined. The tourism plan recommendations & economic analysis indicate the

magnitude of capital required for investment, & the type of investment needed such as for development

of infrastructure, hotels, resorts & tourists attractions.

In highly developed economies, there may be sufficient financial resources available in public & private

sectors for the investment required, & the need will be only for financial programming in the public

sector, and allowing the private sector to mobilise its own capital resources.

A basic consideration & decision which needs to be made by the government is the source of financing

infrastructure development such as airport improvements/main roads/ improvements to multi water

supply, electric power, sewage & solid waste disposal system.

The government must make the investment required. For public type tourist attraction such as National

parks and archaeological & historic sites, the cost can be recovered through admission fees and

revenues from franchising other commercial operations. For e.g. restaurants, retail sales outlets and

sometimes accommodation to private entrepreneurs.

If the some cases, the local capital is insufficient then considerations must be given to attracting outside

capital (Outside the country or region). And a decision made whether total outside capitalisation is

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allowed or joint venture will be required.

If either there is difficulty in attracting the limited local financing or outside capital, then provision of

incentives to attract the investment required can be considered.

Investment Incentives

If it has been determined that investment incentives are required, then the types of incentives or a

combination of incentives is decided. The various forms of incentives include the following: -

1. Provision of land at moderate or no cost at suitable sites for development of tourist facilities such as
hotels/resorts, in some areas, where land acquisition is difficult, just the assembly of land by the
government for suitable development sites is sufficient incentive

2. Provision of offsite infrastructure at no cost to the development.

3. Provision of all or part of the onsite infrastructure, for which the cost may be eventually recovered
through usual fees or lease rent of the hotel and other commercial sites on a long term basis.

4. Complete or partial exemptions from customs duties on imported items used in development &
perhaps operation of tourist facilities & services such as materials, machinery and equipment
required for hotels and restaurants and transportation vehicles such as tour buses and boats. The
specific items and amount of exemption allowed are listed in the incentives.

5. Complete or partial exemption from income tax made from the facilities for a specified number of
years i.e. tax holidays.

6. Complete or partial exemption from property taxes for a specified number of years.

7. Provision of loan up to a certain percent of investment cost for development of tourist facilities

8. Provision of grants up to a certain percent of investment cost on the number of accommodation

units for development of tourist facilities

9. Allowances of foreign exchange credits from foreign sources for allocation to investment in tourist
facilities

10. Provision of subsidies on interest payments of loan for the initial years of operation of hotels and
other facilities.

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 CHAPTER NINE

TOURISM FACILITY DEVELOPMENT STANDARDS

Importance of Establishing Standards
Development and design standards for tourist facilities, such as hotels,
resorts and visitor facilities at attraction features apply to building location
and configuration, architecture, landscaping and engineering and quality
assurance levels.
These standards should be set forth as a part of national or regional
plan.
Standards influence the satisfaction level of visitors and overall
environment quality of residents.
Standards should establish the physical framework or parameters of
design, within which there is considerable flexibility allowed to the
planner/ designer to apply his creativity and imagination.
Site Planning Considerations
“Site planning” refers to the specific location (or setting) of buildings and
related development forms on the land, and consider the functions of the
building their physical inter-relationship and characteristics of the Natural
environment setting.
Site planning includes location of roads, parking areas, landscaped areas and
footpaths, all of which are integrated with the building locations.
Avoiding Environmental Hazards:
One basic consideration of site planning is that buildings are not located and
designed in such a manner that environmental hazards may result. E.g.
flooding, land slippage, property damage drainage problem in low-lying
areas, earthquakes, high winds, rainfall or seismic waves.
Building Relationships:
The grouping of buildings such as accommodation is an important concern of
site planning.
The type of grouping selected depends on the density and character of
development desired. E.g. In the hotel central facility complex of the lobby,
reception desk, main restaurant shops and recreation facilities should be
within relatively close walking distance of all guest rooms or in a large low

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density resort complex, some form of transportation such as small electric
carts provided.
Alternate grouping of accommodation in resorts/hotels.

1) Solitary units
Building constrained by the landscape – extremely private. It is used in park
like setting for family groups.

2) Streets
More “urban” situation appropriates to beach or lake front increases the
opportunity for social interaction e.g. Pokhara.

