Tutorial 3

List the functions of the main circuit. (5marks)

An electric circuit's primary duties include managing voltage variations, supplying power to
devices, and regulating the flow of electric current. Resistors, capacitors, and inductors are
examples of circuit components that do things like filter signals, store energy, and control
current. Circuits also distribute power, process analog and digital communications, and enable
energy conversion (such as from chemical to electrical in batteries).(The Editors of
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024)
List the functions of the filament circuit (4 marks)
The filament circuit in devices like X-ray machines heats the cathode filament, causing it to emit
electrons through a process called thermionic emission. It regulates the flow of electrons,
influencing the tube current, which in turn controls the intensity of the X-ray beam. Additionally,
it ensures the filament maintains a consistent temperature for stable electron production. By
controlling the number of electrons, the filament circuit directly impacts the functionality of the
X-ray tube, making it essential for precise imaging in diagnostic equipment. (SwellFox, 2024)
Describe the following:
Filament transformer (10 marks)
The filament transformer is a crucial component in radiography, responsible for heating the
filament within the X-ray tube. This heating process, known as thermionic emission, releases
electrons that are then accelerated towards the target anode to produce X-rays. It is a Step- down
transformer that operates by reducing the incoming voltage to a lower level, typically around 10-
15 volts, and delivering a high current to the filament. This heat causes electrons to be emitted
from the filament's surface, which are then focused into a narrow beam and directed towards the
target. The intensity of the X-ray beam can be controlled by adjusting the filament current.
(Murphy & Vajuhudeen, 2020)
Voltage stabilizer (10 marks)
A Voltage Stabilizer is a device or circuit that delivers a steady voltage to the output without
affecting the input voltage. (Admin & Admin, 2022) The principle of a voltage stabilizer is that
If the voltage is low, the stabilizer detects it, boosting it to the necessary level of voltage, and
then feeds it to the connected equipment so that it may operate without interruption. It does this
by recognizing the oscillations in the utility's voltage and internally regulating it to give a
consistent range of output voltage. The stabilizers accomplish this by utilizing an electrical
system that modifies the necessary taps of an inbuilt auto transformer with the aid of higher
electromagnetic relays in order to produce the desired voltage. A mechanism switches the
necessary transformer tap to bring the voltage supply within a safe range if the voltage to be
provided is outside of that range. (V-Guard - Buying Guide for Voltage Stabilizer, n.d.) X-ray
machines rely on a stable voltage to produce reliable and diagnostic-quality images. Fluctuations
in the input voltage can lead to variations in X-ray intensity, image quality, and even equipment
damage. Voltage stabilizers help to mitigate these issues by providing a consistent and regulated
power supply to the X-ray machine.

Types of voltage stabilizers used in radiography:

Line voltage regulators: use autotransformers or electronic circuitry to regulate the output
voltage based on the input voltage.

Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS): UPS systems provide both voltage stabilization and
backup power in case of power outages.

mA selector (10 marks)

