Chapter 2

Principles of Steady-State
Converter Analysis
1. Introduction
2. Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge
balance, and the small ripple approximation
3. Boost converter example
4. Buck converter example
5. Estimating the ripple in converters containing two-
pole low-pass filters
6. Summary of key points

10/16/2023 1
 2.1 Introduction Buck converter

1
SPDT switch changes dc + +
component 2
Vg + vs(t) R v(t)
–

– –

vs(t)
Switch output voltage Vg
waveform DTs
D' Ts

Duty cycle D: 0
0D1 0 DTs Ts t
switch
complement D’: position: 1 2 1
D’ = 1 - D

10/16/2023 2
 Dc component of switch output voltage

vs(t)
Vg
<vs> = DVg
area =
DTsVg
0
0 DTs Ts t

Fourier analysis: Dc component = average value

Ts
vs = 1 vs(t) dt
Ts 0

vs = 1 (DTsVg) = DVg
Ts

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 Insertion of low-pass filter to remove switching
harmonics and pass only dc component

1
L
+ +

2
Vg + vs(t) C R v(t)
–

– –

Vg
v  vs = DVg

0
0 1 D

10/16/2023 4
 Three basic dc-dc converters

a) 1
L M (D) = D
1 0.8
iL(t) +
0.6
Buck

M(D)
2
Vg + C R v 0.4
–
0.2
–
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
D

b) L 5 1
2 M(D) = 1 – D
+ 4
iL(t)
Boost 3

M(D)
1
Vg + C R v
– 2

1
–
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
D

D
c) 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

1 2 + -1

Buck-boost Vg +
–
iL(t)
C R v M(D)
-2
L -3

– -4 M(D) = – D
1–D
-5

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 Objectives of this chapter

● Develop techniques for easily determining output

voltage of an arbitrary converter circuit
● Derive the principles of inductor volt-second balance
and capacitor charge (amp-second) balance
● Introduce the key small ripple approximation
● Develop simple methods for selecting filter element
values
● Illustrate via examples

10/16/2023 6
 Inductor volt-second balance, capacitor charge
balance, and the small ripple approximation

Actual output voltage waveform, buck converter

iL(t) L
1
Buck converter + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
containing practical +
2
Vg C R v(t)
low-pass filter –

Actual output voltage v(t) actual waveform

v(t) = V + vripple(t)
waveform
V
v(t) = V + vripple(t)
Dc component V

0
t

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 The small ripple approximation

v(t) actual waveform

v(t) = V + vripple(t)
V
v(t) = V + vripple(t)
Dc component V

0
t

In a well-designed converter, the output voltage ripple is small. Hence,

the waveforms can be easily determined by ignoring the ripple:

vripple << V

v(t)  V

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 Buck converter analysis:
inductor current waveform
iL(t) L
1
+ vL(t) – +
iC(t)
original +
2
Vg C R v(t)
converter –

switch in position 1 switch in position 2

iL(t) L L

+ vL(t) – + + vL(t) – +
iC(t) iC(t)

Vg + C R v(t) Vg + iL(t) C R v(t)

– –

– –

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 Inductor voltage and current
Subinterval 1: switch in position 1

iL(t) L
Inductor voltage
+ vL(t) – +
iC(t)
vL = Vg – v(t)
Vg + C R v(t)
–
Small ripple approximation:
–
vL  Vg – V

Knowing the inductor voltage, we can now find the inductor current via
di L(t)
vL(t) = L
dt

Solve for the slope:

di L(t) = vL(t)  Vg – V  The inductor current changes with an
dt L L essentially constant slope

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 Inductor voltage and current
Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

L
Inductor voltage
+ vL(t) – +
iC(t)
vL(t) = – v(t)
Vg + iL(t) C R v(t)
–
Small ripple approximation:
–
vL(t)  – V

Knowing the inductor voltage, we can again find the inductor current via
di L(t)
vL(t) = L
dt

Solve for the slope:

di L(t)  – V  The inductor current changes with an
dt L essentially constant slope

10/16/2023 11
 Inductor voltage and current
waveforms
vL(t)
Vg – V
DTs D'Ts
–V t
switch 2
position: 1 1
di L(t)
vL(t) = L
iL(t) dt
iL(DTs)
I iL
iL(0) Vg – V –V
L L

0 DTs Ts t
10/16/2023 12
 Determination of inductor current
ripple magnitude

iL(t)
iL(DTs)
I iL
iL(0 Vg – V
) –V
L L

0 DTs Ts t

(change in i L) = (slope)(length of subinterval)

