See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/381726829

To wear or not to wear the role of social marketing in changing risky behaviours.
A study of crush helmet use among motorcyclists. Using the Theory of Planned
Behaviour

Article in Informatica · June 2024

CITATIONS READS
0 956

3 authors, including:

Mustapha Iddrisu
University of Professional Studies
6 PUBLICATIONS 7 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Mustapha Iddrisu on 26 June 2024.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

34
2023 34(8 )

To wear or not to wear: the role of social marketing in changing risky behaviours. A study of

crush helmet use among motorcyclists. Using the Theory of Planned Behaviour.

Introduction

Motorcycle crushes constitute a deadly form of traffic issues. Motorcycle riders are 34 times likely

to die compared to those that use other vehicles with 8 times the risk of being injured. Of the factors

that lead severe injuries especially of the head is largely the lack of use of crush helmets by

motorcycle riders (Mwakapasa, 2011). As reported by World Health Organization (WHO) (2006),

motorcycles form a common means of transport in middle and low-income countries and; a

significant number of the people affected as a result of road crushes happen to be motorcycle riders.

In Ghana, according to Olubomehin, (2012) the urbanization rate has been very rapid whiles the

method of transport has not seen any corresponding increase which deemed to be a major cause for

the increasing use of motorcycles.

However, there is a high risk associated with the use of motorcycles as a means of transportation

in Accra. High risk is a term that implies that there is a threat to the usage of something to one’s

life. Studies show that most people do take risks in their lives but high risk taking is mostly found

in the youth. Accordingly, health practitioners and researchers who are interested in helping to

desist from unhealthy social behaviors, coincidental injuries, violence, and suicide attempt also use

the term “high risk” to qualify adolescents facing adversity (Osei-Asibey et al., 2021). Anxiety,

Discomfort, depression, and pain, are some of the examples relating to the long-term effects of such

incidents (Buckley et al. 2016, Ohlin et al. 2017).

In Sub Saharan Africa, most of the causes of the high mortality rate are the Road traffic collisions

compared to many other known tropical diseases (Broughton and Walter, 2017). According to the

World Health Organization (2008), about 3000 people lose their lives as a result of road traffic all

over the world daily and two million people lose their lives worldwide yearly. Records from the

35
1
2023 34(8 )

WHO indicate a rise of 27% in the global number of motorcycles between 2010 and 2013 (WHO,

2015). Most motorcyclists are young, are not licensed, do not use any protective equipment such

as crush helmets and safety measures are therefore not being followed (El-Fiki and El Falaky,

2016).

Arguably, the use of motorcycles in Ghana is one of the most famous means of transportation

among road users; because of it being relatively inexpensive, easy-going and its economical use of

fuel especially in the cities (Fagnant and Kockelman 2015). Motorcycles are commonly used

worldwide, usually powered by two or three-wheels (PTW) account for almost half of the registered

vehicles in the low (49.6%), 45.8% in middle-income economies and 6.8% in the developed

countries as at 2010 (Ivers et al., 2016). However, motorcycle usage is also the riskiest means of

transport to be used in Ghana. This is very disturbing and correct measures are still in place to curb

the problem. In 2019, the recorded figure increased 13,272 with over 2330 deaths (Ghana Police

Service: MTTD, 2021).

Records from The Motor Traffic and Transport Department (MTTD) of the Ghana Police Service indicate

that 2,924 people lost their lives as a result of road crushes in the years 2021 being a 12.94% increase from

the previous years. The statistics also indicated that 15, 680 people were injured. Out of the number of death

(2,924) 1,266 were motorcycle accidents representing 23% of all cases. (National Road Safety

Commission, 2022) The statistics further gives an overview of most cases that occurred on roads

involving vulnerable motorcyclists. This is very disturbing and correct measures are still being put

in place to curb the problem.

Motorcycle usage is one of the best means of transport that ordinary people can easily access and

can readily reach the inaccessible sections of the town by tight and poorly paved roads. In addition,

the high rate of unemployment has also caused many individuals to get involved in commercial

business through motorcycling (Salako et al., 2013). Road crushes through motorcycles are
36
2
2023 34(8 )

significant but are overlooked as an emerging government health issue in developing countries

and makes a significant contribution to the overall road traffic injuries (Bambach et al. 2013;

Shaker et al., 2014; George et al. 2017). The death rate among males and teenager are higher

(Williams, 2013). Both information from the World Health Organization and the World Bank

shows that these injuries would increase significantly by 2020 without adequate intervention,

particularly in fast-moving nations (Cameron, 2004). In the mist of the most vulnerable users of

roads are motorcyclists (WHO, 2017). Road Traffic Collisions (RTC) mostly caused by

motorcyclists is becoming a major public health issue globally (Giulietti et al. 2020). Risk taking

behaviors are one of the most contributing factors in motorcycle accidents. Risk-taking in

motorcycling comprises intentionally not adhering to road rules (including high speeding and

reckless riding), unlicensed riding, and riding without helmet (Keall & Newstead 2012; Safaei &

Zhou 2021). Social marketing according to French and Gordon, (2015) makes use of marketing

elements and concepts to promote or change social behavior. In the context of social marketing

the focus is made on the behavior change that seeks the interest of both individual and the society

at large. There has been a critique by researchers in assuming that social marketing and approaches

that use social change theories that behaviors are driven by attitudes being influenced (Shove,

2010). Researchers including Charles and Ryan (2011) are of the view that the lack of behavior

change theories lead to the failure of strategies since change in behavior could not be very effective

in the absence of theories (Andreasen, 2002). Tweneboah-Koduah, (2014) citing French et al.

(2010), postulated that understanding theory is valuable because it helps in reinforcing and

boosting the success of interventions made through social marketing. Consequently, interventions

regarding behavior change adopt the frameworks that are assume that the attitude of the individual

play a major role in the process through which intentions are formed towards the performance of

behaviour by that individual (Aung & Arias, 2006). Based on this background, this current study

examined how social marketing can be applied to change the risky behavior of motorcycle users

37
3
2023 34(8 )

in Accra. Social marketing gives a framework to help change risky behaviors. It is seemingly

absurd to observe that in developing or least developed economies where ownership of vehicles is

very low with high dependence on public transport, the financial status as well as the performance

of every forms of public transport organized by government whether public or private, are in a

declining stage. This situation has compelled most people as well as the market to come up with

creative solutions that will make it easier to meet their travel requirements on daily basis. A quest

to find such alternatives means of transportation have led to the rapid growth of non-conventional

public transportation system, by initially using minibuses, shared vans/ taxi and recently more

using motorcycles.

