Electric Charge and Coulomb’s Law

1. Of the charge Q initially on a tiny sphere, a portion q is to be transferred to a second, nearby

sphere. Both spheres can be treated as particles. For what value of q/Q will the electrostatic
force between the two spheres be maximized?
2. What must be the distance between point charge q 1 = 26.0 µC and point charge q2 = 47.0 µC
for the electrostatic force between them to have a magnitude of 5.70 N?
3. Two equally charged particles are held 3.2 × 10-3 m apart and then released from rest.
The initial acceleration of the first particle is observed to be 7.0 m/s2 and that of the
second to be 9.0 m/s2. If the mass of the first particle is 6.3 × 10-3 kg, what are (a) the
mass of the second particle and (b) the magnitude of the charge of each particle?
4. In the Fig. below, three charged particles lie on an x axis. Particles 1 and 2 are fixed in place.
Particle 3 is free to move, but the net electrostatic force on it from particles 1 and 2 happens
to be zero. If L23= L12, what is the ratio q1/q2?

5. In the Fig. Below, four particles form a square. The charges are q1 = q4 = Q and q2 = q3 = q.
(a) What is Q/q if the net electrostatic force on particles 1 and 4 is zero? (b) Is there any
value of q that makes the net electrostatic force on each of the four particles zero? Explain.

6. How far apart must two protons be if the magnitude of the electrostatic force acting on either
one due to the other is equal to the magnitude of the gravitational force on a proton at Earth’s
surface?
7. Two free point charges +q and +4q are a distance L apart. A third charge is placed so
that the entire system is in equilibrium. (a) Find the location, magnitude, and sign of the
third charge. (b) Show the equilibrium of the system is unstable.
8. An electron is in a vacuum near Earth’s surface and located at y = 0 on a vertical y axis. At
what value of y should a second electron be placed such that its electrostatic force on the first
electron balances the gravitational force on the first electron?
9. In the Fig. below, the particles have charges q1 = q2 = 100 nC and q3 = q4 = 200 nC, and
distance a = 5.0 cm. What are the (a) x and (b) y components of the net electrostatic force on
particle 3?

10. In the Fig. below, two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and identical charge q hang
from nonconducting threads of length L. Assume that  is so small that tan can be replaced
by its approximate equal, sin.

/
(a) Show that, for equilibrium, 𝑥 = , where x is the separation between the balls.

(b) Explain what happens to the balls of if one of them is discharged (loses its charge q to,
say, the ground). (b) Find the new equilibrium separation x, using the given values of L
and m and the computed value of |q|.
(c) If L = 120 cm, m = 10 g, and x= 5.0 cm, what is q ?
11. Two tiny, spherical water drops, with identical charges of -1.00 × 10-16 C, have a center-to-
center separation of 1.00 cm. (a) What is the magnitude of the electrostatic force acting
between them? (b) How many excess electrons are on each drop, giving it its charge
imbalance?
Charge and Matter and Electric field

1. Electric Charges
2. Conductors, Semiconductors , Insulators and
Superconductors
3. Coulomb’s Law
 Definition, Vector form, Direction
 Comparison of Coulomb’s Law with Gravitational Law
 Charge is Quantized and Conserved
4. Spherical conductors
5. Problems
6. Electric Charge
Charge is the source and the object of action of electromagnetic field.

• Recall that fundamental particles carry something called electric charge

– protons have exactly one unit of positive charge
– electrons have exactly one unit of negative charge
• Electromagnetic force is one of the basic interactions in nature
– like charges experience repulsive force
– opposite charges attracted to each other (like gravity)
• Electrical current is flow of charge (electrons)

Microscopic Charge Carrier:

Charge carriers are charged particles and ions which can carry both positive and negative
Charge.

Charge carriers like electron, proton and their antiparticles have infinite lifetime. Charge of
ion is due to the fact that electron shell of atom or molecule lacks one or several electrons or,
on the contrary, has extra electrons.
– q is measured in coulombs (C)
– q can be + or –
– q is conserved
– q is quantized

Charge Balance
• Neutral atoms are made of equal quantities of positive and negative charges
– Neutral carbon has 6 protons, 6 electrons, (& neutrons)
• Usually charge flows in such a way as to maintain neutrality
– Excess positive charge attracts excess negative charge
– Your body has 51028 positive charges and 51028 negative charges, balanced
within millions or billions

Charge Separation
• We Can separate charges by rubbing:
feet on carpet, atmosphere across ground, silk on glass, balloon on hair!
• Insulators keep charges where they are (no flow)
• Conductors distribute charge equally on surface

Numerical value of elementary charge is e = 1.6021892  10-19 Coulomb

Electron
An electron is the material carrier of an elementary negative charge. It is usually assumed that
an electron is a structureless point particle. mass of electron is
me = 9.1  10-31 kg
Proton
A proton is the carrier of positive elementary charge. Unlike an electron, a proton is not
considered as a point particle. The entire charge of proton is concentrated in a sphere of
radius 10-15 m.