3) Clusters
Also for “urban” or city situation

4) Row of five units

5) Row of six units

6) Row of ten units clusters

7) Courtyard grouping

8) Linear Arrangements

9) Maintaining Views
Another important consideration especially in resort development is
maintenance of view or at least view corridors towards the amenity features,
such as a beach, lake, scenery, of the site.
The location and height of buildings should be controlled so that view planes
of distant features such as mountains are maintained.
In a natural setting, it is important to integrate the buildings into the
environment as well as provide views.
Site Development Standards
Types of Development standards
There are several types of specific standards, which should be applied to the
controlled development of tourist facilities. These development of tourist
facilities. These development standards typically include the following:

1) Density of development

2) Heights of buildings

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3) A setback of buildings from amenity features roads, lot lines and other
buildings.

4) Ratio of the building floor area to the site area

5) Coverage of the site by building and other structures

6) Parking requirements

7) Other requirements such as for landscaping open space and public access
to amenity features
Establishing Development Standards
The exact requirement for each standard will vary depending on the type of
tourism development and environmental situation, although there is
generally an accepted range of requirements for each of the various types of
development. These standards are as follows:
Unit densities:
In tourism density refers to the numbers of accommodation units per acre or
hectare, and the density determines to a great extent the overall character
of the development. Very low density of 5-10 units per acre (12-25 units /
hectare) would imply individual cottage units.
Low to medium density of 10-30 units per acre (25-75 units per hectare)
would result in two- story blocks units.
High density of 30-60 units per acre (75-150 units / hectare) would require
about four story building or more ground coverage by buildings.
E.g. Unit density / site coverage and floor area ratio calculations.
For 1 story building
Lot area = 1000m2
Buildings area = 100 m2
Site coverage = 100/1000
= 10%
Number of units = 2
Unit Density = 2/0.1
= 20 units per hectare
For 2 story building

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Lot area = 1000m2
Building area = 200m2
Site coverage = 200/1000
= 20%
Number of units = 4
Unity Density = 4/0.2
=20 units per hectare
Building Heights:
The maximum allowable height of buildings greatly influences the
development character because of the obvious visibility of higher buildings.
If a very natural site appearance were desired, then the building would be
limited to one or two stories.
If the natural environment is to remain dominant but a higher density or
more compact development is wanted, four stories maximum height may be
established (this height is still usually below the tops of large trees).
Taller building will create a more urban character of development.
Building Set Back:
The “set back” or distance required, of main building from the amenity
features /roads / the site boundaries and other buildings are important to
maintain a sense of openness and sufficient space for landscaping, privacy
of buildings occupants and in some cases for safety reasons.
Adequate set backs from the beaches is particularly important for several
reasons:

 Protection of /building from damage that may result from beach erosion
and high waves

 Maintenance of natural appearance

 Allowance of adequate space for public access and recreational use by

tourists.

 Privacy of guests using accommodation or residents near the beach

In Hawaii, the shoreline set back is only 40 feet (about ten meters) while in
India; it is five hundred meters.
Floor Area Ratio:

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The floor area ratio is also a measurement of the intensity of development,
and refers to the ratio between the total floor area of the development such
as a hotel, and the total site area. It is calculated by dividing the gross floor
area by the area of the site and expressed as a percentage.
Site Coverage:
The coverage of the site by building and structures, also indicated as a
percentage, is an important control on the amount of open space in the
development. In a low to medium density resort, the site coverage by
building should be limited to about 25%, to allow for sufficient open space
and generous landscaping.
Off Street Parking:
Provision should be made for off street parking sufficient for all vehicles in
any tourism development, so those streets are not congested with parked
vehicle.
Public Access: Adequate public access should be provided to amenity
features and public facilities such as beach and cultural centres.
Landscaping:
Landscaping should be developed for scenic views, parking space, utility
buildings etc.
Underground Utility Lines:
Overhead electricity and telephone lines and their supporting poles are
unattractive elements of any environment including tourism areas.
Although, a very high voltage lines are difficult to place underground, the
lower voltage distribution lines, telephone cables can be economically
underground to maintain scenic views and low maintenance cost.
Sign Controls:
Large, unattractive and inappropriately located signs can greatly detract
from the appearance of any area.
Sign controls standards should be established with respect to type, location,
size, and material used and lighting of signs.
The Time Square in New York and Ginza in Tokyo have bright, flashing
advertising signs.
Design Considerations

 Architectural design consideration

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 Landscaping design consideration

 Engineering design consideration

Architectural design consideration:

For hotels and other tourist facilities must be flexible than development
considerations to allow for the creativity of the architect.

