COMPUTER NETWORKS AND DATA COMMUNICATION

I. Computer Networks
The term network refers to group of objects, people, concepts, which are connected or linked to one another. A
computer network is a collection of computers, printers, and other devices that are connected together so they
can communicate and share resources. The smallest network can be as simple as two computers linked
together. The resources shared include software, files, folders, printers, disk drives and anything else that exists
on a computer. Any computer or device on a network is called a node or host.
Networking is the term that describes the processes involved in designing, implementing, upgrading, and
managing and otherwise working with networks and network technologies with its main objectives to share
resources.
A computer that is not connected or linked to another computer is referred to as a stand-alone computer. Such
a computer needs its own printer, hard disk drives and its own application programs.
For a device to be connected in a network, it must be connected through a cable, telephone lines, radio waves,
satellites, or infrared light beams and it must have a Network Interface Card (NIC), must have a Network
Operating System (NOS) and usually has at least one connecting device like hub or router that ties the
computer on the network together and must have a software that supports the movement of information in and
out the computer.
1. Types Of Computer Networks
Depending on the geographical area covered, networks can be classified as local area networks, wide area
networks, metropolitan area networks, personal area networks etc.
1.1. Local Area Network
A local area network (LAN) is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices usually
within an office building, school campus, or home. It enables the sharing of resources such as files or hardware
devices that may be needed by multiple users in an organization. A LAN is limited in size, spanning a few
hundred meters, and not more than a kilometer. It is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps. An example
of LAN is the network in the computer lab and Multimedia Resource Centre.
1.2. Metropolitan Area Network
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. It
is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire
cities. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. An example of a MAN is a cable TV
network.
1.3. Wide Area Network
A wide area network (WAN) covers a large geographic area such as a country, a continent or even the whole
world. It is a distributed collection of LANs. That is, it connects two or more LANs together. This is done
using devices such as bridges, routers or gateways, which enable them to share data. The largest and most well-
known example of a WAN is the Internet.
1.4. Personal Area Network
A personal area network (PAN) is a network that is used for communication among computers and computer
devices in close proximity of around a few meters within a room. A PAN usually includes laptops, mobile
phones, personal digital assistants, digital cameras and headsets. It can be used for communication between the
devices themselves or for connection to a larger network such as the Internet. The most popular is the Wireless
PAN (WPAN), a Wireless-Fidelity/Bluetooth connection between two laptop computers or phones.
1.5. Wireless - Local Area Network
A wireless - local area network (WLAN) is a LAN based on wireless network technology. WLANs use radio
signals as the medium for communication. Wireless network cards are required to be installed in the systems
for accessing any wireless network around.
2. Network Components
2.1. Network Operating System
A network operating system (NOS) is an operating system that supports networking. It provides the ability to
share resources like printers, file system, database, applications, and the ability to manage a network name
directory, security, and other housekeeping aspects of a network. Examples of NOS are Artisoft's LAN tastic,
Novell's NetWare and Microsoft's LAN Manager. Some multi-purpose operating systems come with
capabilities that enable them to be described as network operating systems. Examples are Windows NT, XP,
Vista, 7 and 8.
2.2. Network Interface/Adapter Card
A network interface card (NIC) provides the physical interface (link) between the computer and the
communication medium. A NIC manages the communication and network protocol for the PC. It prepares
data, sends data and controls the flow of data. It plugs into the system board and provides ports for connection
to the network. There are two kinds of NIC: wired NIC for wired networks and wireless NIC (WNIC) for
wireless networks.

2.3. Hub
A hub is a device that works as central connecting point for multiple computers in a network. It has ports to
which the computers in the network are connected. Data sent to the hub is broadcasted to all the ports but, only
the destination computer receives it. There are three kinds of hubs:
 Passive hubs which only split the transmission signal so it can be sent to all the ports
 Active hubs (also called Multiport Repeaters) which regenerate data bits to maintain a strong signal over
extended cable lengths
 Intelligent hubs (also called Concentrators) usually have their own microprocessor chips and network
operating systems. They can be managed remotely on the network.
2.4. Switch
A switch is used at the same place as a hub but the difference between the two is that a switch has a switching
table within it. A switching table stores the Media Access Control (MAC) address of every computer
connected to the switch and sends the data only to the requested address, unlike the hub which broadcasts the
data to all the ports. Switches can therefore be considered as an advanced form of hubs.