The milliampere (mA) selector, which regulates the current given to the x-ray tube filament, is a
crucial control element in radiography equipment. The amount of x-rays generated during an
exposure is directly influenced by the mA setting, which also affects the overall contrast and
density of the image. While lower mA levels create fewer x-rays and lighter images, higher mA
values increase the generation of x-rays, which can lead to darker images. (Themes, 2016a) The
mA selector allows radiographers to tailor the exposure settings based on numerous parameters,
such as patient size, type of examination, and anatomical area being scanned. The mA selector
helps guarantee that the final images have the best possible quality while limiting the radiation
exposure to the patient by controlling the tube current.(Themes, 2016c)
Space charge compensator (10 marks)
A space charge compensator is a component that helps control the electron cloud surrounding the
x-ray tube filament, which can impact the effectiveness and performance of x-ray output. A
considerable amount of electrons are released from the heated filament when the x-ray tube is in
operation, particularly at high milliampere (mA) settings. This causes an effect known as "space
charge," in which the density of electrons around the filament rises and generates a negative
charge that begins to oppose the emission of additional electrons and it limits x-ray tubes to
maximum mA ranges of 1000-1200. Space charge compensators reduce this impact by varying
the voltage and current applied to the x-ray tube, resulting in a more reliable and efficient x-ray
output. These compensators improve image quality and lower the chance of underexposure
during imaging by guaranteeing that the tube can continuously produce x-rays. This is
particularly crucial for radiography techniques like fluoroscopy and digital radiography, which
call for extremely high precision and reliability.(Themes, 2016b)
Differentiate between fuse, circuit breakers and interlocks. (15 marks)
Circuit breakers
A circuit breaker is a switching mechanism that interrupts the aberrant or fault current. It is a
mechanical device that also serves as a switch by obstructing the flow of high magnitude current.
The primary function of a circuit breaker is to open or close an electrical circuit, protecting the
electrical system from harm.A circuit breaker is a switching mechanism that, in the event of a
failure, provides protection by tripping and cutting off the supply to the load.(International
Online Medical Council, n.d.)
Fuse
A safety mechanism that prevents overcurrent or electrical surge damage to radiography
equipment, including x-ray machines. A fuse consists of a tiny wire that comes in touch with the
electrical circuit and is enclosed in a glass tube with sealed metal ends. If a current goes through
the fuse that is greater than what is needed for a part, the thin wire melts. A fuse is either
installed in the main switch's housing or in the X-ray circuit right before the autotransformer.
(Radiology, n.d.)
Interlocks
In x-ray machines, interlocked circuits are a crucial safety element. These circuits are made to
stop the machine from working unless every safety feature is set up and running as intended.
This lessens the chance of mishaps and shields patients and staff from needless radiation
exposure.(Studocu, n.d.)
Differentiate between insulators, semiconductors and conductors. (6 marks)
Insulators are materials such as plastic, rubber and glass that do not conduct electricity whereby
electron movement is inhibited, resisting the flow of electrons.
Semiconductors are materials like silicon that have the ability to conduct electricity under certain
conditions and insulate under other conditions.
Conductors are metals such as aluminum and copper that allow electricity to pass through by
easily allowing electrons to flow through them.
Describe the thyristor. (8 marks)
A Thyristor, also called a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), is a more complex semiconductor
that has proven useful for high-speed switching of the primary high-voltage x-ray circuit. SCRs
consist of two p-type and two n-type layers making three p-n junctions. Both n-p-n-p and p-n-p-n
sequences are possible. In either of the sequences, the third section serves as a gate that can
change the polarity of the entire SCR by receiving a given charge. Rapid pulses of current to the
gate permit it to hold or release large amounts of current.The thyristor has the ability to transition
from an off, or non-conducting state, to a on, or conducting state, in response to a tiny gate
current application. It returns to its non-conducting state after turning on and remains in the
conducting state until the current drops below a certain threshold. The SCR functions extremely
rapidly in high-kilowattage x-ray generators.

Explain how an avalanche diode works. (6 marks)

An avalanche diode is a type of semiconductor device that was designed specifically to operate
in the reverse breakdown region. These diodes function as relief valves, regulating system
pressure to protect electrical systems from high voltages. This diode has the same symbol as a
Zener diode. The anode and cathode are the two terminals that make up the avalanche diode.
(Agarwal, 2021) When the reverse voltage applied across the diode exceeds a critical threshold
known as the breakdown voltage, the electric field in the diode becomes strong enough to
accelerate free electrons to high velocities. These high-energy electrons collide with the lattice
atoms within the semiconductor, knocking additional electrons free and creating more charge
carriers in a process known as avalanche multiplication.
Describe both full wave and half wave rectification. (20 marks)
Half-wave rectification is a technique used in both solid-state diodes and valve tubes to convert
alternating current (AC) to pulsating direct current (DC). In this method, the rectifier (usually a
diode) enables just the positive half of the AC waveform to pass while blocking the negative
half, resulting in a pulsing DC output. This one-way street effect is useful for shielding sensitive
devices like x-ray tubes from reverse currents, which could cause harm. In the early days of
radiography, this form of suppression was referred to as self-rectification, with the danger being
overheating the anode. If thermionic emission occurred due to an extremely hot anode, electrons
could return to the cathode during the negative AC cycle, potentially shattering the filament and
damaging the x-ray tube. To prevent this, current x-ray systems have a single rectifier on the
anode side to block negative charges. This protective rectifier risks itself in the event of a
malfunction, protecting the expensive x-ray tube. In modern half-wave rectifiers, the technique is
highly effective for managing and protecting devices from reverse current. However, the
rectification remains limited because only half the input energy is utilized. (Seth, 2021)
Advantages of Half-wave Rectification include:
Cost-effective

Simple connections.

Easy to use because the connections are straightforward.

The number of components used is minimal.

Disadvantages of the Half Wave Rectifier
Ripple output is higher.

Harmonics are created.

Transformer use is quite low.