Motorcyclists in Ghana are supposed to be practicing road safety activities such as using of crush

helmets. The police and the National Road Safety Commission (NRSC) have been trying to

enforce the laws and regulation. Over the past three decades, traffic fatalities in developing

countries have been on alarming rise. Countries come up with considerable debates on specific

number of traffic injuries, not forgetting that traffic safety problems are more than the occurrence

of fatalities. A number of outstanding studies done in the area of risky behaviors among individuals

cannot be left untouched. Swahn and Bossarte (2009) looked into comparison of risky behaviors

by urban youth within a disadvantaged or poor community, with youth that are nationally

represented. Steinberg (2004) also researched into risk taking in adolescence, attaining how ages

have effects on decision making of both youth and adults. However, studies were done in analyzing

risky behaviors in motorcyclist on the implications to road traffic incidents in urban Northern

Ghana by Dapilah, Bismarck, Sekyere (2017). Dinye (2013) also examined the socio-economic

effects of motorcycle ownership and the use on livelihoods in West Africa, Ghana. Also, Akaateba,

Gyimah, Amponsah, (2015) researched into the usage of seatbelts and helmet as a protective

material among motorcyclists in Wa, Ghana. Kudebong, et al (2011) also studied the pedestrian

road crashes, risky behaviors in adolescents and safety measures for motorcyclists in the Upper
38
4
2023 34(8 )

West of Ghana. In these cases of motorcyclists, most of the researchers’ attention have been

centered around issues like motorcycle traffic crushes, characteristics of motorcyclists and its

effect on traffic behavior and crushes mostly in the Upper West region without considering what

can be done to change risky behaviors among motorcyclists that lead to these incidents in Accra,

Ghana. The implication of the above discussion means that a gap exists in knowledge concerning

how social marketing could be applied to change risky behaviors among motorists in Ghana.

Therefore, in a bid to fill this knowledge gap and add to an existing body of literature, this study

generally sought to examine the role of social marketing in changing risky behaviors among

motorcyclists in Accra-Ghana. It is hoped that the results of this study would have a significant

impact on road safety policies for future developments.

The general objective of the study is to examine the role of social marketing in changing risky

behaviors among motorcyclists in Accra-Ghana. Specifically, the study aims to examine

motorcyclists’ attitudes towards the use of helmets in Accra. Secondly to examine the effects of

subjective norms and perceived behavioral control on motorcyclist's risky behaviors and finally to

examine the influence of social marketing on changing the risky behaviors motorcyclists.

Research hypothesis

H1: There is a significant positive relationship between attitudes and motorcyclists’ intention to

change risky behaviours.

H2: There is a significant positive relationship between subjective norms and motorcyclists’

intention to stop change behaviors.

H3: There is a significant positive relationship between perceived behavioral control and

motorcyclists’ intention to change risky behaviors.

39
5
2023 34(8 )

H4: There is a significant positive relationship between motorcyclists’ intention to stop risky

behaviors and risky behavior change.

H5: The relationship between motorcyclists’ intention to stop risky behaviors will be stronger when

social marketing is positive.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Concept of Social Marketing

Social marketing concept could be traced to the early 1950’s, when Wiebe (1951) an American

academic, analyzed contemporary social advertising campaigns in which he concluded that, the

best campaigns are those that has a semblance of commercial marketing. Based on that ideology,

people began thinking in a different manner and had a strong view that strategies the profit-making

organizations use to influence their customers, non-profit making organizations can as well be use

them.

As a study discipline, social marketing is rooted in commercial marketing and applied successfully

to the solution of social and health issues. Social marketing however, became popular in the 1970‘s

when the term was used by Kotler & Zaltman (1971) in the journal of marketing for the first time

“social marketing; an approach to planned social change”. Andreasen (1995), described social

marketing as, “the application of commercial marketing technologies to the analysis, planning,

execution and evaluation of programs designed to influence the voluntary behaviour of target

audiences in order to improve their personal welfare and that of society”. However, the definition

projects the concept to having a very strong foundation in marketing and comes along with the

elements of the marketing mix including product, promotion and price. The emphasis is on

voluntary change of behaviour and achieving goals that are socially desirable that could be

beneficial to both individuals and society at large (Niblett, 2005; Kotler & Lee, 2008).

40
6
2023 34(8 )

Theory of Planned Behavior

Conner and Sparks (2005), argued that the extension in 1975 of the Theory of Reasoned Action

(TRA) by Fishbein and Ajzen, ushered in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Research has

shown that it is required for the theory of planned behavior to be developed as it discusses the

limitations of the Theory of Reasoned Action in controlling individual’s behavior which requires

a resolution (Ajzen, 1991). The Theory of Planned Behavior suggests that the person's purpose

to take an action or not to take an action upon that necessary behavior is the immediate

determining factor of the behavior (Bezzina & Dimech, 2011). The intention to undertake a

behavior is usually predicted with much precision judging from the attitudes towards such

behavior, perceived behavioral control and subjective norms (Ajzen, 1991). Ghani, et al (2013),

further explained that prior to executing an action, the Theory of Planned Behavior considers

three major issues. First, the belief by the actor in the implications of the behavior and the

evaluation of those consequences that is (attitude), second, the compliance and beliefs to

normative expectations of the behavior that is (subjective norms), finally the beliefs about nature

of variables that may serve as impediments or facilitators in executing such behavior, and the

perceived capability of these factors that is (perceived behavioral control). The literature

reviewed indicates that the theory has a broad application to predict the change in behaviors

among motorcyclists in Accra. The underlying assumption of this study is focused on the

conceptual issues and theories discussed in the literature. The theory of planned behaviour and

its impacts and can be used to change the risky behaviors among motorcyclists. As indicated, the

theory comprises of three key variables including: attitudes towards the behavior , subjective

norms, and perceived behavioral control. The attitude variable represents the motorcyclists’

41
7
2023 34(8 )

favorable or unfavorable evaluation to change in risky behaviors among motorcyclists. The,

subjective norm variable represents the motorcyclists’ perception of social pressure on road

safety laws. The perceived behavioral control represents motorcyclists’ ability to adhere to the

road safety laws. However, to put this theory into proper perspectives in the context of this study,

another variable was proposed. Thus, the current study expands on theory of planned behavior

by looking at the role social marketing in changing risky behaviors among motorcyclists in

Accra. This study suggests that the above variables have a significant positive relationship with

motorcyclists’ intention to adopt to a change in particular behavior such as the wearing of helmets

(Ajzen, 1991).

Attitude

Subjective Norm Intention Behavioural

Change
(Helmet use)

Perceived Behavioural Social Marketing

Control

42
8
2023 34(8 )

Attitudes

According to Rex, Lobo and Leckie, (2015) the Theory of Planned Behaviour has been used in

studies and has described a very strong relationship between attitude and intention. Bezzina and

Dimeach (2011), define attitude as “the psychological emotion related to a behavior which

determines whether performing that behaviour will generate positive or negative feeling”. For

Greaves, Zibarras and Stride (2013), the individual’s attitude towards a behavior represents his

or her total evaluation of that behaviour. Bortoleto, Kurisu, and Hanaki (2012) argue that an

evaluation of an individual’s behaviour, could either be a negative or positive feeling about that

his or her own behaviour. The individual’s behaviour is defined by the perception that he or she

has a responsibility to deny or perform the behaviour.