2.5. Repeater
A repeater is a device used to expand the boundaries of a wired or wireless LAN. With physical media, data
transmissions can only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal degrades. Repeaters are used to
preserve signal integrity and extend the distance over which data can safely travel by regenerating the signals
they receive. Active hubs are considered as repeaters (multiport repeaters).
2.6. Bridge
A bridge, also called a layer 2 switch, is a device used to create a connection between two separate computer
networks or to divide one network into segments. Creating multiple segments in a local network reduces the
network traffic making the network to be faster and more efficient.

2.7. Router
A router is a device that joins several networks together and is responsible for routing data from one network
to another. It keeps track of the IP addresses of the computers on the networks connected to its network
interface cards and directs data packets appropriately. It is more powerful than a bridge because instead of just
choosing network segments based on previous traffic, a router can look up the best route for a packet to take.
Routers can be computers with operating systems and special network software, or they can be other dedicated
devices built by network manufacturers. The Internet relies heavily on routers.
2.8. Modem
MODEM (MOdulator-DEModulator) is a device that encodes data for transmission over a particular medium,
such as telephone line, coaxial cable, fiber optics, or microwaves. It converts digital signals from a computer to
analog signals or waveform for transmission over a medium (modulation) and converts analog signals from the
medium to digital signals understandable by the computer (demodulation). It can be external, internal i.e.
mounted inside the computer, or built-in i.e. integrated in the motherboard.
Common types of modems are:
o Dial-up Modem
o Cable Modem
o Domain Subscriber Line Modem (Asymmetric DSL & Symmetric DSL)
o Sat modem
2.9. Multiplexer
A multiplexer abbreviated (MUX) is a device that takes input signals from different sources and transmits them
over a single transmission line. This process is known as multiplexing. There are different types of
multiplexing:
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), in which the carrier bandwidth is divided into sub channels of
different frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in parallel.
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over the same channel in
alternating time slots.
 Code-division multiplexing (CDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over the same channel but
every signal is coded differently.
Orange and MTN use a combination of FDM and TDM called GSM while Camtel uses CDM.
2.10. Cables
A cable is use to physically connect nodes together. There are three common types of cables: coaxial cable,
twisted pair cable and fiber optical cables.
a. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an inner core and an outer flexible braided shield, both of conductive material
separated by an insulator. The braided shield prevents the cable from picking up or emitting electrical noise.
There are two types of coaxial cables: thin net and thick net.
b. Twisted Pair
Twisted-pair cable is the most common type of cabling used in LAN networks today. It consists of a pair or
pairs of insulated wires twisted together. Cable twisting helps reduce noise pickup from outside sources and
crosstalk on multi-pair cables. There are two types of twisted pair cables: shielded twisted pairs (STP) and
unshielded twisted pairs (UTP).
c. Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cables use optical fibers that carry digital data signals in the form of modulated light pulses. An
optic fiber consists of an extremely thin cylinder of glass, called the core, surrounded by a concentric layer of
glass, known as the cladding. Each cable has two fibers - one to transmit and one to receive.
 2.11. Gateway
A gateway is a device that connects two different computer networks using direct and systematic translations
between protocols. A gateway translates outgoing network traffic to the protocol needed by the destination
network. The term gateway is also sometimes loosely used to describe any device that acts as the entry or exit
point for a network.
2.12. Interworking
It is a technique of linking different networks by using intermediary devices such as routers or gateways.

Assignment: Give the difference between Extranet and Intranet.