Lightning
• Lightning is an unbelievably huge discharge
• Clouds get charged through air friction
• 1-kilometer strike means 3 billion volts!
• Main path forms temporary “wire” along which charge
equalizes - often bounces a few times before equal
•
• Thunder is bang produced by the extreme pressure
variations induced by the formation and collapse of the
plasma conduit

Lightning Rods

• Perform two functions

– provide safe conduit for lightning away from house
– 7

Charges are attracted to tip of rod, and “electric field” is highly

concentrated there.
Charges “leak” away, diffusing charge in what is sometimes called
“St. Elmo’s Fire”, or “coronal discharge”

Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

Materials are classified as conductors, insulators, or semiconductors
according to their electric conductivity.

Conductors:
Materials through which charge can move freely/easily we call such materials conductors.
Conductors have a large number of loosely bound valence electrons; these electrons are
easily knocked out of their orbit and are then referred to as free electrons.

Example: metals, tap water, human body, Iron, copper, Nickel…..etc.

The electrical resistivity increases with rise of the temperature. The Resistivity is given by
R = R0 [1+(T-T0)]
Where R = resistance at temperature T
R0 = resistance at temperature T0
 = temperature coefficient of resistance for the material.

Insulators:
An insulator, also called a dielectric, is a material that resists the flow of electric current. An
insulating material has atoms with tightly bonded valence electrons as a result no electric
charge can pass through the Insulators. These materials are used in parts of electrical
equipment, also called insulators or insulation, intended to support or separate electrical
conductors without passing current through themselves.
The electrical resistivity is also increases in the case of insulators with the rise of the
temperature.

Example: Some materials such as glass, paper or Teflon are very good electrical insulators.
A much larger class of materials, for example rubber-like polymers and most plastics are
still "good enough" to insulate electrical wiring and cables even though they may have lower
bulk resistivity. These materials can serve as practical and safe insulators for low to moderate
voltages (hundreds, or even thousands, of volts).

Semiconductors:
Materials with electrical conductivities between those of insulators and conductors called
semiconductors. The electrical resistivity decreases in the case of semiconductors with the
rise of the temperature.

Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.

Superconductors:
Superconductivity occurs in certain materials at very low temperatures. When
superconductive, a material has an electrical resistance of exactly zero and no interior
magnetic field. It was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911.

The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as the temperature is

lowered. However, in ordinary conductors such as copper and silver, this decrease is limited
by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a real sample of copper shows some
resistance. In a superconductor however, despite these imperfections, the resistance drops
abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current
flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.
Superconductivity occurs in many materials: simple elements like tin and aluminium, various
metallic alloys and some heavily-doped semiconductors. Superconductivity does not occur in
noble metals like gold and silver, nor in pure samples of ferromagnetic metals.
Coulomb’s Law
Charles Augustin Coulomb deduced the law of interaction between two charged particles in
1785 from his experimental observations.

• Like charges repel

• Unlike charges attract

“If two point charged particles are separated by a distance then the force of attraction or
repulsion between them is proportional to the product of the magnitude of charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, the force acting along the
line joining the charges”.

Let two point charges having magnitude q1

F21 q1 q2 F12
and q2 are separated by a distance of d. The
electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion
between them has the magnitude F21 F12
q1 q 2
F  k
d2 q1 q
In which k is proportionality constant. If the particles repel each other, the force2 on each
particle points away from the other particle. If the two particles attract each other then the
force on each particle points toward the other particle. For historical reasons, the electrostatic
constant k is usually written as 1/4o. Then the Coulomb’s law becomes
1 q1 q 2
F 
4 o d 2

 1 q1 q 2 
The vector form of coulomb’s law is F  d
4 o d 3
The constant in the above equation have the value
k = 1/4o = 8.9910 9 N.m2/C2. and o = 8.8510-12 C2/N.m2
If charges are of same magnitude (and same separation), all the forces will be the same
magnitude, with different directions.

If we have n charged particles, they interact independently in pairs, and the force on any one
of them, let us say particle 1, is given by the vector sum
    
F 1,net  F 12  F 13  F 14  F 15     

Coulomb Force Law Qualitatively

• Double one of the charges
– force doubles
• Change sign of one of the charges
– force changes direction
• Change sign of both charges
– force stays the same
• Double the distance between charges
– force four times weaker
• Double both charges
– force four times stronger

Does Coulomb force is same as that of Gravitational force?

The gravitational force between two particles with masses m1 and m2 that are separated by a
mm
distance r is given by Fg  G  1 2 2
r
G is the gravitational constant given as 6.67310-11Nm2/kg2

• Same 1/r2 dependence; charge takes place of mass.

• This does not mean electricity is product of geometry, just like gravity (general
relativity).
– Because gravity as geometry accounts for the fact that all masses accelerate the same.
– This depends on applied force being proportional to inertial mass (F = ma).
– For charged particles, force is proportional to charge, not inertial mass.
– Different charge-to-mass ratios lead to different accelerations.
• Proton has 1/2000 charge-to-mass of electron  proton sluggish

Quantization of Charge
The elementary charge, usually denoted e, is the electric charge carried by a single proton,
or equivalently, the negative of the electric charge carried by a single electron. This is a
fundamental physical constant. To avoid confusion over its sign, e is sometimes called the
"elementary positive charge". It has a measured value of approximately
1.602176487×10−19 coulombs.
The magnitude of the elementary charge was first measured in Robert Millikan's famous oil-
drop experiment in 1909.