Based on the motorcyclist used of helmets, the application of social marketing in changing risky

behaviours could be effective only if practitioners develop strategies to instill positive attitudes

towards road safety (Razmara et al., 2018). Therefore, the attitude variable being included to

the social marketing campaign aimed at promoting sustainable behaviour makes it very

important in predicting how an individual would make a concerted effort adopting road safety

practices such as wearing of helmets.

Subjective Norms

Subjective norms has been described by Hagger, et al., (2006), as “a series of factors relating the

perception a person holds, that he/she has to consider the important people in his/her life which

serves as a motivation to comply to what others expect of him/her”. Therefore, social marketers,

should look at the role that referents play, and use them as role models whiles bringing on board

the concerns of self-regard because these could be seen as a catalyst to change risky behaviours

among motorcyclists (Bortoleto, et al., 2012).

43
9
2023 34(8 )

Precautionary measures adopted by motorcyclists which include the use of crash helmet is

influenced largely by the perception the riders have and considering the severity of accidents or

collisions. In a study by Şimşekoğlu et al. (2013) for instance, they found that in Turkey there

is a relationship between the perception of hazards in traffic and taking measures that are

precautionary including the use of helmet ,seatbelt, as well as riding within the speed limits by

law. By far, one of the effective means of reducing head injury risks is the use of helmets (Hazen

& Ehiri, 2006). Liu et al. (2003) in a systematic literature review revealed that not only did

standard helmets reduced the risk of injury of the neck and head by 72% but also mortality as

well. In Taiwan for instance the 1997 ratification which made it mandatory for motorcyclist to

use helmets fatalities involving motorbike went down drastically by 14% while non-fatalities

reduced by 31%. In applying social marketing to changing risky behaviours subjective norms

has also been acknowledged to contribute as it is one of the key predictors of human behaviour.

On the contrary, Greaves, et al., (2013), revealed that when it comes environmentally

sustainable behaviour example switching off the computer subjective norms serve as a strong

predictor. Studies such as these go to confirm the high predictability of subjective norms

regarding the individual’s intention to perform a behavior especially when such a behavior is a

public one. A study by Mancha and Yoder (2015) realized that when sense of identity in people

is stronger it could lead to an improvement in their efficacy to perform a behavior. In their study

they argue that when the identity of individuals is stronger with other people that maybe seen

as part of the things that could be used to reduce the fatalities on road caused by these

motorcyclists.

44
10
2023 34(8 )

Perceived behavioral control

According to Tonglet, et al., (2004), perceived behavioral control (PBC) is related to the

opinions of the individuals’ capabilities to take an action towards performing a behavior. Ajzen

(2002) emphasizes that PBC is how easy it is to the individual when it comes performing a

behavior or taking an action and that it is based on an assessment the individual’s possession

of the skills required to perfume that action, resources, as well as the opportunity to perform

the behavior. Ajzen (1991) explained this view by indicating that perceived behavioral control

could be influenced by control beliefs such as the past experiences of friends and acquaintances,

as well as other key factors that may reduce or increase the perceived difficulty that are

associated with performing that behavior. This lays much emphasis on the assumption that the

individual has self-efficacy that can make him or her perform the behavior (Greaves, Zibarras,

& Stride, 2013). In developing economies such Ghana, it is argued that inadequate or lack of

education, law being poorly enforcement and the perceived susceptibility of the victim

regarding the risk are the main factors that lead to the failure to observe precautionary measures

(Li et al., 2008). Wang et al. (2016), posits that the convenience, cost, alongside the processes

are key issues that need to be taking into consideration when it comes to risky behaviors. Also,

it is very important to state that with regards the perceived behavioral control, the fact that the

individual has the capability and knowledge to perform the behavior, does not mean it can

influence the behavior directly. Relatively, such capability and knowledge may rather have an

effect indirectly through the use of subjective norms as pressure from society is likely to inform

whether the individual perform the behavior or not (Bortoleto, Kurisu, & Hanaki, 2012).

From the above discussions, the interventions through social marketing campaigns that are

related to risky behaviors mostly consider the beliefs of motorcyclists concerning how easy it

is for them to adapt and perform the behavior. This is key in ensuring that sustainable behaviors

performed by individuals (Rex, 2015). In this regard, these theoretical conceptualizations of the
45
11
2023 34(8 )

theory of planned behavior are drawn in this study, with the aim to examining the effects of

social marketing campaigns in changing motorcyclists’ risky behavior in Accra.

Risky Riding Behavioral Factors

According to the WHO Report (2017), injuries from road traffic is one of the challenges that is

persistent regarding public health in most parts of the world, and that represents a major issue

especially economic and human losses. Around 1.25 million people lose their lives annually,

while 50 million people suffer injuries from road traffic worldwide. The reasons for Over 60%

of these traffic injuries have been shown to be a risky driving behavior (RDB). This

notwithstanding, Tesfaye, Bedada, and Mesay (2016) has outlined the following risky driving

behaviors factors among drivers and other road motorcycle riders: including deliberately

disobeying red traffic lights, riding faster than the speed limited to get ahead of other

motorcycles, riding without speed limiting devices, crossing pedestrian line while pedestrians

waiting to cross, driving after alcohol consumption, driving while feeling sleepy, and not

signaling during lanes changing to get ahead of other motorcycles. Another one changeable risk

factors or protection include inexperience and lack of training of drivers, conspicuous laws on

daytime headlight, licensing and motorbikes ownership, ride pace, and action that takes risks. In

addition, Damsere-Derry et al., (2018) also stated that one of the major causes of the crushes is

alcohol . They included that, to reduce deaths resulting from motorcycle crushes effectively is

the enforcement of legal blood limits concentration of alcohol whilst some other effective

interventions related to alcohol such as a minimum age of drinking legally, excise taxes on

alcohol increased and a responsible drinks service for motorcycle riders specifically weren't

observed.

Factors such as driving experience (Niezgoda, 2013; Chumpawadee 2015) socioeconomic

context, and monthly salary (Jafarpour & Rahimi-Movaghar, 2014), drivers’ education levels ,

46
12
2023 34(8 )

distance covered (number of kilometers (km/miles driven per specific time) drinking alcohol

and smoking (Bazzaz, & Sheriff 2015), drivers’ mental and physical abilities, psychological

factors, such as emotions, personality type, , and stimuli distraction (inside or outside) (Wang,

Jafarpour & Rahimi-Movaghar, 2014) shown by other studies are among some of the factors

that predispose the experiences of risky driving/riding behavior. It is the midst of these

controversies that this current study examined the attitudes of motorcyclists towards risky

behaviors in Accra, Ghana.

Helmet Usage among Motorcyclists

According to Mwakasapa (2018), “helmet is a type of protective headgear used by motorcycle

riders” or construction workers. The main purpose of a helmet is to protect and secure user’s head

throughout the process of impact, avoiding or reducing damage to the head or saving the rider's life.