3. Network Topologies
It is the arrangement of nodes in a communications network. There are two types of network topologies.
Physical network topology which refers is the physical layout or arrangement of the components of a network.
Logical network topology which refers to the way data circulates or travels along communication lines in a
network. The following are physical Network topologies.

3.1. Bus Topology

In bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable (trunk or backbone) known as bus, by a
transceiver either directly or by using a short drop cable. Bus transmits in both directions such that any
transmission can be received by all stations. All ends of the cable must be terminated, that is plugged into a
device such as a computer or terminator, to avoid signals from bouncing back.

a. Advantages
- Easy and inexpensive to set up as little cabling is required.
- Easy to include additional stations without disrupting the network.
- Failure of one node does not affect network.
b. Disadvantages
- High rate of data collision.
- Fails if there is any damage to the bus.
- Any break in the bus is difficult to identify.

3.2. Star Topology

In a star topology, all the computers are connected to a central device which could be a computer (server), a
hub or a switch. Any communications between computers in this topology must pass through the central node.
As such, the central node controls all the activities of the network.
 a. Advantages
- Breakdown of anode does not affect the network.
- No disruption of the network when connecting or removing devices.
- It is easy to detect faults.
- Good security because no workstation can interact with another without going through the server first.
b. Disadvantage
- Failure of the central node affects the entire network .
- It is costly due to the amount of cables required to connect the devices.

3.3. Ring Topology

In ring topology, all the nodes are connected in the form of a closed loop such that each node is connected to
two others. It uses an empty data packet called a token and a special protocol called token ring. Packets travel
around the ring in a clockwise direction. To transmit, a node requires an empty token.

a. Advantage
- No collision as data travels in one direction.
b. Disadvantage
- If a node in the network fails, the entire network fails.
- Network is disrupted when additional stations are added.

Other types of topologies are:

3.4. Mesh Topology:In a true mesh topology, every node is connected to every other
nodein the network.

3.5. Tree Topology:Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus
Topology.In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks is connected using Bus.

3.6. Hybrid Topology:Hybrid, as the name suggests, is mixture of two or more than
twodifferent things. Similarly in this type of topology we integrate two or more differenttopologies to form a
resultant topology which has good points (as well as weaknesses) ofall the constituent basic topologies rather
than having characteristics of one specifictopology.
 4. Network Standards
4.1. Token Ring Network
Token ring (IEEE 802.5 standard) is a network technology developed by IBM in which computers are
connected together in a ring. Token ring’s media-access method is called token passing. A special message,
called token, circulates along the ring from one computer to another and each computer can transmit only
while it is holding the token. Information flows in one direction along the ring from source to destination and
back to source. When a station wishes to transmit, it waits for the empty token to pass by. It seizes it and
inserts data into it and then releases it to the medium. The token circulates until it gets to the destination
computer that picks it and retrieves the data. After retrieving the data, it regenerates the token and sends it back
to the medium.

4.2. Ethernet Network

Ethernet (IEEE 802.3 standard) is the most common and widely used technology to establish any computer
network. An Ethernet network is formed by physically connecting the individual computer units to each other
in a bus topology or a star topology. Ethernet’s media access policy is CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection).
 CS: means that a station listens to the medium and transmits only if medium is idle
 MA: means that any station can use (access) the medium
 CD: means that each station stops transmitting immediately it senses a collision
When a collision is detected, the two stations involved will retransmit after a random time wait created by a
back off algorithm.

4.3. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

FDDI is a network technology that uses fiber-optic cables in a ring topology with dual rings on which
information can travel in opposite directions. The media access method for FDDI is token passing. The
primary ring is used for data transmission, and the secondary ring remains idle. Because of this double ring
topology, if a station fails or a cable becomes damaged, the dual ring is automatically wrapped around itself,
forming a single ring. This prevents downtime as a result of a failed machine or faulty wiring.