Charge quantization is the statement that every stable and independent object (meaning an
object that can exist independently for a prolonged period of time) has a charge which is an
integer multiple of the elementary charge e: A charge can be exactly 0, or exactly e, –e, 2e,
etc., but not, say, 1⁄2e, or –3.8e, etc.
Thus any positive or negative charge q that can be detected can be written as

q = ne, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …..…

(This statement must not be interpreted to include quarks or quasiparticles, since neither
quarks nor quasiparticles possess the ability to exist on their own for prolonged periods of
time. Quarks have charges that are integer multiples of 1⁄3 e.)

Conservation of Charge
Another important property of charge is that charge a conserved quantity. No reaction has
ever been found that creates or destroys charge. For example, the annihilation of an electron
and an anti electron (positron) produces two photons:
e+e-  2
This reaction does not violate conservation of charge. The initial charge is equal to
qe+qe- = -e+e = 0

Note that the charge of an antiparticle is opposite that of the particle. The final charge is equal
to zero since photons are uncharged. The following reaction however violates conservation of
electric charge
e+e-  2e
This reaction has never been observed.
Spherical conductors

Why the excess charge spreads uniformly over the external surface when placed on a
spherical surface?
 The Electric Field
The presence of an electric charge produces a force on all other charges present. The electric
force produces action-at-a-distance; the charged objects can influence each other without
touching.

Let us consider two charges q1 and q2 are initially at rest. Using Coulomb's law can calculate
the force exerted by charge q2 on charge q1. If the charge q2 is moved closer to charge q1, we
expect an increase of the force exerted by q2 on q1. The charges exert a force on one another
by means of disturbances that they generate in the space surrounding them. These
disturbances are called electric fields.

Each electrically charged object generates an electric field which permeates the space around
it, and exerts pushes or pulls whenever it comes in contact with other charged objects.
The electric field E generated by a set of charges can be measured by putting a point charge q
at a given position. The test charge will feel an electric force F. The electric field at the
location of the point charge is defined as the force F divided by the charge q:

q1 Fc q2

q1 Fc q2
Figure: Electric force between two electric charges.
F

q

The electric field is a vector field which has a magnitude and a direction. The direction of the
electric field is the direction in which a positive charge placed at that position will move.

Electric Field Lines

 The electric field can be represented graphically by field lines.

 These lines are drawn in such a way that, at a given point, the tangent of the line has the
direction of the electric field at that point.
 The density of lines is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field.
 Each field line starts on a positive point charge and ends on a negative point charge.
 Since the density of field lines is proportional to the strength of the electric field, the
number of lines emerging from a positive charge must also be proportional to the charge.
 A single isolated charge act as a source of an electric field (a) or a sink (b).
 The field of two charges has a complicated shape; each charge disturbs the field of the
other.

 Opposite charges attract reflected by the field lines which link them together (c). Like
charges repel, no field lines connect them (d)

Superposition of Electric forces

When there are more then two point charges then the interaction among themselves follow
the following convention:

(i) The force of interaction between two point charges does not change in the presence of
the other charges.
(ii) The force exerted on a point charge by two or more charges is equal to the sum of the
forces exerted by each point charge separately in the absence of the other.

In the following figure the force F3 on the charge q3 due to q1 and q2 equal to the sum of the
forces F13 and F23 .ie
F3 = F13 + F23 (1)

q1 F23
q3

q2 F13
The above expression can be written as
F3 = q3 E13 + q3 E23 (2)

Where, E13 and E23 are the electric field strengths due to charges q1 and q2 at the position of
q3. If E3 is the electric field at the position of q3 then
F3 = q3 E3 (3)

Comparing equation (2) and (3) we get

E3 = E13 + E23 (4)

This expression is the field form of the superposition principal.

ELECTRIC FIELD OF POINT CHARGE Q.

We consider a test charge +q, placed at a distance r from a point charge Q. The electric
forceFc experienced by the charge q is given by Coulomb's law:
 1 qQ 
Fc  r (1)
4 o r 2
The electric field generated by the point charge Q is then given by

 Fc 1 Q 
E  r (2)
q 4 o r 2
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DIPOLE

An electric dipole formed by two equal opposite charges of magnitude q and separated by a
distance d.
(a) Find the electric field due to the dipole at a point P, a distance z from the mid point of
the dipole and on its axis.
(b) Find the electric field due to the dipole at a point P, a distance z from the mid point of
the dipole and on the perpendicular bisector of its axis.

r+
r- z

+q

-q
The figure shows two charges +q and –q are separated by a distance d. The point P is at a
distance z on the dipole axis. The electric fields E+ and E- are due to the charges +q and –q
along the dipole.