1. Local styles and “motifs”: If there are local, traditional or historical

architectural styles, these should be incorporated into the design where
possible, so that tourist facilities fit into the local environment and
reinforce the architectural character of the area.

2. Roof lines: The design of roofs (Flat, pitched, over hang etc) is critical
design element and should reflect local architectural style and the natural
environment.

3. Local building material: To the extent possible it should relate to the

local architectural styles as is often the case with wood, brick or stone
construction. Also the use of local materials may be less expensive and
provides income and employment to the residents of the area.

4. Environmental relationship: Building design should relate to the

natural environment and should also take advantage of any views from
the site such as lobbies, verandas, courtyard etc.

Landscape Design Consideration

Landscape architecture is concerned with the relationship and appearance of
the total environment, with particular reference to plants and landscaping
features such as water bodies, footpaths and outdoor furniture and lighting.

Engineering Design Considerations

It should be established to ensure that minimum standards are met in
Tourism development areas. These engineering design considerations
include:

 Roads:
Various categories of roads are established based on projected traffic
usage, and their respective road width and related drainage ways,
walkways, and landscaping areas determined. Cross sections of these
various roadways are drawn to illustrate the road standards including
depth and types.

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 Drainage

 Water supply

 Electric power

 Sewage disposal

 Solid waste disposal

 Tele communication

 Building construction standards

 Sanitation standards

 Other types of Engineering design standards for e.g. Ski lift and Cable car
system, which require specific standards especially as related to safety
factors.
Typically, the country or region establishes general engineering design
standards and then each tourism development area will need to adapt these
to the local situation, but always with the minimum standards set at the
national or regional level.
Tourist Facility Quality Standards
It includes quality levels of service established at national or regional levels.
These particularly include standards for accommodation, restaurants and
tour and travel services.
Accommodation & Restaurants
Minimum standards can be established for hotels and other types of
accommodation based for e.g. on size of rooms, provision of additional
facilities and other factors such as public health and sanitation.

 Unlicensed hotels should not being allowed to operate and minimum

standards for hotel licensing should be established.

 Hotel classification should be established

 Independent restaurant standards are more difficult to apply beyond the

minimum level of sanitation standards being met.
Tour & Travel Operations
These should meet minimum standards of maintaining a qualified staff and
being financially responsible.

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 A licensing procedure should be applied to ensure that minimum
standards are met.

 Tour guides should also be licensed

 Any tour agency having tour buses, cars, and other vehicles should
ensure that these should be efficient, comfortable and in safe conditions.

 Accreditation by other international or regional agencies should be

promoted to maintain the authenticity and reliability in delivering
services.

CHAPTER TEN

TOURISM PLAN IMPLEMENTATION AND MONITORING

Approach to Implementation and Monitoring
The tourism plan must be prepared in such a manner that it is realistic to
implement and implementation approaches and techniques must be

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considered throughout the planning process and be integrated into the plan.
A comprehensive plan should include a specific section on recommendation
for plan implementation (because tourism is multi-sectoral activity and
requires co-ordination with various other governments’ agencies).
Respective Role of the Public and Private Sectors:
An important policy consideration is the role of government in developing
tourism i.e. overall planning, development programming, legislation and
regulations, development of major infrastructure such as international
airports and major highways and some marketing are typically the
responsibility of the government.
Also, many types of tourist attractions such as National parks, Conservation
of archaeological and historic sites and development of museums are
responsibility of the government.
Development of other tourist facilities and services, such as hotels, tour and
travel agencies, minor attraction and local infrastructure may be the
responsibility of either the public or private sector depending on the
governments and National policy.
The respective roles of the public and private sectors may change through
time depending on changing circumstances in the country.
Initially when the area is commencing to develop tourism, the government
may need to take a lead role including development of the commercial
facilities.
Later, the private sector can take the lead in investment.
Implementation of the Structure Plan
Several implementation techniques relate particularly to the tourism
structure plan, as explained in the following sections.
Development Staging and Programming
An essential technique to achieve systematic and efficient implementation is
staging and programming of development.
Staging at the national and regional levels indicates when and where
development should be commenced or start with related infrastructure also
staged. Determination of staging depends on such factors as market growth,
location and accessibility of the various areas and their relationship to tourist
attraction development, programming of major general purpose
infrastructure such as airports and roads and availability of financing.