4.4. Wireless Network Standards

Wireless networks are established without physical wiring techniques involved. They use radio and infrared
signals and are based around one of these technologies: Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, WiMax, terrestrial microwaves and
satellite.
a. Bluetooth: is a low power, short-range wireless technology largely used to interconnect computing
devices into a personal area network. It is based on IEEE standard 802.15 which gives specifications for
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN).
b. Wi-Fi: stands for Wireless Fidelity. It is based on a set of wireless networking technologies known
as 802.11. These include 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g and 802.11n. The range of Wi-Fi network transmission is
about 30-40m indoors and up to about 100moutdoors.
c. WiMax: stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. It is based on IEEE standard
802.16 and facilitates high speed wireless network links to both fixed and mobile devices. The range of a
WiMax wireless connection is around 3-10km.
 5. Network Architectures (configuration)
5.1. Client-Server Architecture
Client/server is a network architecture in which a more powerful computer called server is dedicated to serving
less powerful computers called clients. Servers hold shared resources like files, programs and the network
operating system. They provide access to network resources to all the users of the network. There are many
different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several functions. For example, there are file servers,
print servers, mail servers, database servers and Web servers, to name a few. Users run applications on client
workstations which rely on servers for resources such as files, devices and even processing power.
Internet services are organized according to client/server architecture. Client programs such as Web browsers
and file transfer programs create connections to servers, such as Web and FTP servers. The clients make
requests of the server, and the server responds to the requests by providing the service requested by the client.

5.2. Peer-to-peer Architecture

Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a network configuration in which all the workstations (computer) have equal capabilities
and responsibilities. Each workstation acts both as a server and a client. This means that any computer on the
network can provide services to any other computer. Peer-2-peer is usually implemented where strict security
is not necessary. P2P networks are generally simpler and less expensive, but they usually do not offer the same
performance under heavy loads.

REMARK A Hybrid network combines client/server and peer-to-peer architectures. It is the most commonly
used network architecture.
Different between Intranet and Extranet: these are networks that are used within organizations.
Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on TCP/IP protocols belonging to an organization usually a
corporation and is only accessible to the organizations members, employees, or others with authorization.
Mostly protected using firewall software or firewall device. They are now the fastest-growing segment of the
Internet because they are much less expensive to build and manage than private networks based on proprietary
protocols e.g. companies, military, secret services like MI5 and CIA, etc.

Extranet: An extranet is a controlled private network allowing customers, partners, vendors, suppliers, and
other businesses to gain information without granting access to the organization entire network. It is often a
private part of a website e.g. banks, etc. it is expensive to implement and maintained.

Benefits of a Computer Network

a. File sharing
Networks allow files located on one system to be accessed remotely.
b. High Speed Resource Sharing
Networks allow resources like modems, printers, programs, and scanners to be shared amongst multiple users.
c. Communication
Computer networks have improved the way people communicate. People all over the world can communicate
and collaborate in a matter of minutes thanks to networks. In organizations, computer networks serve as the
backbone of daily communication
d. Save costs
Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean reduction in memory requirements
which indirectly means reduction in file storage expenses.
e. Increased Storage Capacity
A stand alone computer might fall short of storage memory, but when many computers are on a network, the
memory of different computers can be used in such a case.
f. Teleconferencing or Videoconferencing
This is a communication technology that integrates video and voice to connect remote users with each other as
if they were in the same room. Each user needs a computer, webcam, microphone, and broadband internet
connection to participate. This enables organizations to save travelling cost for employees.
g. Backups: Files can be backed up more easily when they are all on a central file server rather than when
they are scattered across a number of independent workstations.

5.3. Limitations of a Computer Network

a. Security concerns
If a computer is a standalone computer, physical access becomes necessary for any kind of data theft.
However, if a computer is on a network, a hacker or intruders can get unauthorized access by using different
tools.
b. Malware attacks
Computers connected to a network are susceptible to malware attacks. If one system gets infected by a virus,
there is a possible for the other systems getting infected too
 The initial set up cost is high (needs NIC, NOS, Software, etc.)
 Increased risk of data corruption since many users use the system.
 Networks are always expensive to maintain so needs experts services.