The effectiveness of correction is minimal. (Admin, 2023)

Full-Wave Rectification
Full-wave rectification is a method of converting the complete AC waveform into a pulsing DC
output using both the positive and negative sides of the input current. This is accomplished using
a bridge rectifier circuit, which consists of four diodes arranged in a bridge pattern. During the
positive half-cycle of the AC signal, two diodes conduct, allowing current to flow through the
load, while the other two diodes conduct, flipping the negative half-cycle so that current
continues to flow in the same direction. The main advantage of full-wave rectification is its
efficiency; it generates a smoother and more consistent DC output than half-wave rectification,
which only uses half of the AC input. As a result, it is frequently used in power supplies that
require reliable and efficient DC power, despite the fact that it has more components and is
slightly more complex. This approach is preferred in many electronic devices because it can
sustain a higher average output voltage with less ripple.(Admin, 2024)
Advantages of Full-Wave Rectification include:
higher output voltage

easy to implement as diodes and transformers as easy to set up

economical as only few equipment is required

smoother output and less ripple with respect to the waveform

wide variety of uses such as battery charging and power supplies

Disadvantages of Full-Wave Rectification include:
center-tapped transformers can be expensive

interference in certain applications

can be complex at time due to the circuit design. (TBTeam, 2024)

Describe the design and operation of an electro-mechanical switching.(10 marks)

Electromechanical switches in radiography equipment typically regulate circuits that control
timing and exposure parameters. These switches, such as relay-based timers or contactors, enable
or interrupt the flow of electricity at specific times, ensuring that high voltage is only provided to
the x-ray tube when required. These switches are part of the timer circuit of modern x-ray
machines, determining the exposure time by closing and opening the circuit, thus controlling
how long the x-rays are created. This is crucial for accurate imaging and patient safety, as wrong
timing might result in over or underexposure. Electromechanical switches in these systems are
often more durable, although they may be slower or less precise than electronic timers, which are
increasingly employed in advanced radiography systems. They are still used in portable or older
radiography systems due to their durability and simplicity. (Themes, 2016)
The design of a electromechanical switch includes:
Actuator: the component of the switch that causes mechanical movement. It has an
electromagnetic coil (solenoid) that, when powered, generates a magnetic field that moves an
armature or lever.

Contacts: conductive metal pieces that make or break the circuit when the switch is pressed. The
design may have ordinarily open (NO) or normally closed (NC) contacts, which determine the
switch's default state when not powered.

Housing: the assembly is enclosed in a protective housing, typically composed of long-lasting

materials to withstand external factors and mechanical wear.

Spring Mechanism: Springs are frequently employed to return the actuator to its original position
after the electromagnetic force is released. This guarantees that the contacts return to their
original positions, closing or opening the circuit.

Terminal Connections: The switch has terminals for connecting to an electrical circuit. These
connections enable the switch to communicate with other system components such as the power
supply and load for example, an x-ray tube

Identify two types of timers and explain one of them. (15 marks)
There are 2 types of timers that can be controlled by the Radiographer. These are
Milliampere-Second Timers

Automatic Exposure Control Timer

Automatic Exposure Control Timer

Automatic Exposure Control (AEC) timers are essential in modern radiography, optimizing x-ray
exposure to maintain consistent image quality while reducing patient dose. AEC systems use
ionization chambers or photodetectors between the x-ray tube and the image receptor. As the x-
rays pass through the patient, these detectors measure the radiation force reaching the film or
digital detector. When a certain amount of radiation is detected, the AEC timer automatically
terminates the exposure, thus limiting the duration based on the patient's anatomy and thickness.
The AEC timer works with the autotransformer, which is controlled by the kilovoltage peak
(kVp) selectors on the control panel, to adjust the incoming-line voltage. This voltage change
guarantees that the step-up transformer produces the right kilovoltage, which is required for
excellent image quality. Typically, kVp settings allow for substantial changes in levels of 10 kVp
and moderate changes in levels of 1 or 2 kVp. This precision in regulating both kVp and
exposure time enables specific imaging that accommodates various patient conditions and
imaging requirements.
Advantages of AEC
1. AEC can automate the image exposure process, saving time
2. AEC ensures consistent image quality, avoiding differences caused by operator proficiency.
3. AEC can help to ensure proper exposure, lowering the risk of over-exposure or under-
exposure.
4. AEC can lower patient radiation exposure.
Disadvantages of AEC
Setting up AEC systems can be expensive

In order to produce high-quality images, AEC systems require precise operator programming.

AEC systems may not work with all radiological equipment.

Although limited, there is still opportunity for error in AEC systems, which may result in poopo
image quality.