According to the superposition principal, the magnitude of E of the electric field at point P is

E  E  E
1 q 1 q
 
4 o r2
4 o r2
q q
 2
 2
 d  d
4 o  z   4 o  z  
 2  2

The above equation can be rewritten as

q  d 
2
 d  
2

E  1    1   
4 o z 2  2z   2 z  

Usually electrical effects due to a dipole are determined at distances that are large compared
to the dimensions of the dipole where z>>d. At such distances we get d/2z <<1. Now using
binomial theorem expanding the two quantities in the brackets in the above equation we get

 2d   2d 
 1   .......    1   ........ 
 2 z 1!   2 z 1! 
So
q  d   d 
E   1  z  .......    1  z  ........  
4 o z 2
   
1 2qd

4 o z z
2

1 qd 1 qd
 
2 o z z
2
2 o z 3

The product qd is called electric dipole moment of the dipole and is denoted by p. p a vector
quantity whose direction is taken to be from negative end to the positive end of the dipole.

Thus the electric field due to a dipole at an axial point is

1 p
E
2 o z 3
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A LINE OF CHARGE
A total amount of charge Q is uniformly distributed along a thin, straight, plastic rod of
length L.

1) Find the electric field at a point P, at a distance d from one end of the rod.
2) Find the electric field at a point P', at a distance y from the midpoint of the rod.
a) Electric field at a point P, at a distance d from one end of the rod
We consider a total amount of charge Q is uniformly distributed along a thin, straight, plastic
rod of length L. The linear charge density is  = Q/L.
Let dx is a small segment of the rod at a distance x which consists of a differential charge
element dQ= dx = (Q/L)dx.

We consider a point charge q at point P. The force acting on this charge due to the charge
element dq is directed along the x-axis and has a magnitude given by

Q
q dx 
1 qdQ  1 L
dF  x x (1)
4 o d  x 2 4 o d  x 2

The electric field dE generated by this charge is then given by

Q
dx 
dF 1 L
dE   x (2)
q 4 o d  x 2

The resultant electric field at point P can be found by summing over all segments of the rod:
  1   d  x 
0
Q
0
dx Q
 21

E   dE      
4 o L  L d  x  4 o L   1    2  1   L
2

0
Q  1  Q 1 1 
     
4 o L  d  x    L 4 o L  d d  L 
Q L 1 Q
 
4 o L d d  L 4 o d d  L

Thus the electric field at Point P due to the charged rod is

1 Q 
E x (3)
4 o d d  L

b) Electric field at a point P', at a distance y from the midpoint of the rod

A charged plastic rod of length L with a total amount of charge Q is lying along the x-axis
with its centre at the origin. Another charge q is placed at the point P which at a distance y
from the centre on the y-axis.

We choose two charge segments dx equidistant from the centre situated on both side. The
electric field at P due to these two charged segments is dEl and dEr respectively. The
horizontal components of dEl and dEr are equal and cancelled each other. Thus the net
electric field dE at this point is given by the sum of the two vertical components which are
acting along the +y-axis and has a magnitude equal to
dE = dEl Sin + dEr Sin
y y
or dE  dE l  dE r (4)
x2  y2 x2  y2

The magnitude of dEl and dEr can be obtained from Coulomb's law:
Q
dx
1 L
dE l  dE r  (5)
4 o  x2  y2 
Substituting eq. (5) into eq. (4) we obtain
 Q
dx
1 L
dE  2y (6)

4 o x 2  y 2  3
2

The net electric field at P can be obtained by summing over all segments of the rod.
L/ 2
Q 1 dx
E   dE  2y  (7)
4 o L 0 x 2
 y2  3
2

from the figure we can write x = y tan 

so that dx = y sec2  d

and when x = 0 ,  = 0 and when x = L/2,  = 

The integral in the above equation then becomes
 
y sec2  d 1
I  
0 y sec 
3 3
  cos  d
y0
L
1 1 1 L
 sin  0  2 sin    2 2


y y y 2 2
y2  L 2y2 y2  L
4 4

Substituting the value of above integral in the previous eq. (7) the value of E is readily
obtained as
1 Q L 1 Q
E 2y   (8)
4 o L L 2 4 o L 2
2y y 
2 2
y y 
2
4 4

If the length of charged rod is very large i.e. L>>y then y2 can be neglected in the
denominator of the above equation. And the expression becomes
F 1 Q 1 Q 1 
E    (9)
q 4 o L2 2 o yL 2 o y
y
4
Where  = Q/L is linear charge density on the rod.
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A RING OF CHARGE
We consider a thin ring of radius R with a uniformly distributed charge Q around its
Q
circumference. The uniform positive linear charge density  is then given by   .
2 R

dl

r  R2  z2 dE sin
R P
dE cos
dE cos
dE sin

Let us choose an infinitesimal length element dl at the top of the ring. The charge on that
Q
element is dq   dl  dl . The electric field dE due to this charge element at a
2 R
point P on the axis of the ring is