II. Data Communication System

Objectives
- Describe data communication.
- Explain modes of data communication.
- Explain asynchronous method of data transmission.
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between two devices via some form of communication
channel. In data communication the following basic terms are frequently used:
o Data: a collection of facts in raw form that becomes information after processing.
o Signal: an electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
o Signaling: propagation of signals across a communication channel.
o Transmission: sending of data from one place to another by means of signals.

Data Transfer Rate

It is the rate of that a certain amount of data is transferred over a given period of time. It can be in KB, MB,
GB, TB, etc. The same applies to the time taken i.e. mille-seconds, seconds, minutes, etc. mathematical
relationship can be expressed as shown below.
Data Transfer Rate = Quantity of data transferred/Time taken
It can be in KB/s

1. Basic Elements Of a Communication System

There are five basic components in a communication system.
 Data Source: creates data for transmission
 Transmitter: encodes data for transmission
  Communication channel: connecting medium between communicating devices
 Receiver: decodes transmitted data back to original
 Destination: the final destination of the transmission
Example: John calls Peter on phone.
The data source is John, the transmitter is John’s phone, the communication channel is the telephone cable or
microwave, the receiver is Peter’s phone and the destination is Peter.

Communication Software’s: To communicate over a network you need some communication software. Since
there are a number of different communication tasks, there are different kinds of software to manage each task.
There are NOS, Dialing software, File transfer software, Terminal emulation programs, Data encryption
programs, and Instant messaging programs.

2. Data Transmission Concepts

2.1. Analog and Digital Signals
Data is transmitted from one point to another by means of electrical signals that may be in analog or digital
form.
a. Analog Signals
An analog signal is one in which information is represented as a continuous variation of some physical
property or quantity. Analog signals are continuous waves that carry information by varying the frequency or
amplitude of the wave.
 When the amplitude of the signal is varied the technique is called amplitude modulation (AM)
 When the frequency of the signals is varied, the technique is called frequency modulation (FM).
Human speech is an example of an analog signal. Telephone lines use analog signals because they were
originally designed for speech.

b. Digital Signals
A digital signal is one in which information is represented as a sequence of binary values 0 and 1.These two
values represent two conditions, on or off, corresponding to two known levels of voltage or current.
Digital signals do not continuously vary as analog signals. Signals are transmitted within the computer as
digital signals. Systems that use digital technology are known as baseband systems.

2.2. Baseband and Broadband Systems

a. Baseband System
A baseband system is a single-channel system that supports a single transmission at any given time. In a
baseband system, data is sent as a digital signal through the media as a single channel that uses the entire
bandwidth of the media. Baseband communication is bi-directional, which means that the same channel can be
used to send and receive signals. In Baseband, frequency-division multiplexing is not possible.
b. Broadband System
A broadband system is a multichannel system that supports multiple transmissions via multiple frequency
channels. In a broadband system, data is sent in the form of an analog signal where each transmission is
assigned to a portion of the bandwidth. Broadband communication is unidirectional, so in order to send and
receive, two pathways are needed. This can be accomplished either by assigning a frequency for sending and
assigning a frequency for receiving along the same cable or by using two cables, one for sending and one for
receiving.
2.3. Transmission Modes
This simply refers to the direction of flow of information between two communicating devices. It could be
simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
a. Simplex Mode
In simplex mode, signals are transmitted in only one direction. The flow of information is unidirectional from
transmitter to receiver always. Examples are television broadcasting, computer to the printer connection and
CPU to monitor communication.
b. Half duplex Mode
In half duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions but only one way at a time. The flow of
information is bidirectional but information can only be sent if it is not being received. It is suitable for data
transmission between a computer and dumb terminals. An example is the police radio (walkie-talkie).
c. Full duplex Mode
In full duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. The communicating devices
can transmit at the same time. The flow of information is bidirectional. It is suitable for interactive systems. An
example is the telephone.