However, the wearing of helmet while riding is a practice that is met with both positive and negative

reactions among motorcyclists across the globe especially in Ghana. Also, per the miles vehicles

travel, the risk of death by riding motorcycle is about 34-fold higher in crashes than those driving

other types of vehicles such as cars. Injuries of the head are frequent in motorcycle crushes with

usually fatal ones. Laws on helmet and shield use proved successful in minimizing head injuries

and motorcycle deaths (Jess & Mau-Roung, 2009).

To further this discussion, Liu, Mishcenko and Arnott (2008), argued that of those that are injured

or killed through road traffic crushes victims of motorcycle crashes make up a greater proportion.

Head injuries that occur after motorcycle crash, is one of the most common cause of serious injury

mortality and morbidity rates. Largely it can be observed that the use of helmets should be a panacea

and serve as what can protect against such injuries. But the argument rather has also been that the

use of a helmet by motorcyclists reduces rider's use vision and increased wounds in the neck though

it is a known fact that during a crash helmets use are a very effective way of protecting riders' heads.

47
13
2023 34(8 )

Research has shown that helmets help in reducing the fatality of motorcycle riders by between 22

to 42 percent whiles head injuries are reduced by between 41 to 69% (Dapilah et al., 2017).

Again, as posited by Thompson, Barnes, Galgani, and Barlaz (2009), in the prevention of head

injuries that are as a result of bicycle riding crushes helmets use has been shown to be very

effective. In spite of the health behavior benefits of helmets its use among bicycle riders

remarkably has been low throughout most cities in the U.S.. A study in 2013 showed that of the

1,054 New York City bicycle share riders over 85% were seen not to be wearing helmets

regardless of the time of day, location, or day of the week (Basch & Ethan, 2013).

Influence of Social Marketing in Changing Risky Behaviors among Motorcyclists

According to Ethan and Basch (2013) Social Marketing is “a good health communication

approach that applies marketing practices to influencing attitudes and behaviors of a target

population, aimed at addressing population-based health problems such as teen pregnancy,

substance abuse, diabetes and obesity”. Planning a program and its evaluation are ways by which

intended outcomes are identified and assessed, which include attitude change, knowledge,

perception and behavior. Same as in commercial marketing, this technique includes among

others target audience analysis and segmentation, the use of theories of behavior change as a

guide to planning, health messages are tailored through feedback from audiences, channels of

communication are selecting appropriately and tools of evaluation are used to measure the

effectiveness of the program (Evans, 2006). In addition, a social marketing campaign for

bicycle-share riders in urban areas may be used as a component of a program in health promotion

a that is targeted at removing barriers and a comprehensive way of educating motorcyclists

regarding the adoption of road safety practices such as use of helmet as well as promote options

of a lifestyle that “sells” helmet use as a good product that is worth investing in.

48
14
2023 34(8 )

The UNAIDS (2000) defined Social Marketing as “the adoption of commercial marketing and

sales concepts and techniques towards the attainment of social goals; it seeks to make health

related information, products and services easily available and affordable to low-income

populations and those at risks whiles at the same time promoting the adoption of healthier

behavior”. Emphasis must be placed on the fact that the main goal of social marketing is

encouraging behavior change that are healthy and also sustainable.

Undoubtedly, social marketing has been increasing in popularity among agencies and

governments as an effective and efficient means of addressing major health issues in third world

countries of which Ghana is included. Currently, the application of the concept has been

witnessed across many areas of public health and life in both the developing and the developed

countries including areas such as environmental protection, the campaign against abuse of

alcohol and smoking as well as the prevention of several risk related behavior change. In Ghana,

the National Road Safety Commission, civil organizations and individuals have resorted to using

social marketing tools such as posters, flyers, Facebook, billboards, etc. concerning road safety

campaigns aimed at promoting positive behavioral change.

Methods

Data collection

This study data was collected between February and May 2022 in two suburbs of Accra from two

municipal assemblies including the Ayawaso Central and La Nkwantanang Madina municipal

assemblies of the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The suburb in the Ayawaso central was NIMA

while the one in the La Nkwantanang Madina was Madina. These two suburbs were selected due

to the high number of motorcycles users especially for commercial purposes. Those who use the

motorcycle for commercial purposes are divided into two including carrying of passengers

popularly known as “OKADA” or the PRAJIA which has gained currency in the past years and
49
15
2023 34(8 )

became issues of political campaigns during the 2020 elections in Ghana and those who use it to

do delivery. Another group of motorcycle users are those who use it privately to commute to and

from work. An initial personal meeting was held with the participants to brief them about the

nature and the purpose of the study. The reliability of the instruments of the research was gained

through pretesting to cross check the accuracy and consistency of the questions and the answers to

be obtained. To ensure the reliability of the instruments, samples of the questionnaires were pre-

tested. Thereafter, the validated questionnaires were distributed to respondents by the researchers.

The questionnaires were hand delivered to the participants for them to complete, where necessary,

the researchers assisted in explaining some of the scaling items to them, and this helped in

facilitating the understanding of the respondents’ and eliciting greater responses. Furthermore,

researchers clarified the research intent to the respondents by assuring them of the confidentiality

of information they provided and the usage for its intended study only. The questionnaires were

categorized into five sections with most of the sections being subjected to a five-point Likert Scale

rating ranging from 5, the highest to 1, the lowest points. The ranges are (5=Strongly Agree, 4=

Agree, 3= Neutral, 2= Disagree, and 1= Strongly Disagree). The rationale behind this is to help

the researcher gather the information needed adequately so as to complete the research successfully

and also to ensure reliability. Respondents were allowed enough time to accurately respond to the

questionnaire. The questionnaires were successfully completed and collected on the day of

administration. This facilitates the process of data collection and increases the rate of response. In

gathering data for the study we administered a structured questionnaire using some Research

Assistants to a randomized sample of 130 motorcyclists found in to specified areas. After editing

the data carefully, 20 incomplete questionnaires were found therefore, 110 that remained were

used for our analysis. The information elicited from the questionnaire are about the demographic

and general socio-economic characteristics (sex, age, occupation, education) and other areas

including ownership of motorcycles, licensure etc.

50
16
2023 34(8 )

Data Analysis

The data gathered were processed, cleaned, coded and analyzed using the IBM Statistical Package

for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 21 software application. In this study, data analysis was done

quantitatively using descriptive statistics such frequency distribution, and regression. Descriptive

statistics such as frequency distribution are used in presenting the respondents demographic profile.

Again, to test the research hypothesis formulated, a regression analysis was conducted. The

information gathered were used to generate tables and figures, to examine the role of social

marketing in changing risky behaviors among motorcyclists in Accra handled with utmost

confidentiality and privacy. Again, all personal identifiers were removed leaving only the

aggregate data that were used for analysis.