1 dq 1  Q  dl
dE     2 (1)
4 o r 2
4 o  2 R  R  z
2

dE makes an angle  with the axis of the ring with two mutually perpendicular components
dE cos and dE sin respectively. There is a diametrically opposite element dl of the ring for
which the electric field at P is dE  which also makes an angle of  with the axis. dE is equal
in magnitude to dE and hence its perpendicular component dE sin cancels dEsin.
Thus, the perpendicular components due to all the elements of the ring are cancelled out. All
the parallel components dEcos are acting the in the same direction along the axis of the ring.
Hence the net electric field at P is determined by the summation of the components parallel to
the axis i.e. dEcos.
Here

z z
cos    (2)
r R2  z 2

So that

1 Q dl z
E   dE cos   
4 o 2R R  z 2
2
R  z2
2

1 Q z 2R
  dl
4 o 2R R 2   z 2
 3
2 0

1 Q z 1 Qz
 2R  
4 o 2R R 2   z2  3
2

4 o R 2  z 2  3
2
Thus the electric field due to the charged ring at a distance z is

1 Qz
E (3)

4 o R 2  z 2  3
2

Conditions:
i) Now for small distances for which zR the above equation can be written as

1 Qz
E Kz (4)
4o R 3

1 Q
Where K is a constant i.e. K 
4 o R 3

ii) Again for distant points where z >> R the equation (3) can be written as

1 Qz 1 Q
E  (5)
4 o z 3
4 o z 2

iii) If we consider a point at the centre of the ring, i.e. z = 0, then E = 0. Thus, at the centre
of the ring no net electrostatic force acting on it.
ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT ON THE AXIS OF A CHARGED DISK
We consider a circular plastic disk of radius R that has a positive surface charge of uniform
density  on its upper surface. The point P is at a distance from the disk along its central axis.

+ + + + + + R
+ dr + r + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
++++++ + +
+ + + + +
+
+

We divide the disk into concentric flat rings. Such a ring has the radius r and radial width dr.
The charge on the ring is

dq   dA   ( 2 r dr ) (1)

The electric field due to this charged ring at a distance z is

1 zdq 1 z 2 rdr z 2rdr

dE    (2)
4 o z 2  r 2  3
2

4 o z 2  r 2  3
2 4 o z 2  r 2 3 2

We can now find E by integrating Eq. 2 over the surface of the disk with respect to the
variable r from r = 0 to r = R. z remains constant during this process. We get

z z
 z 
R 2rdr R 3
E   dE    2
 r2 2
( 2r )dr (3)
4 o 0
z 2
r 2
 3
2 4 o 0

To solve this integral, we consider x  ( z 2  r 2 ) , m  3 / 2

so that dx = (2r)dr

The integral in the above equation then becomes

R
 3
 1

 m 1
    R
1
  
2 2
R  3 R x ( z r ) 2
1
I   z 2  r 2 2 ( 2r )dr   x m dx         2   
0 0
 m  1 0   3  1   ( z 2  R 2 ) z 
 2  0
2 z 
 I  1   (4)
z ( z 2
 R 2 
)
 
Thus the electric field becomes

 z 2  z 

E  1
4 o z  2 
(z  R ) 
2


  z 
or , E  1   (5)
2 o  2 
(z  R ) 
2


z z
(i) Let R and z is finite, then   0 . Thus the electric field is
(z 2  R2 ) (z 2   2 )


E (infinite sheet of charge) (6)
2 o

z 0
(ii) Let z0 and R is finite, then   0 . Thus the electric field is
(z 2  R2 ) (0 2  R 2 )


E (infinite sheet of charge) (7)
2 o

Thus the electric field for a charged circular disk of infinite radius at a perpendicular distance
from the centre of the disk is same at a point very close to a disk of finite radius which is just
same as that of a infinite sheet of charge.
ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
The net force acting on a neutral object placed in a uniform electric field is zero. However,
the electric field can produce a net torque if the positive and negative charges are
concentrated at different locations on the object. An example is shown in Figure below. The
figure shows a charge Q located on one end of a rod of length L and a charge –Q located on
the opposite end of the rod. The forces acting on the two charges are given by

F+ = EQ z (1)
F- = - EQ z (2)

Electric Dipole in an Electric Field.

Clearly, the net force acting on the system is equal to zero. The torque of the two forces with
respect to the centre of the rod is given by
1 1
   r  F  L QE sin   LQE sin 
2 2
 L QE sin  (3)

As a result of this torque the rod will rotate around its center. If  = 0 deg. (rod aligned with
the field) the torque will be zero.

The distribution of the charge in a body can be characterized by a parameter called the dipole
moment p. The dipole moment of the rod is defined as
p = LQ
In general, the dipole moment is a vector which is directed from the negative charge towards
the positive charge.