2.4. Parallel and Serial Transmission

a. Parallel Transmission
Parallel transmission is the method of transferring blocks of data (several bits) at the same time over separate
channels/lines. This type of transmission requires a separate channel for each bit to be transmitted. For
example, eight separate channels will be required if a block of eight bits is to be transmitted in parallel. Parallel
transmission is fast but it is suited only for short distances as cabling for long distances will be expensive. It is
mainly used for connections within the computer and for connecting the computer to the printer.
b. Serial Transmission
Serial transmission is the method of transferring data one bit at a time through the same channel. If a block of 8
bits is to be transmitted in series, the bits will be transmitted one after the other on the same channel. Serial
transmission is slower than parallel transmission but it is suited for long distances. It is cheaper as only one
transmission line is required. Serial transmission can be asynchronous or synchronous.
 Asynchronous serial transmission: it describes the process where transmitted data is encoded with start
and stop bits, specifying respectively the beginning and end of each character. Data is sent character by
character with each character preceded by a start bit and a stop bit is added to the end. Other control bits
like the parity bit are added to the group before the stop bit and small gabs are inserted to distinguish each
group.
 Synchronous serial transmission: it describes a continuous and consistent timed transfer of data blocks.
Data is sent as one long bit stream or block of data without start or stop bits and with no gabs. Upon
reception, the receiver counts the bits and reconstructs bytes. Another channel is therefore used to transfer
timing signals to keep the both parties synchronized. Accuracy is dependent on the receiver keeping an
accurate count of the bits as they arrive.
Synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission because fewer bits have to be transmitted,
only data bits and no extra control bits. For this reason it is the choice for network communications links.
2.5. Switching Techniques
The process of transferring data blocks from one node to another is called switching. Data is routed by being
switched from one node to another. Two switching techniques exist: packet switching and circuit switching.
 a. Packet Switching
Packet switching is a switching method in which the message to be transmitted is broken into small data
packets and sent over the network. Each packet contains a portion of data and some control information. The
packets may take different routes to arrive their destination and they may arrive in any other. On arrival, they
are put back into order and the message is reconstituted. Each packet is sent with a header address which tells
what its destination is. One packet contains information on how many packets should be arriving. If a packet
fails to arrive, the destination computer sends a message to the sender’s computer asking it to send the missing
packet again. This method is suitable for transmission of data.
b. Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a switching method in which a dedicated communication path in physical form between
two stations within a network is established, maintained and terminated for each communication session. This
channel remains open throughout the communication process and cannot be used by anyone else. It has
basically three phases: circuit establishment, data transfer and circuit disconnect. The message is sent without
being broken up, so it is received in the order it was sent. This method was designed for voice transmissions.
Telephone networks use this type of switching method to transmit phone calls.

3. Transmission Media
A transmission medium is the physical pathway that connects computers and other devices on a network. There
are two categories of transmission media: guided and unguided media.
3.1. Guided Media
Guided media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. They are made up of
an internal conductor (usually copper) bounded by jacket material. They are also called bounded or conducted
media. Three common types of guided media are used for data transmission.
a. Coaxial cable
b. Twisted pair cable
i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
ii) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
c. Fiber optic cable

4. Unguided Media
Unguided media do not use physical means to define the path to be taken. They provide a means for
transmitting electromagnetic waves but do not guide them. They are also called unbounded media. Examples
of unguided media are infrared waves, radio waves, microwaves and satellite.
 Communication Satellites. A communication satellite is a microwave relay station placed in outer space.
A microwave signal is transmitted from earth to the satellite which amplifies the signal and sends it back
to earth. The earth station transmits the signal to the satellite on an up-link, on one frequency and the
satellite repeats those signals on a down link which is on another frequency.