Results

Descriptive statistics of motorcyclists in Accra Ghana

Variable Frequency Percentage

Gender
Male 100 91.8
Female 10 8.2
Age
15-20 13 11.8
21-25 38 34.5
26-30 3 2.7
31-35 50 45.5
36 and above 6 5.5
Educational Qualification
No formal Education 8 7.3
Primary 14 12.7
JHS 29 26.4
SHS/A-Level 39 35.5
Tertiary 20 18.2
Marital Status
Single 77 70
Married 27 24.5
Separated 2 1.8
Divorced 4 3.6
Riding license
51
17
2023 34(8 )

Yes 62 56.4
No 48 43.6
Riding experience
5 years and below 47 42.7
6-10 years 37 33.6
Above 10 years 26 23.6
Type of Motorcycle
2 Wheel 105 95.5
3 Wheel 5 4.5

Table 1

From the sample majority of the respondents were in the range of 31-35 years (45.5%), with those

in the 26-30 year bracket were 2.7%. The highest number based on education level was SHS/A-

Level (35.5%) JHS (26.4%), tertiary (18.2%), whiles primary was (12.7%), those with no formal

education were (7.3%). Majority of the respondents were single separated are (4%) and (2)

respectively. behaviors are single. (70%) followed by married (24%), divorced and This implies

that, respondents engaging in risky. Most of the respondents had a riding license (56.4%), whereas

minority had no riding license (43.6%). This implies that majority of the respondents involved in

risky behaviors have a license. Majority of the respondents have riding experience between 5 years

and below (42.7%). Minority were between 6 and 10 years (33.6%) and respondents above 10 years

(23.6%). Majority of the respondents were using a 2 wheel (95.5%) followed by 3- wheel (4.5%).

This implies that motor accidents occurring on the road are mostly a 2-wheel type of motorcycle.

The findings reveal that respondents within the range 31-35 years are involved in risky behaviors

in the study.

Measuring of Validity and Reliability

The reliability (Zikmund, et al, 2012) of the study was then calculated using Cronbach’s Alpha to

obtain the internal consistency reliability coefficient. All the items measured have a Cronbach’s

Alpha of 0.70 and above which researchers consider as an indicator of a high internal consistency

of the measurement scale (Hair et al., 2006). Given the reliability coefficient of 0.70 and above
52
18
2023 34(8 )

hence, the results of the study show that all items reliable measure the variables used in the study.

Table 2 shows the reliability of the variables texted using Cronbach’s Alpha.

Descriptive analysis

Variable Std. Cronbach’s

N Mean Deviation alpha
Attitude .824
Road safety practice is a good idea 110 4.91 .372
Road safety practices will protect 110 4.91 .372
Road safety practice will be reasonable 110 4.77 .501
Road safety practices will prevent accidents 110 4.79 .526
Road safety practices will be interesting task 110 4.25 .837
Subjective Norms .794
I feel wearing helmet during the night while riding is
against societal norms 110 2.20 1.525
My society thinks that female motorcyclists should
not put on helmet while riding 110 2.41 1.688
My friends think riders who cross pedestrian lanes
carelessly should be caught by the police 110 3.59 1.693
I think that careless riders are supposed to be
punished severely 110 3.63 1.590
I know it is unethical to cross pedestrian lane while he
or she is wanting to cross 110 3.25 1.575
I think wearing helmet is unnecessary even for the
experienced rider 110 2.42 1.661
Perceived behavioral control .883
I think using helmet is very necessary regardless
of whether there is traffic or not 110 4.62 .977
I know that helmet wearing is not only to avoid arrest
but also for one’s own safety. 110 4.50 .906
I think despite one’s experience in riding helmet
wearing is necessary. 110 4.5 .915
I believe helmet wearing helps in minimizing
injuries to the head during crash 110 4.48 .896
I have adequate knowledge on road safety rules and
regulations 110 3.89 1.026
Intention .725
I intend to wear helmet because of social campaign
I witnessed 110 2.79 1.421
I intend to stop riding while drunk because of a social
campaign witnessed 110 3.85 1.328
I intend to stop using motorcycle immediately I find an
alternative 110 3.74 1.463
My intention to use helmet is affected by the
coercion of the police 110 3.08 1.545
I have decided to obey road traffic rules because of
information found on social media
110 3.69 1.406
Social Marketing Influence .890
53
19
2023 34(8 )

I am informed about dangers of risky behaviours

through posters and flyers on road safety 110 4.12 .955
I express my views and opinions on road safety
campaigns at a reduced cost on social media
platforms 110 3.61 1.166
I learn to cultivate positive attitude towards road
traffic rules through social marketing campaigns
110 3.88 .946
I get educative information from road safety practices
from friends on social media platforms 110 3.68 1.165
I get to know about road safety practices through
inscriptions on billboards 110 3.70 1.146
I get information on motorcycle accidents through
social media platforms 110 3.59 1.236
Behavioral change .802
I read a lot about road safety laws to educate others to
perform road safety practices 110 3.70 1.246
I always put on helmet whether I am riding for short or
long distance 110 4.53 1.011
I know it is an offense to disobey road traffic rules 110 4.53 1.011
I have speed limiting devices installed on my
motorcycle 110 4.05 1.262
I prefer to ride slowly in traffic than to change
lane to reach destination early 110 3.76 1.248

Table 2

This initial part focuses on the various elements in the TPB which include: Attitudes, Subjective

norms, perceived behavioural control, intention and social marketing. The second part is

behavioural change. The descriptive statistic, mean and the standard deviation were used to know

how the elements that influences risky behaviours of motorcyclists. The mean is the extent to

which the sample group agrees or disagrees averagely with the various statements. The higher the

mean, the more the respondents agrees with the statements whiles the lower the mean, the more

respondents disagree with the statements in the questionnaires. Standard deviation, shows how

diverse responses or opinions of respondents are for a given statement.

From the table above, the study results show that majority of the respondents strongly agreed that

road safety practice is a good idea and will protect the lives of humans (mean =4.91 std dev=.372).

Also, the study results show that most respondents strongly agreed to the fact that road safety

54
20
2023 34(8 )

practices will be reasonable (mean= 4.77, std dev=501) and will prevent accidents on the road

(mean=4.79, std dev=.526) Finally, most respondents agreed that road safety practices will be an

interesting task to talk about (mean= 4.25, std dev.837). The study also found respondents

disagreeing to the fact that wearing helmet during the night while riding is against societal norms

(mean=2.20, std dev=1.525) and also female motorcyclists should not put on helmet whiles riding

(mean= 2.41, std= 1.688). The majority of the respondents agreed to the fact riders who carelessly

cross pedestrian should be caught by the police (mean= 3.59 std dev=1.693) and also, most agreed

that careless riders are supposed to be punished (mean= 3.63, std dev=1.590). Also, respondents

are uncertain about the fact that it is unethical to cross pedestrian lane whiles he or she wants to

cross. (Mean= 3.25, std dev=1.575). Finally, respondents disagree to the fact that helmet wearing

is unnecessary for the experienced rider. (mean= 2.42, std dev=1.661). Majority of the respondents

strongly agree to the fact that wearing helmet is necessary regardless of whether or not there is

traffic (mean=4.62, Std dev=.977), same majority know helmet wearing is for one’s safety not just

for avoiding fines (mean= 2.41, Std dev=.906). They also strongly agree to the fact that helmet

wearing is necessary even for the experienced rider (mean=4.55, std dev=.915) and believe helmet

wearing minimizes injuries (mean=4.48 std dev= .896) The table also indicated that respondents

agreed that they get adequate knowledge on road safety rules and regulations (mean=3.89, std

dev=1.026).