Thus the torque can be written as

  pE sin  (4)
In the vector notation the torque is written as
  p E (5)
Summery
1 q1 q 2
1. Electric force between two charges F 
4 o d 2
 1 qQ 
2. Electric force on a charge q due to Q charge Fc  r
4 o r 3

Fc 1 Q 
3. The electric field generated by the point charge Q E  r
q 4 o r 3
4. Electric field at point 3 due to two charges E3 = E13 + E23
5. Electric field due to a line of charge at a point on the perpendicular bi-sector
1 Q
E
4 o L2
y  y2
4
6. Electric field due to a large line of charge at a distance of y
1 Q 1 
E 
2 o yL 2 o y
1 qd 1 p
7. Electric field due to a dipole at an axial point is E  
2 o z 3
2 o z 3
8. Electric field due to a ring of charge at a distance z is
1 Qz
E
 
4 o R 2  z 2 3 2
1 Qz 1 Q
a) For zR, E  K z with K 
4 o R 3
4 o R 3
1 Qz 1 Q
b) For R>>z, E  
4 o z 3
4 o z 2
c) At the centre of the ring, i.e. z = 0, then E = 0. Thus, at the centre of the ring no net
electrostatic force acting on it.
THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Introduction
In the previous lecture we considered electrostatics in terms of the electric force. A different
approach is in terms of energy. This is particularly useful for situations where conversion to
different forms of energy (e.g. kinetic) occur.
In addition, for a number of situations, it is easier to find the electric potential (which is a scalar
quantity) due to a charge distribution than the E-field which is a vector quantity. The E-field can
subsequently be determined once the electric potential is known.

Electric Potential
The idea of electric potential is related to work done in carrying a charge from one point to another
in an electric field.
Let us consider a positive charge q0 in an electrostatic field of
strength E. The force experienced by the test charge is F = q0E
in the direction of E. We consider two points A and B in the
electric field. Work has to be done to move the test charge
from A to B against the direction of field. The work done in
moving a test charge q0 from A to B with a constant speed is
called the potential difference between the points.

If the electric potential difference between the points is V B-VA,

then it is defined by the equation
W
VB  V A  AB (1)
q0
where WAB is the work done by an agent to move the charge
from A to B.

The work WAB may be (i) positive, (ii) negative, or (iii) zero. In these cases the electric potential
at B will be (i) higher, (ii) lower, or (iii) the same as the electric potential at A.

We choose the point A to be at large (strictly at infinite) distance from all charges so that the
electric potential VA is zero at this infinite distance. With VA 0 and VB = V, we get

W
V  (2)
q0
Where W is the work that an external agent must do to move that test charge q0 from infinity to a
point in the electric field.

If q0 = 1, then V = W. Thus Electric potential at any point is defined as the work that must be done
to move a unit positive charge from infinity up to the point.

In terms of the electric field strength the potential difference between two point A and B is given be
B B B B
W 1 1
VB  VA  AB   F  dl   - q 0 E  dl    E  dl    Edl cos  (3)
q0 q0 A q0 A  

 
Where d l is an infinitesimal displacement along the particles path and  is the angle between F

an d l at each point along the path.

The mks unit of potential difference is joule/coulomb.

Electron volt (unit of energy)
Electron-volt (eV) is the unit of energy of a particle. 1 electron-volt (eV) is defined as the change in
kinetic energy of an electron that travels over a potential difference of 1 V.
The change in KE of an electron when transferred through a pd of 1 V is
KB-KA=WAB=-q(VB–VA)= -(-1.6×10-19 C)(1 V)=1.6×10-19 Joule Hence, 1 eV = 1.6 x10-19 J

Equi-potential surfaces
Equipotential surfaces are defined as the surfaces on which each point has the same electric
potential. The change in the potential between all points on this surface is equal to zero. This
implies that the direction of the electric field is perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces.
B B
VB  VA    E  dl    Edl cos 90 0  0
A A
Figure below shows a family of equipotential surfaces
associated with an electric field due to some charge
distribution. The work done by the electric field on a test
charge q as it moves from point I to point II is zero as the I II
end points are situated on the same equipotential surface. III IV
Again the work done by the electric field on the test charge V VII
as it moves from point III to point IV is also zero because VI VIII
of the same reason as stated above. However the work
done by electric field to transfer a test charge from point VII to point VIII is equal to the work
done by electric field to transfer the charge from V to VI as the end points of these two paths are
situated on the same set of equipotential surfaces.

In the following figures the electric fields are represented by solid lines where as the corresponding
equi-potential surfaces are represented by dotted lines.

Field lines

Equi-potential surfaces
Equi-potential surfaces Equi-potential surfaces in
in uniform field a field of point charge

Potential due to a point charge (q)

Let two points A and B be near to an isolated point charge q.
For simplicity, we assume that A, B and q lie on a straight
line. The test charge q0 is moved from A to B with a constant
speed. The potential difference between the points A and B is
then given by
B B B
VB  VA    E  dl    Edl cos180   Edl
0
(1)
A A A
Here E points to the right whereas dl, point to the left and the
angle between E and dl is  = 1800.
The charge q is at the origin and the distance is decreasing as
the test charge moves towards q.
So, dl = -dr. If rA and rB are the distances of the points A and
B from q, then equation (1) can be written as
B rB rB
VB  VA   Edl   Edl    Edr (2)
A rA rA
The electric field due to the charge q at a distance r is
1 q
E= (3)
4 o r 2
Hence,
r r
q B dr q  1 B q 1 1
VB  VA   
4o r r 2
    
4o  r  r 4o
  
 rB rA 
(4)
A A

Le the reference point A be at infinity (rA) so that VA = 0 and letting VB V at rB = r, we get

q 1 1  1 q
V    (5)
4o  r r  4o r

 If the charge q is positive, the potential increases with a decreasing distance r.