5. Peripheral Device Control

a. Buffer
A buffer is an area of memory used to temporarily store data while it is being moved from one place to
another. Routers use buffers to route data packets on the Internet. When a packet is sent from one router to
another via one or more intermediate routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety,
stored there until the required output line is free, then the packet is forwarded.
 b. Interrupt
An interrupt is a signal to the processor emitted by hardware or software indicating an event that needs
immediate attention. An interrupt alerts the processor of a high-priority condition requiring the interruption of
the current task the processor is executing.
c. Polling
Polling is the process by which the central computer or communications controller in a network, "polls" or asks
each device in the network if it has a message to send and then allows each in turn to transmit data. Access and
control of star network typically is maintained by a polling system.
d. Handshaking
Handshaking is the process by which two devices initiate communications. It begins when one device sends a
message to another device indicating that it wants to establish a communications channel. The two devices then
send several messages back and forth that enable them to agree on a communications protocol.

6. Communication Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a network communicate. Protocols set
message formats and procedures that allow machines and application programs to exchange information. These
rules must be followed by each machine involved in the communication in order for the receiving host to be
able to understand the message. The need for a protocol is obvious: it allows different computers from different
vendors and with different operating characteristics to ‘speak the same language’. A protocol may be physical
or logical.

6.1. Physical Protocols

Physical protocols are concerned with how a device connects to a medium. They ensure that a device
connected to a medium can transmit through the medium. Few examples of physical protocols are 802.11 for
Wi-Fi connections and DSL for broadband.

6.2. Logical Protocols

Logical protocols are concerned with data handling. They ensure that data are in the right format for the
application, the bit rates match at both ends, and the same error correction is used. Examples of logical
protocols are TCP/IP, HTTP, POP3, FTP, SMTP and WAP.
 TCP: stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a connection-based Internet protocol that supports
reliable data transfer connections.
 IP: stands for Internet Protocol. It specifies the format of packets and the addressing scheme.
 UDP: stands for User Datagram Protocol. It is a connectionless Internet protocol that is designed for
network efficiency and speed at the expense of reliability.
 HTTP: stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is a standard method of publishing information as
hypertext in HTML format on the Internet. In other words, HTTP defines how messages are formatted and
transmitted over the World Wide Web. Web addresses or URLs usually begin with http indicating that the
protocol used is HTTP.
 HTTPS: stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. It is the protocol used for accessing a secure web
server, whereby all data transferred are encrypted.
 POP: stands for Post Office Protocol. It is a standard protocol for delivering e-mails to personal
computers.
 FTP: stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a standard for transferring files between a server and a client
on a TCP/IP network.
  SMTP: stands for Simple Mail Transmission Protocol. It defines a basic service for electronic mails. It is
used for sending e-mails between servers.
 WAP: stands for Wireless Application Protocol. It is a protocol which runs on mobile phones and
provides a universal open standard for bringing Internet content to mobile phones and other wireless
devices.

No. Layer Examples of Protocols

Name
7 Application HTTP, SMTP, FTP,
TELNET
6 Presentation XDR, ANS.1, SMB
5 Session X.225, RPC, NetBIOS,
4 Transport TCP, UDP, SPX,
3 Network IP, X.25
2 Data Link Ethernet, Token Ring,
PPP, ISDN
1 Physical Electricity, Radio, Laser
The OSI reference model

7. Machine Identification and Communication Ports

Every node on a network be it a server or network station has a unique identity. The type of identity a node has
is determined by the protocols running on the network. Two types of addresses exist for identifying a node on a
network: MAC and IP addresses.

7.1. Media Access Control (MAC) Address

Every node on a network has a network interface card or network adapter, which has a media access control
address. MAC address is a built-in number consisting of 12 hexadecimal digits that uniquely and permanently
identifies the network adapter.
For example, 00-14-22-DA-67-15. Under Windows, the MAC address can be displayed by typing ipconfig/all
at a Command prompt.

7.2. IP Address
An IP address is a unique identifying number given to every single computer on a TCP/IP network. All
computers, desktops, laptops, PDAs, phones, tablet PCs connected to the Internet, have IP addresses by which
they are identified. Two versions of IP addresses are available: IPv4 that uses 32 bits and IPv6 that uses 128
bits.
An IPv4 is made up of four sets of numbers separated by periods such as 123.23.168.22. Each of the four
numbers separated by periods can be any number from 0 to 255, making for a total of 4.3 billion potential IPv4
addresses (i.e.255 ×255 × 255× 255).
An IPv6 has eight sets of numbers separated by colons such as 3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf.
IP addresses are assigned manually (by an administrator) or automatically (by DHCP or APIPA), unlike MAC
addresses that are assigned during manufacture. MAC addresses are physical addresses while IP addresses are
logical addresses.