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Staging is usually shown as first, second and later stages and related to time
periods, often in five-year increments.
Zoning and Facility Regulations
It demarcate specific areas for different types of land uses and the
development standards to be applied within each land use zone, as a mean
of implementing land use plan and ensuring that the standards are followed.
These zones include different types of commercial, residential, industrial,
agricultural, parks and conservation and perhaps other land uses.
At national and regional levels, zoning is general, usually known major types
are land uses such as urban/ agriculture and conservation and may comprise
of tourism zone where the area is reserved for resort.
The physical-planning department should be directly involved in the
establishment and administration of the zoning regulations applicable to
tourism development, in co-operation with the tourism department.
The standards formulated for licensing of hotels/ restaurants/ tour and travel
services and other tourist facilities and services, and the hotel classification
system if recommended, should be incorporated into regulation, which are
adopted and administered on a continuing basis.
Tour Program
Well-designed & imaginative tour programme can provide various benefits to
the country or region including the following: -

a) Spreading the economic benefits more widely geographically and

throughout the society through provision of tourist services and direct
tourist spending along the tour routes.

b) Providing additional employment and income through the local facilities

and services required operating tour programmes.

c) Expanding the tourist market and extending the average length of stay of
tourists by providing a variety of interesting tours.
In the national or regional plan, prototypical tour programmes are designed
to provide a framework and guide for preparing the specific tourism
programmes in the future. Various types of tour programmes should be
considered, often ranging from half day to those lasting several days or a
few weeks and utilising different means of transportation, sightseeing,
countryside viewing, museums, shopping, trekking, hiking, walking tours or a
combination of these.

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Parks and Conservation Programmes
Since these are important and special tourist attractions, hence these
conservation areas should be legally designated, detailed conservation and
management plans prepared for them, and these plans implemented.
For important sites international assistance may be available, such as is
taking place at Moenjadaro in southern Pakistan, Lumbini in Nepal, and
several other sites in the world through UNESCO assistance, so that
attractions are properly conserved and managed.
Project Planning and Development
For implementation of specific projects, detailed planning and feasibility
analysis are necessary for e.g. a proposed resort will first require land use
planning. Before or concurrently with the land use planning, a market and
economic feasibility analysis should be conducted; environment and socio-
cultural feasibility, site planning, architectural, landscaping and engineering
designs can be done.
After cost estimation for development programme, it should be made sure
that estimated planning cost is sufficient to ensure proper land use planning,
feasibility analysis and environment assessment.
Project planning and development is a specialised subject but, in general
terms, the process can be sequentially described as follows:

o Step 1 – Project Identification

This is preferably done as a part of the overall tourism development
programme.

o Step 2 – Project Screening

This involves conceptual planning and pre-feasibility analysis.

o Step 3 – Project Feasibility

This involves detailed planning and design, feasibility analysis and the
environment impact assessment.

o Step 4 – Project Funding

This includes finding the source of funding, which may require project
promotion, and provision of incentives, and mobilization of the funding.

o Step 5 – Project Implementation

This is the actual physical development of the project. Critical path
organization techniques are often applied to ensure that the projects

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 are developed efficiently and on schedule.

o Step 6 – Project Management

This is management of the continuous operation of the project, which
often requires promotion of it to the tourist markets.
Another step may be interposed between step four and five if there is need
to establish a special form of project organizational structure such as a
development corporation.

Market Planning
It is a specialized discipline. The tourism planner should aware of the basic
approaches in market planning as it relates to overall implementation of the
comprehensive tourism plan.
Market planning deals with the techniques of how to attract the targeted
type and numbers of tourists to the country.
The first step is formulation of the marketing objectives and strategy, which
then forms the basis for preparation of the tourism promotion programme.
Marketing Objective and Strategy
The marketing objectives will be represented by the market targets
established in the market analysis of the types and number of tourist to be
attracted. These will have been established for the long-term period of the
plan and for periodic intervals, usually five-year periods. The marketing
strategy is then formulated based on the objectives of market targets.
Keeping in mind the recommended tourism development policy and plan
including the staging of development and the tourist product being offered.
The marketing strategy sets forth the most effective approach to be applied
in achieving the objectives, for e.g. the type of promotional techniques,
which should be used, the timing or priority scheduling of promotional efforts
to certain country, or specific tourist markets. The image of the area to be
conveyed, any particular barrier to be overcome such as recent political
instability or natural disasters, and relationship of the marketing to certain
development projects being completed.
The strategy should be flexible and include domestic as well as international
tourist markets.
Feasibility analysis of the relative cost and benefits of supporting overseas
tourism promotion offices should be done.