 The electric field points away from a positive charge, and we conclude that the electric field
points from regions with a high electric potential towards regions with a low electric potential.

Electric Potential due to a collection of charges

According to superposition principal the electric potential due to a collection of charges is equal to
the sum of the potentials created at a given point by each of the charges. If q1, q2, q3 …….qn are n
number of charges at distances r1, r2, r3……rn respectively, then the resultant potential for these
charges is
1 q1 1 q2 1 q3 1 qn
V      (zero at infnity )
4o r1 4o r2 4o r3 4o rn
1 n
qi
 r
4o i 1 i
Here, ri is the radial distance of the point from the charge qi.

The Potential and Field of a Dipole

We consider an electric dipole consisting of two charges +q and –q separated by a distance 2a. The
point P is at a distance r from the midpoint of the dipole and makes an angle  with the dipole axis.
r1 and r2 are the distances of the charges from the point P respectively. The resultant potential at
point P is the sum of the potentials generated by each of the two charges:
1 q 1 q q  r2  r1 
V      (1)
4o r1 4o r2 4o  r1r2 

Figure: The electric dipole.

If the point P is far away from the dipole (r>>2a) we can make the approximation that r1 and r2 are
parallel. In this case r1  r2  r and r2  r1  2a cos .
The electric potential at P can now be rewritten as

q 2a cos  2aq cos  p cos 

V     (2)
4o r 2
4o r 2
4o r 2

where p is the dipole moment of the charge distribution.

Electric potential due to a disk of charge

The figure shows a uniformly charged circular disk of radius R whose surface charge density is .
The point P is at a distance z from the disk along its central axis.

We divide the disk into concentric flat rings. Such a ring has the radius r and radial width dr. The
charge element on the ring is
dq   dA   (2 r dr ) (1)
All parts of this charge element are at the distance r   r 2  z 2 from the point P. So the electric
potential dV due to this charged ring is given by
 2 rdr 
dV 
1 dq

1
4o r 2  z 2 4o r 2  z 2  4 o
 r 2  z 2  2 2rdr
1
(2)

We can now find E by integrating Eq. 2 over the surface of the disk with respect to the variable r
from r = 0 to r = R. z remains constant during this process. We get

 r  z2 
R 1
V   dV  2 2
2rdr (3)
4 o 0

Let, x  ( z 2  r 2 ) , so that dx = 2rdr. x = z2 when r = 0, and x = z2+R2 when r = R.

The potential is then becomes
V 
 z  R  12

4 o z
2 2

x dx 
2

4 o
2 x   z2 R2
z2 

2 o
 z 2
 R2  z  (4)

Equation (4) is valid for all values of z.

(a) When P is at a large distance from the center of the disk (z>>R), then the quantity z 2  R 2
1
can be expanded by binomial theorem (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + n(n-1) x2 …….. and neglecting the
2
higher order terms
1
 R2  2
 1 R2  R2
z  R  z1  2 
2 2
 z1  2
      
  z  (5)
 z   2 z  2z
The potential then becomes
  1 R2   R 2 R 2 q
V  z   z     (6)
2 o 2 z  4 o z 4o z 4o z
2
where, q = (R ) is the total charge on the disk.

(b) At the center of the disk, z = 0. So the electric potential is given by

  2 
 z  R  2  z  
1
 1 q
V  2
R (7)
2 o   2 o 2o R

Electric Potential energy of two point charge

Let us consider a test charge q0 is moving in any electric field caused by a single stationary point
charge q, then the work done on the test charge by the electric field to move from A to B is given
by
B B
W AB   F  dl 
A
 F dl cosφ
A
(1)

The electric force on the test charge at an arbitrary distance r is

1 qqo
F (2)
4o r 2
Considering the charges having same sign and the movement occurring along a radial path from rA
distance to rB distance then dl cos = dr. Work done is then given by
rB r r
1 qqo qqo B dr qqo  1  B qqo  1 1 
WAB  
4o rA r 2 4o  r  rA 4o  rA rB 
dr      (3)
rA
4o r 2
Hence the change in potential energy as the charge moves from A to B is
qqo  1 1
U B  U A   WAB      (4)
4o  rA rB 
Considering the initial point a at infinity where potential energy is zero, the final potential energy at
the B point is
1 qqo
U  (5)
4o r
Now the electric potential at the position of the q0 charge is given by

U 1 q
V   (6)
q0 4o r

Now the electric potential energy and electric potential both are scalar quantity and their signs
depend on the signs of the charges involved
Problems.
1. Four point charges q1 = 12 nC, q2 = -24 nC, q3= 31 nC and q4 = 17 nC are placed at the corners
of a square. The side of the cube is d 1.3 m. Calculate the electric potential at its center.
1 4 qi 1  q1 q 2 q q  q1 d q2
V   Vi       3  4
i 4o i 1 ri 4o  r1 r2 r3 r4 
 9 9 9 9
 d o d

 9 x 10 9
 12 x 10   24 x 10  31 x 10  7 x 10 
 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 
 2 2 2 2  q3 d q4
 254.5 V
2. What must be the magnitude of an isolated positive point charge be for the electric potential at
10 cm from the charge to be +100 volts? (Example 3.4, P-82)

3. Three point charges q1 = 4 nC, q2 = -4 nC, and q3=4 nC are placed at three corners of a square.
The side of the square is 20 cm. Find the potential at the fourth corner of the cube. ((Example
3.5, P-82).