Vg – V
2i L = L DTs

Vg – V Vg – V
 iL = DTs L=
2i L
DTs
2L

10/16/2023 13
 Inductor current waveform
during turn-on transient

iL(t)

Vg – v(t)
L
– v(t) iL(nTs) iL((n+1)Ts)
iL(Ts) L
iL(0)=
0 0 DTs Ts 2Ts nTs (n+1)Ts t

When the converter operates in equilibrium:

i L((n + 1)Ts) = i L(nTs)

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 The principle of inductor volt-second
balance: Derivation

Inductor defining relation:

di (t)
vL(t) = L L
dt
Integrate over one complete switching period:
Ts
i L(Ts) – i L(0) = 1 vL(t) dt
L 0

In periodic steady state, the net change in inductor current is zero:

Ts
0= vL(t) dt
0

Hence, the total area (or volt-seconds) under the inductor voltage
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
An equivalent form:
Ts
0= 1 v (t) dt = vL
Ts 0 L
The average inductor voltage is zero in steady state.
10/16/2023 15
 Inductor volt-second balance:
Buck converter example

vL(t)
Inductor voltage waveform, Vg – V total area 
previously derived:
DTs t

–V
Integral of voltage waveform is area of rectangles:
Ts
= vL(t) dt = (Vg – V)(DTs) + ( – V)(D'Ts)
0

Average voltage is
vL =  = D(Vg – V) + D'( – V)
Ts
Equate to zero and solve for V:
0 = DVg – (D + D')V = DVg – V  V = DVg

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 The principle of capacitor charge
balance: Derivation

Capacitor defining relation:

dvC(t)
iC(t) = C
dt
Integrate over one complete switching period:
Ts
vC(Ts) – vC(0) = 1 iC(t) dt
C 0

In periodic steady state, the net change in capacitor voltage is zero:

Ts
0= 1 iC(t) dt = iC
Ts 0

Hence, the total area (or charge) under the capacitor current
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
The average capacitor current is then zero.

10/16/2023 17
 2.3 Boost converter example

L 2

iL(t) + vL(t) – +
Boost converter iC(t)
1
with ideal switch Vg + C R v
–

L D1

Realization using iL(t) + vL(t) – +

iC(t)
power MOSFET Q1
and diode Vg + C R v
– +
DT s Ts
–
–

10/16/2023 18
 Boost converter analysis

L 2

iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
1
original Vg + C R v
–
converter
–

switch in position 1 switch in position 2

L L

+ iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iL(t) + vL(t) – iC(t)
iC(t)
+ Vg + C R v
Vg C R v –
–

– –

10/16/2023 19
 Subinterval 1: switch in position 1

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

L
vL = Vg
iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC = – v / R iC(t)

Vg + C R v
–

Small ripple approximation: –

vL = Vg
iC = – V / R

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 Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

L
vL = Vg – v
iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC = i L – v / R iC(t)

Vg + C R v
–

Small ripple approximation: –

vL = Vg – V
iC = I – V / R

10/16/2023 21
 Inductor voltage and capacitor
current waveforms

vL(t)
Vg
DTs D'Ts

t
Vg – V

iC(t) I – V/R

DTs D'Ts
t
– V/R

10/16/2023 22
 Inductor volt-second balance

Net volt-seconds applied to inductor vL(t)

over one switching period: Vg
DTs D'Ts
Ts
t
vL(t) dt = (Vg) DTs + (Vg – V) D'Ts
0
Vg – V
Equate to zero and collect terms:
Vg (D + D') – V D' = 0

Solve for V:
Vg
V =
D
' conversion ratio is therefore
The voltage

M(D) = V = 1 = 1
Vg D' 1 – D
10/16/2023 23
 Conversion ratio M(D) of the boost
converter

5
M(D) = 1 = 1
4 D' 1 – D
3
M(D)

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
D

10/16/2023 24
 Determination of inductor current dc
component

iC(t) I – V/R
Capacitor charge balance:
DTs D'Ts

iC(t) dt = ( – V ) DT s + (I – V ) D'T s t
0 R R – V/R

Collect terms and equate to zero:

– V (D + D') + I D' = 0
I
(V g / R)
R
8
Solve for I: 6

I= V 4
D'
2
R
Eliminate V to express in terms of Vg: 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vg D
I= 2
D' R
10/16/2023 25
 Determination of inductor current ripple