7.3. Communication Ports

A communication port is a 16-bit number that identifies an application for which the data is intended on the
Internet. Popular Internet application protocols are associated with well-known ports and well-known services.
Examples are port 80 for accessing the World Wide Web (HTTP), port 21 for file transfer (FTP), port 25 for
sending emails (SMTP) and port 110 for receiving emails (POP).

8. NETWORK SECURITY
Network security deals with the security of information during its transmission from a user on one computer
network to another.
8.1 Network Security Problems Network security problems can be divided roughly into four intertwined
areas: secrecy,authentication, nonrepudiation and integrity control. 1. Secrecy: This is also called
confidentiality, and has to do with keeping information out of the hands of unauthorized users. 2.
Authentication: this deal with determining whom you are talking to before revealing sensitive information or
entering into a business deal. 3. Nonrepudiation: This deal with signatures: How does amazon.ca prove that
Musa indeed placed an order for a book, which Musa claims he never placed? 4. Integrity of service: How
does one ensure that the message received was really the one sent, and not something that a malicious
adversary modified in transit or concocted?

8.2 Types of attacks over a network: We will also classify the attacks that compromise network security as
passive attacks and activeattacks.
a) Passive Attacks: These attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of, transmissions. The
goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted. Passive attacks are very difficult to
detect since they do not involve the alteration of the data. Two types of passive attacks are:
Release of message contents: where an eavesdropper tries to learn the contents of what is being transmitted.
This can be prevented by encryption.
Traffic analysis: where the opponent tries to observe the pattern, frequency and length of messages being
exchanged which could be used in guessing the nature of the communication that is taking place.

b) Active Attacks: Active attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false
stream. It is difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely because to do so would require physical protection of
all communications facilities and paths at all times.

8.3 Data compression and data encryption: In other to send data easily through a network, it is required to
compress it in other to reduce space for storage and bandwidth for transmission. Data compression is the
process of converting data from a large format into a smaller format, usually by the means of an algorithm. The
data can be expanded back to its original state, usually by means of decompression algorithm. The procedure
for compressing data is known as data compression techniques or coding schemes. Some popular examples of
data compression techniques include:
a) Graphic Interchange Format (GIF): This is a widely used compression format that is used for storing and
transferring graphic images in relatively small files over computer network such as Internet.
b) Joint Picture Expert Group (JPEG): This is a popular file compression format for storing and transferring
color photograph and high quality images in relatively small files over computer network such as Internet.
c) Motion Picture Expert Group (MPEG): This is a standard file compression format for storing and
transferring digital audio and video (moving images) in relatively small files over computer network.
d) Huffman coding: This is a lossless compression technique in which the characters in a data file are
converted to a binary code, where the most common characters in the file have the shortest binary code, and
the least common have the longest.
e) Run-length encoding: This a compression technique that is designed for compressing, long, repetitive
character strings in a piece of text, as well as compressing byte of a monochrome image file.

An important characteristic feature in any coding scheme is the compression ratio. It is the ratio of a
compressed file to the original uncompressed file. There are two basic form of data compression: lossless
compression and lossy compression.
- Lossless compression is the form of compression in which the original data can be restores exactly. (Ex:
zip).
- Lossy compression is the form of compression in which the original data cannot be restored exactly due to
loss of some of its elements (ex: mp3)

Data encryption refers to mathematical calculations and algorithmic schemes that transform plaintext into
cypher text, a form that is non-readable to unauthorized parties. The recipient of an encrypted message uses a
key which triggers the algorithm mechanism to decrypt the data, transforming it to the original plaintext
version.

III. Assignment