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The marketing strategy should be reviewed fairly often and modified if
necessary according to the changing market trends.
Promotion Programme
Based on the marketing strategy and knowledge of marketing distribution
channels and the various techniques available, the specific programme is
prepared for three to five year period. The types of promotional techniques
to be considered are diverse but include the following:

1. Preparation of promotional and publicity materials such as brochures,

posters, post cards, maps, travel agent manuals and information leaf lets
for distribution to the tourist consumer and the travel trade. The types
and numbers of material to be produced by year must be decided.

2. Preparation of audio-visual presentation material such as slide/ films and

video shows for use in seminars and other types of presentation.

3. Advertising in consumer oriented newspapers and magazine with

specified types or names of periodicals.

4. Advertising in travel trade publication aimed at the tour operators and

other trade organisations.

5. Distribution (direct mailing, bulk shipping etc.) of the collateral material,

with specification of the type and number by year.

6. Attendance including setting up exhibit booths at annual tourism fairs

such as ITB (International Tourism exchange), World Travel Mart, these
trade fairs are increasing rapidly throughout the world, they are serving
as platforms to make new and new contacts and expand business. A
decision must be made as to which one to attend.

7. Special promotional trips to certain market countries to conduct sales

seminars for travel agents; these seminars may be conducted by the
overseas promotion offices if they exist.

8. Inviting and hosting visits by tour operators and travel writers and
photographers.

9. Preparation and publication of tourist guides and general information

books of the area. If they are not available economically these can be sold
and the publication cost recovered.

Implementation and Monitoring Process

A. Plan Review:
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 Close co-ordination with the relevant government agencies, private
sector representatives and other concerned parties such as community
organisation should have been maintained throughout the planning
process.
A steering committee or Tourism Board provides advice and guidance
to the planning team and reviews the draft reports including the
preliminary recommendations.
Thus, after the final plan preparation, it will be understood and
reviewed so those, high-level government officials and others can be
told about the plans in some seminars regarding the future of tourism
in the country.

B. Plan Adoption:
After reviewing, plan should be legally adopted.

C. Adoption of Legislation and Regulations

The legislation and various types of regulations prepared to implement
the plan and manage the continuing operation of tourism should, of
course be legally adopted. Some regulations such as for land use
zoning and development standard may either be adopted separately
or incorporated into existing regulations if they exist.

D. Integration Into Public and Private Sector Development Policies,

Plans and Programmes
After adoption, the relevant aspect of the plan should be integrated
into other related plans of the area which may exist such as national
/regional development policies and physical plans, parks, recreation
and conservation plans, agricultural and fisheries programmes,
transportation plans and any other pertinent infrastructure plans.
The private sector and Development Corporation may also have
tourism related development programmes or want to adopt such
programmes and the tourism sector programmes should be integrated
into these. For e.g. a hotel development or Management Company
may have a programme for developing new hotels in the area and
should be aware of the national or regional tourism development
programme and confirm to it.

E. Development Funding and Project Implementation

It may either be public or private sector and locally or internationally
financed or a combination of these. In preparing the proposed

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 development programme, possible sources of funding should be
anticipated so that the funding is available when needed.

F. Continuous Monitoring of Tourism

Continuous monitoring of tourism and of economic cost and benefits
and socio-cultural and environmental impacts, marketing strategy,
promotion programme should be done on formal basis. A monitoring
programme for country should be then with specific personnel and
sufficient staff time allocated to be responsible for this function.

G. Adjustment to The Plans and Programmes

The monitoring will determine whether tourism is “on track” or not, or
whether adjustment should be made to the plan or implementation
schedule to achieve the development objectives. If certain project is
falling behind schedule then their implementation will need to be
accelerated.

H. Periodic Formal Plan Review and Revision

It should be done after five year to cope up with changing trends of
tourism in the world.
In the final analysis, the success of implementation depends, very much as
political determination and effective leadership in the country, as well as on
the various implementation mechanisms and technical capabilities
employed.

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