The study reveal that majority of the respondents agreed to the fact that they intend to stop riding

while drunk because of a social campaign they witnessed (mean=3.85 std dev= 1.328). Most of

them also agreed to that they intend to stop using motorcycle if they find an alternative (mean=3.74

std dev. 1.463). Also, most of the respondents agreed to the fact they have decided to obey road

traffic rules (mean=3.69 std dev.=1406). However, minority of the respondents disagree to the

fact that they intend to wear helmet because of a campaign they witnessed (mean=2.79 std

55
21
2023 34(8 )

dev=1.421). Whereas, few are uncertain about wearing a helmet is affected by the police

(mean=3.08 std dev=1.545).

The study shows that, majority of the respondents strongly agree to the fact they are informed about

dangers of risky behaviors (mean=4.12, std dev=.955) same majority agree that they express their

views on road safety campaigns on social media (mean=3.61, std dev=1.166). The study indicated

that most respondents cultivate positive attitudes towards traffic rules (mean= 3.88, std dev=.946).

Again, most respondents agree they get information on safety practices on road from friends

(mean=3.68 std dev=1.165). Most respondents agree that they get to know about road safety

practices through inscriptions on billboards (mean=3.70, std dev=1.146).

Finally, most respondents also agree they get information on motor accidents through social media

platforms (mean=3.59 std dev=1.236) The above table 4.3.5 shows that, majority of the respondents

strongly agree to the fact they put on helmet whether riding and thinks they it is an offense to

disobey road traffic rules (means=4.53, std dev=1.011). Majority also agreed to the fact that they

have speed limiting devices installed on their motorcycle (mean=4.05 std dev=1.262). The table

indicated respondents agree to ride slowly in traffic than to change lane to reach destination early

(mean=3.76 std dev=1.248). Most respondents also agree about reading road safety laws to educate

others (mean=3.70, std dev=1.246).

Multiple Regression analysis

R Square analysis

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the

Estimate
1 .511a .261 .225 .76407

a. Predictors: (Constant), Social marketing, Intention, Subjective norms, Perceived behavioral control, Attitude.
Table 3

56
22
2023 34(8 )

The R2 values shows us how much of the variation in the dependent variable (risky behaviors) is

explained by the independent variable (Social marketing, Intention, Subjective norms, Perceived

behavioral control and Attitude). The above table the model summary gives that the R2 value is

0.261 which means 26% of the risky behaviors is explained by social marketing, intention, attitude,

subjective norms and perceived behavioral control.

ANOVA

Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 21.401 5 4.280 7.331 .000a

Residual 60.716 104 .584

82.117 109

Total

a. Predictors: (Constant), Social marketing, Intention, Subjective norms Perceived behavioral control, Attitude

b. Dependent Variable: risky behavior

Table 4
The ANOVA shows whether the model, overall, is acceptable from a statistical angle i.e. whether

the independent variables are in significantly good degree of the prediction of the outcome variable.

From the table above the independent variables significantly predict the dependent variable with

F=7.331 and sig=0.000. This therefore means that the probability of these results occurring by

chance is less than 0.05. That is the variation that is explained by the model is not simply by chance.

57
23
2023 34(8 )

Regression Model Coefficient

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model Beta t Sig.
1(Constant) B Std. Error
Attitude 1.101 .969 1.137 .258
Subjective Norm .059 .070 .074 .855 .394
Perceived .000
behavioral control
.562 .096 .506 5.833
Intention -.033 .077 -.038 -.435 .664
Social marketing -.005 .085 -.005 -.056 .955
a. Dependent Variable: risky behavior
b. P< 0.05, 95% level of confidence
Table 5
The above table shows the result of the multiple regression between the dependent variable and the

independent variables. The study reveals that, only perceived behavioral control has a significant

level below p<0.05. However, the rest of the independent variables have insignificant level above

p< 0.05. Also, beta values which means individual independent variables influence on dependent

variable. The results indicated that perceived behavioral control has a strong effect on risky

behaviors among motorcyclists with beta value of 0.562 which is significant at 0.000. This means

it has a positive and significant effect on changing risky behaviors that is wearing of helmets.

However, the other dependent variables have negative and insignificant effect on changing risky

behaviors. (Attitudes=0.563, Subjective norms=0.394, intention=0.664, social marketing=0.955).

Discussion

The discussion part of the findings is organized under the variables attitudes, subjective norms and

perceived behavioral control, then followed with variables intentions, social marketing and the

results of the finding were compared with the findings from other studies. This current study was

designed to test the relationship between the variables mentioned including attitudes, subjective

norms, perceived behavioral control, intentions and social marketing and changing risky behaviors

among motorcyclists. The TPB was adopted and modified by the researchers. This theory serves as
58
24
2023 34(8 )

a basis for our research. The argument by this theory is that, for an individual to decide and is

willing to perform a behavior, his or her attitude towards the behavior, the subjective norms that

are related to the behavior and the perceived behavioral control should contribute to the growth of

the individual’s intentions to perform that behavior. The aim of the researchers was to examine the

impact that social marketing has in changing risky behavior using motorcyclists and their use of

helmet so they included the social marketing as a new antecedent to achieve the objective of the

study.

Furthermore, the hypothesis was tested. The first element tested was attitude and from the study, it

was revealed that there is a negative effect on motorcyclists' attitude and their intentions to use

helmets (Hypothesis 1). In this regard, the findings show that the intention towards stopping risky

behavior motorcyclists or practicing road safety activities is likely to be low, when they think road

safety practices will protect lives, prevent accidents. To this end, it is vital for practitioners planning

intervention to bring out programs that will stimulate their attitudes towards stopping risky

behaviors. This corroborate studies such as that of Vlek (2000), Jepson (2012) and Ou-Yang et al.

(2014) which found intention to perform a behavior to be driven strongly by motivation and in this

instance attitude and beliefs.

Equally, subjective norms was found to have negative effects on motorcyclists’ intention to change

risky behaviors (Hypothesis 2). This finding comes as a surprise because it contradicts arguments

made by Nigbur, Lyons & Uzzell (2010) in their work. For example, Nigbur, et al (2010) posits a

particular behavior will be performed by individuals when they have the belief their referent others

want them to engage in such a behavior. However, this findings of this study suggest that in Ghana,

social controls that attempt to prevent and regulate people from stopping risky behaviors may not

be that effective. In addition, the perceptions of referent others concerning the behavior may not

necessarily matter to the motorcyclists and, for that matter, would not be something that can

influence them to stop their engagement in risky behaviors. Therefore, it is highly possible that
59
25
2023 34(8 )

decisions made by this study group toward stopping risky behaviors are based on their own volition

as well as the perceive value they derive from its engagement and not necessarily what their

significant others think.