Inductor current slope during iL(t)

subinterval 1:
I iL
di L(t) = vL(t) = Vg Vg Vg – V
dt L L L L
Inductor current slope during
0 DTs Ts t
subinterval 2:
di L(t) = vL(t) = Vg – V
dt L L
Change in inductor current during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):
Vg
2i L = L DTs

Solve for peak ripple:

Vg • Choose L such that desired ripple magnitude
iL = 2L DTs
is obtained
10/16/2023 26
 Determination of capacitor voltage ripple

Capacitor voltage slope during v(t)

subinterval 1:
V v
dvC(t) iC(t) – V –V
= = I – V
dt C RC RC C RC
Capacitor voltage slope during
0 DTs Ts t
subinterval 2:
dvC(t) iC(t) I
= = – V
dt C C RC
Change in capacitor voltage during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):

– 2v = – V DT s
RC
Solve for peak ripple: • Choose C such that desired voltage ripple
magnitude is obtained
v = 2 V DTs • In practice, capacitor equivalent series
RC

10/16/2023 27
 2.4 Cuk converter example

L1 C1 L2
Cuk converter, i1 i2 +
with ideal switch + v1 –
1 2
Vg + C2 v2 R
–

L1 C1 L2
Cuk converter:
practical realization i1 i2 +
+ v1 –
using MOSFET and
diode Vg + Q1 D1 C2 v2 R
–

10/16/2023 28
 Buck converter circuit
with switch in positions 1 and 2

Switch in position L1 L2 i2
1: MOSFET i1 + vL1 – iC1 + vL2 –
+
– iC2
conducts
Capacitor C1 Vg + v1 C1 C2 v2 R
–
releases energy to
output + –

i1 L1 L2 i2
Switch in position iC1
+ vL1 – + vL2 – +
+ iC2
2: diode conducts
Vg + C1 v1 C2 v2 R
Capacitor C1 is –

charged from input – –

10/16/2023 29
 Waveforms during subinterval 1
MOSFET conduction interval

Inductor voltages and L1 L2 i2

capacitor currents: +
i1 + vL1 – – iC1 + vL2 – iC2
vL1 = Vg +
Vg v1 C1 C2 v2 R
–
vL2 = – v1 – v2
+ –
i C1 = i 2
v
i C2 = i 2 – R2

Small ripple approximation for subinterval 1:

vL1 = Vg
vL2 = – V1 – V2
i C1 = I 2
V
i C2 = I 2 – R2

10/16/2023 30
 Waveforms during subinterval 2
Diode conduction interval

Inductor voltages and L2

i1 L1 i2
capacitor currents: iC1
+
+ vL1 – + vL2 –
+ iC2
vL1 = Vg – v1
Vg + C1 v1 C2 v2 R
–
vL2 = – v2
– –
iC1 = i1
v
iC2 = i2 – R2

Small ripple approximation for subinterval 2:

vL1 = Vg – V1
vL2 = – V2
i C1 = I 1
V
i C2 = I 2 – R2

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 Equate average values to zero

The principles of inductor volt-second and capacitor charge balance

state that the average values of the periodic inductor voltage and
capacitor current waveforms are zero, when the converter operates in
steady state. Hence, to determine the steady-state conditions in the
converter, let us sketch the inductor voltage and capacitor current
waveforms, and equate their average values to zero.
Waveforms:

Inductor voltage vL1(t)

Volt-second balance on L1:
vL1(t)
Vg
DTs D'Ts vL1 = DVg + D'(Vg – V1) = 0
t

Vg – V1

10/16/2023 32
 Equate average values to zero

Inductor L2 voltage
vL2(t) – V2

DTs D'Ts

– V1 – V2 t Average the waveforms:

vL2 = D( – V1 – V2) + D'( – V2) = 0

Capacitor C1 current
i C1 = DI 2 + D'I 1 = 0
iC1(t)
I1

DTs D'Ts
I2 t

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 Equate average values to zero

Capacitor current iC2(t) waveform

iC2(t)

I2 – V2 / R (= 0)
V2
iC2 = I 2 – =0
DTs D'Ts t R

Note: during both subintervals, the capacitor current iC2 is equal to the
difference between the inductor current i2 and the load current V2/R.
When ripple is neglected, iC2 is constant and equal to zero.