With respect to Hypothesis 3, the findings reveal that there is a significant positive effect on

behavioral control and intentions to stop risky behaviors. Further, motorcyclists can easily perform

the actual behavior when they possess the opportunity to perform the behavior.

Also with the findings for Hypothesis 4 of this study shows a negative effect on the intention and

real behavior which shows that when the intention to perform a behavior is weak the behavior is

likely not to be performed (French, 2017). It therefore means that in the context of Ghana,

motorcyclists’ negative intentions towards changing risky behaviors has some or no form of impact

on their adoption of actual behavior.

Finally, the moderating effect (Hypothesis 5) of social marketing on intention and the behavior

change relationship was examined and no relationships was found. Meaning that social marketing

campaigns have a negative relationship with intentions to change risky behaviors (wearing of

helmets) among motorcyclists.

Conclusion

Risky behaviors which can also be termed as risk taking behaviors are any conscious or no

conscious behavior that can be controlled with discern riskiness about outcome. Most risky

behaviors end-up in loss of lives of the individuals which in turn affects their loved ones and the

society at large. Therefore, it is imperative that people get much educated on the disadvantages and

advantages of involving themselves in certain risky practices, this would in a way influence their

action on whether or not to perform those risky practices. Motorcycle riders just like motor car

drivers help to convey passengers to their destinations as well as riders who ride for pleasure.

Although this means of transport is faster and saves time, it comes with major consequences when
60
26
2023 34(8 )

riders engage in unlawful and irresponsible behaviors. Therefore, to succeed and make this means

of transportation safe, riders must be educated and understand the need to obey road safety rules

through the use of social marketing principles.

The following conclusion were drawn based on the discussions and analysis.

The results from the study based on the findings analyzed motorcyclist attitudes and intentions to

stop risky behaviors, their subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and influence of social

marketing in changing this behavior. Intention, results from findings shows that majority of

motorcyclist have low intention towards stopping risky practices.

Based on the findings, subjective norms has a negative effects on motorcyclist intention to change

risky behavior, they do not care about the opinion of people around them, most of them make

decisions that satisfies their own interest.

With Perceived behavioral control, there was a positive relationship between behavioral control and

intention, which means that when motorcyclists are presented with opportunity to act right then

they will adhere to safety rules and responsible measure.

Also, we noticed motorcyclist negative intentions has no form of effects on their adoption of real

behavior.

Finally, on examining the moderating effect of social marketing, it was found out that social

marketing campaigns geared towards these risky acts by motorcyclist are very low and not been

taken seriously, most of them do not even get to hear about them.

Recommendation for researchers

In General, social marketing has a great influence in changing risky behaviors for individual benefit

and that of society at large. To avoid injuries and loss of lives by motor accidents which occur due

to certain irresponsible behaviors of motor riders, one must adopt social marketing principles.
61
27
2023 34(8 )

Social marketers need to put in place documentaries, stories, put up bill boards illustrating how

motorcyclist must look in protective gadgets whiles riding. Measure must be put in place for police

force to enforce strict actions to make riders obey traffic rules and signs.

Also, social marketers must come up with campaigns at least once or twice a year to create much

awareness on road safety measures, here they can even include celebrities in order to get the

message across to riders faster. To add to this, license acquisition by riders must be based on proper

test, this would help save the country as a whole.

Recommendation for future research

This study has produced significant results and yielded meaningful contributions to the existing

body of knowledge, although there are some limitations that require further research. In this study,

researchers looked at theoretical literature reviews from different sources within and on previous

works in other countries. The respondent’s unwillingness to answer the questionnaires due to fear

of getting reported to the police force, thus lacking the true essence of the study were major

limitations to the study. Results of the study must be treated carefully and future research must

involve the general population. To add to this, the sample size of the study was not large. Therefore,

future studies can analyze the influence of social marketing in risky behaviors considering

motorcyclist in Accra as a whole, or look at the influence of social marketing in changing the rivalry

relationship between drivers and motorcyclist leading to accidents. This would give a wider basis

of analysis and bring out influential factors and investigate on how to minimize risky behaviors in

motorcyclist to help the country.

62
28
2023 34(8 )

REFERENCES

Ader, S. (2008). Descriptive Statistics. Texas: McGraw-Hill.

Broughton, J., & Walter, L. (2007). Trends in Fatal car accidents. Analysis of CCIS Data, 5(2), 13-
23.

Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2012). Business Research Methods (4th ed). USA: Oxford University
Press.

Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2015). Business Research Methods. (4th ed.). USA: Oxford University
Press.

Cameron, M. (2004). World Reoprt on Road Traffic Injury Prevention. Injury Prevention. 10(4),
pp. 255-366.

Cheng, H., Kotler, P., & Lee, N. (2011). Social Marketing for Public Health: Global Trends and

Success Stories. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlet.

Coakes, S., & Steed, L. (2005). SPSS Analysis without anguish. . Brisbane: John Wiley and Sons.

Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2012). Business Research Methods. Texas: McGraw-Hill.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods.

California : Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, conducting and evaluating qualitative

and quantitative reasearch (4th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill.

Dann, S. (2010). Redefining Social Marketing with Contemporary Commercial Marketing

Definitions. Journal of Business Research,, 63(2), 147-153.

Dapilah, F., Guba, & Sekyere, E. (2016). Motorcyclists’ characteristics and traffic behavior in
urban Northern Ghana: Implications for road traffic accidents. Journal of Transport and
Health, 32(5), 121-142.

Dickson Osei-Asibey, Joshua Ayarkwa, Alex Acheampong, Emmanuel Adinyira & Peter
Amoah (2023) Impacts of accidents and hazards on the Ghanaian construction
industry, International Journal of Construction Management, 23:4, 708-717.

63
29
2023 34(8 )

Dinye, R. B. (2013). The Significance and Issues of Motorcycle Transport in the Urban areas in
Northern Ghana. T Scientific Journal of Review,, 2(10), 256-272.

El-Fiki, A., & El Falaky, O. (2016). Evaluation of Neurotrauma in Motorcycle Accidents at Tertiary
Hospital. 53(4), p. 244.

Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparsion of Convinience Sampling and
Purposive Sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Science, 5(5), 1-4.

French, J. (2017). Social marketing and public health; Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Oxford
University Press. .

French, J., & Blair-Stevens, C. (2007). Lessons learned from social marketing models in the United
Kingdom. Social Marketing Quarterly, 13(3), pp. 58-62.

French, J., & Gordon, R. (2015). Strategic Social Marketing. London: Sage.

French, J., & Gordon, R. (2019). Strategic Social Marketing: For Behavior and Social Change.

California: Sage Publication ltd.

Gill, J., & Johnson, P. (2002). Research Methods for Managers. (3rd Edition). London: Paul
Chapman.