10/16/2023 34
 Buck converter conversion
ratio M = V/ V g

D
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
-1
-2
M(D)

V2
-3 M(D) = =– D
Vg 1–D
-4
-5

10/16/2023 35
 Inductor current waveforms

Interval 1 slopes, using small i1(t)

ripple approximation: i1
I1
di 1(t) vL1(t) Vg Vg Vg – V1
= =L L1 L1
dt L1 1
di 2(t) vL2(t) – V1 – V2 DTs Ts t
= =
dt L2 L2
DTs Ts t

Interval 2 slopes: – V1 – V2 – V2
L2 L2
I2
di1(t) vL1(t) Vg – V1 i2
=
dt L1 = L1 i2(t)
di2(t) = vL2(t) = – V2
dt L2 L2

10/16/2023 36
 Capacitor C1 waveform

Subinterval 1:
v1(t)
dv1(t) i C1(t) I 2 v1
= = V1
dt C1 C1 I2 I1
C1 C1
Subinterval 2:
DTs Ts t
dv1(t) i C1(t) I 1
= =
dt C1 C1

10/16/2023 37
 Ripple magnitudes

Analysis results Use dc converter solution to simplify:

VgDTs VgDTs
i 1 = i1 =
2L 1 2L 1
V + V2 VgDTs
i 2 = 1 DTs i2 =
2L 2 2L 2
– I 2DTs VgD 2Ts
v1 =
2C 1 v1 =
2D'RC1

Q: How large is the output voltage ripple?

10/16/2023 38
 2.5 Estimating ripple in converters
containing two-pole low-pass filters

Buck converter example: Determine output voltage ripple

L
1
iL(t) +
iC(t) iR(t)
2
Vg + C vC(t) R
–

iL(t)
Inductor current iL(DTs)
I iL
waveform. iL(0) Vg – V –V
What is the L L
capacitor current?
0 DTs Ts t

10/16/2023 39
 Capacitor current and voltage,
buck example

iC(t)
Must not total charge
q
neglect
iL t
inductor
current ripple! Ts / 2
DTs D'Ts

If the capacitor
voltage ripple is
vC(t)
small, then
essentially all of
v
the ac component V
v
of inductor current
flows through the t
capacitor.

10/16/2023 40
 Estimating capacitor
voltage ripple v
Current iC(t) is positive for half
iC(t)
of the switching period. This
total charge
q positive current causes the
iL t capacitor voltage vC(t) to
Ts / 2 increase between its minimum
DTs D'Ts
During this time, the total
charge q is deposited on the
capacitor plates, where
vC(t)

v
V
v (change in charge) =

10/16/2023 41
 Estimating capacitor
voltage ripple v

The total charge q is the area

iC(t)
of the triangle, as shown:
total charge
q
Ts
iL t q = 21 i L
2

DTs D'Ts Eliminate q and solve for v:

i L Ts
vC(t) 8C

v
V Note: in practice, capacitor
v

t (esr) further increases v.

10/16/2023 42
 Inductor current ripple in
two-pole filters

L1 iT L2
Example: Q1
+ +
problem 2.9 i1 i2

Vg + C1 vC1 C2 R v
– D1

– –
vL(t)
total
flux linkage

v t
Ts / 2
DTs D'Ts
can use similar arguments, with
 = L i
iL(t)
 = inductor flux linkages
i
I
i = inductor volt-seconds
t
10/16/2023 43
 2.6 Summary of Key Points

1. The dc component of a converter waveform is given by its average

value, or the integral over one switching period, divided by the
switching period. Solution of a dc-dc converter to find its dc, or steady-
state, voltages and currents therefore involves averaging the
waveforms.
2. The linear ripple approximation greatly simplifies the analysis. In a
well- designed converter, the switching ripples in the inductor currents
and capacitor voltages are small compared to the respective dc
components, and can be neglected.
3. The principle of inductor volt-second balance allows determination of
the dc voltage components in any switching converter. In steady-state,
the average voltage applied to an inductor must be zero.

10/16/2023 44
 Summary of Chapter 2

4. The principle of capacitor charge balance allows determination of the

dc components of the inductor currents in a switching converter. In
steady- state, the average current applied to a capacitor must be zero.
5. By knowledge of the slopes of the inductor current and capacitor
voltage waveforms, the ac switching ripple magnitudes may be
computed. Inductance and capacitance values can then be chosen to
obtain desired ripple magnitudes.
6. In converters containing multiple-pole filters, continuous
(nonpulsating) voltages and currents are applied to one or more of
the inductors or capacitors. Computation of the ac switching ripple in
these elements can be done using capacitor charge and/or inductor
flux-linkage arguments, without use of the small-ripple approximation.
7. Converters capable of increasing (boost), decreasing (buck), and
inverting the voltage polarity (buck-boost and Cuk) have been
described. Converter circuits are explored more fully in a later chapter.

10/16/2023 45
 END

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