Giulietti, C., Tonin, M., and Vlassopoulos, M. (2020) When the market drives you crazy: Stock
market returns and fatal car accidents, Journal of Health Economics, 70, 102245.
Greaves, M., Zibarras, L. D., & Stride, C. (2013). Using the theory of planned behaviour to explore
environmental behavioural intentions in the workplace. Journal of Environmental
Psychology, 34, 109-120.

Green, E., & Murphy, E. (2014). Health Belief Model. Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia. Health
Behavioral Society. 766-769.

Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., Anderson, R., & Tatham, R. (2006). Multivariate Data Analysis.

Prentice Hall.

Harworth, N., Greig, K., & Nielson, A. (2009). A comparison of risk-taking in mpoedv and
motorcycle crashes, Transportation Research Record.

Hochbeum, G., Rosenstock, I., & Kegels, S. (1952). The Health Belief Model. U.S. Public Health
Service.
64
30
2023 34(8 )

Ivers, R. Q., C, S., T, S., J, E., & S, L. (2016). Road motorcycle coaching program reduce crashes
in norie riders? A randomised control trial. Accident and Previews. 86(1), pp. 4046.

Ivers, R. Q., Sakashita.C., Senserrick.T., Elkington, J., & Lo, S. (2016). Does an on road
motorcycle coaching program reduce crashes in norie riders? A randomised control trial.
Accident and Previews. 86(1), pp. 40-46.

Jafarpour, S. R. (2014). Determinants of risky driving behavior: a narrative review. Medical

Journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 28(1), 142.

Konkor, I., Kansanga, M., Sano, Y., Atuoye, K., & Luginaah, I. (2019). Risk taking behaviours and
first time MBC. Journal of Transport &Health, 105-114.

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research Methodology (2nd ed). Jaipur, India: New age international ltd.

Kotler, P., & Zaltman, G. (. (1971). Social marketing: An approach to Planned Social Change.

The Journal of Marketing, 3-12.

Kudebong, M., Wurapa, F., Novignon, J., Norman, I., Awoonor, W. J., & Aikins, M. (2011).
Economic burden of motorcycle accident in Northern Ghana. Ghana Medical Journal,,
45(4), 135-142.

Kumar, R. (2005). Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, 2nd edition.

London: Sage Publication.

Mancha, R. M. (2015). Cultural antecedents of green behavioural intent: An environmental theory

of planned behaviour. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 43, 145-154.

Mau, R. L., & Jess, F. K. (2009). A review of risk factors and patterns of motorcycle injuries.

Analysis Analysis & Prevention, 41(4), pp. 710-722.

Mokhtar, N. H., Hamzah, L., Mamat, H. C., Nasir, M. Z. M., & Mamat, M. F. (2023). Decreasing the rate of
motorcycle accidents in Malaysia: Analytical hierarchy process approach. In AIP Conference
Proceedings (Vol. 2682, No. 1, p. 060009). AIP Publishing LLC.

Mwakasapa, J. (2018). Helmet usage. Zambia.

Niblett, G. R. (2005). Stretching the limits of social marketing partnerships, upstream and
downstream: setting the context for the 10th innovations in social marketing conference.
Social Marketing Quarterly., 11, pp. 9-15.
65
31
2023 34(8 )

Nigbur, D., Lyons, E., & & Uzzell, D. (2010). Attitudes, norms, identity and environmental
behaviour: Using an expanded theory of planned behaviour to predict participation in a
kerbside recycling programme. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 259–284.

NRSC. (2013). Statistics on Road accident in Ghana. National Road Safety Commission.

Orodho, J. A. (2004). Techniques of Writing Research Proposals and Reports in Education and
Social Sciences. Nairobi: Kanezja Publishers.

Ou-Yang, H.-Y., Ariphongphokin, R., & & Trung, N. H. (2014). Adopting the
motivationopportunity-ability model to evaluate the intentions of Thai students to study
abroad. International Journal of Social Science & Education, 4, 502–515.

Rex, J., Lobo, A., & Leckie, C. (2015). Evaluating the Drivers of Sustainable Behavioural
Intentions: An Application and Extension of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. Journal of
Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 27(3), 263-284.

Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of innovations. Simon and Schuster.

Salako, A., Abiodum, O., & Sholeye, O. (2013). Risk behavior for Road Traffic Accidents and
severe crashinjuries among commercial motorcyclists in sagamu, Southwest. Nigeria.
Journal of Road Safety,, 2(2), 277-879.

Saleemi, N. A. (1997). Quantitative techniques Simplified. Nairobi: Saleemi publications Ltd.

Saunders, M. L., & Thornhill, A. (2007). Research Methods for Business Students,. 4/e Prentice
Hall.

Saunders, M. L., & Thornhill, A. (2009). Research Methods for Business Students. Edinburgh:

Prentice Hall.

Scott, B. (2005). Retrieved July 31, 2016, from Social Marketing: A Consumer-based approach to
promoting safe hygiene behaviours. WELL Factsheet.:
www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/factsheets/

Sekaran, U. (2003). The Uses of Survey in Research. Journal of Research Studies, 45-50.

66
32
2023 34(8 )

Sheau-Ting, L., Mohammed, A. H., & Weng-Wai, C. (2013). What is the optimum social
marketing mix to market energy conservation behaviour: an empirical study? Journal of
Environmental Management, 131(1), 196-220.

Shore, L. M., Tetrick, L. E., Lynch, P., & Barksdale, K. (2006). Social and economic exchange:
Construct development and validation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(4),
837867.

Shove, E. (2010). Beyond the ABC: Climate Change Policy and Theories of Social Change. 42(6),
1273-1285.

Sufiya, M., & Ahmed, S. (2012). Knowledge Attitude and Compliance with safety protective
device among commercial motorcyclists in North Western, Nigeria. 6(2), 80.

Swahn, M. H., & Bossarte, R. M. (2009). Assessing and Quantifying high risk among young ones
in Urbnan, Disadvantaged communities. Georgia State, Atlanta. Partnership for Urban
health. 4, 19-21.

Tashakkori, A. &. (2003). Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social & Behavioral Research.

Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Tashakkori, A., & Teddie, C. (2003). Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social Behavioral Research.

Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc.

Tweneboah-Konduah, E. (2014). Social marketing: using stages of change model to assess

HIV/AIDS testing intentions among university students in Ghana. Journal of Nonprofit &
Public Sector Marketing, 26(3), 208-255.

Wang, Z., Guo, D., & Wang, X. (2016). Determinants of residents’ e-waste recycling behaviour
intentions: evidence from China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 137, 850-860.

WHO. (2015). Global Status Report on Road Safety. World Health Organisation.

WHO. (2017). Road Traffic Injuries. World Health Organisation.

Wiebe, G. (1951). Merchandising commodities and citizenship on television. Public Opinion

Quarterly, 15(4), pp. 679-691.

Zikmund, W., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., & Griffin, M. (2003). Business Research Methods (8th ed).
67
33
2023 34(8 )

South Western: Cengage Learning.

Zikmund, W., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., & Griffin, M. (2010). Business Research Methods (8th ed).

Oklahoma: Cengage Learning .

68
34
2023 34(8 )

35

69

View publication stats