4. Two protons in a nucleus of U238 are 6.0×10-15 meter apart. What is their mutual electric
potential energy? (Exercise 19, P-99)

5. Three charges +4q, +2q and +q are placed in the three corners of a triangle. The sides of the
triangle are same and is 10 cm. What is their mutual potential energy? Here q=1.0×10-7 C.
(Example 3.8, P-84)

6. A spherical drop of water carrying a charge of 3×10 -6 coul has a potential of 500 volts at its
surface. (i) What is the radius of the drop? (ii) If two such drops of the same charge and radius
combine to form a single spherical drop, what is the potential at the surface of the new drop
formed? (Example 3.11, P-87)
Gauss’s Law
1. Introduction
2. Concept of Flux
3. Flux of Electric field
4. Gauss's Law
5. Some consequences of Gauss's applied to conductors
6. Use of Gauss's Law to find the E-field due to symmetrical charge distributions
a) Point charge: Derivation of Coulomb’s Law from Gauss’ Law
b) E due to charged conducting sphere
c) E due to charged non-conducting sphere
d) E due to non-conducting plane of charge (large)
e) E due to charged conducting plane
f) E between two conducting plate with equal and opposite charge
g) E due to a line of charge
Introduction
The electric field of a given charge distribution can be calculated using Coulomb's law as we have
done in Chapter1. However the actual calculations can become quit complicated in many cases.
Gauss's law is another form of Coulomb's law that allows one to calculate the electric field of
several simple configurations. Gauss's law (which is deduced from Coulomb's law) provides a
convenient technique for determining the E due to number different, high-symmetry charge
distributions. Furthermore by suitable vector manipulation we arrive at the first of Maxwell's
equations.

1. Flux of an Electric field

Electric field lines passing through a Electric field lines passing through a surface of
surface of area A area A whose normal makes an angle θ with the
field

If an electric field E passes through a surface A which is described by the vector A, then the electric
flux [E] through A is defined as the product of the area of A and
the magnitude of the normal component of the electric field E: E A

  EA cos  E.A (1)
E
 For a closed surface an outward directed flux is defined to
have a positive sign whereas an inward flux has a negative
sign.
A
If the E is not constant over the whole surface A then A must be
divided into a series of elements dA over which E is constant. The total flux through a open surface
A is then given by
   E  dA ( For open surface) (2)
E
For a closed surface we have to do the integral over the closed surface. i.e.
   E  dA ( For closed surface) (3)
E
The flux of the electric field is a scalar and its SI unit is N-m2/C.
Example 1: A cylinder is immersed in a uniform electric field as shown in the figure below
calculate the flux through its (a) left surface, (b) right surface (c) Cylindrical surface?

dA E

dA E b E dA
a c
E

  
Example 2: A nonuniform electric field is given by E  3.0 x i  4.0 j pierces the Gaussian cube
shown in the fig given below. (E is in Newton’s per coulomb and x is in meters). What is the
electric flux through the (a) right surface, (b) left surface, and (c) top surface?

x x=1.0 m x=3.0 m

2. Gauss's Law

Gauss’ Law does not tell us anything new, it is NOT a new law of Physics,
but another way of expressing Coulomb’s Law
Gauss’ Law sometimes easier to use than Coulomb’s Law, especially if
there is lots of symmetry in the problem.

Gauss’s Law relates electric field at points on a closed surface (called Gaussian Surface) to the
net charge enclosed by that surface.

Statement: "If the volume within an arbitrary closed mathematical surface holds a net electric
charge Q, then the electric flux [Ф E] though its surface is Q/o"
Gauss' law can be written in the following form:
Q
  (1)
E 
o
Q
   E  dA  ( For a closed surface) (2)
E 
o
 The circle on the integral sign indicates that the integral is to be taken over a closed
surface.
 From the principle of superposition any number of charges contained within A produce an
individual flux through the surface that add together to give a total flux.
 Any charges lying outside of A contribute equal amounts of inward and outward flux and
hence do not contribute to the total flux through A.
3. Some consequences of Gauss's law as applied to conductors
 A conductor contains at least some charges which are free to move within it. When
initially placed in an external E field, the field will penetrate into the conductor and
cause the free charges to move (a).

 However these can only move as far as the surface of the conductor (assuming it is of
finite size). Charge collects at the surface and produces an E field within the conductor
which opposes the external field.

 Equilibrium is quickly reached where the displaced charges produce an internal field
which exactly cancels the external one (and hence there is no further movement of
charge) (b).

Within a conductor at equilibrium there can be no E-field. All points of the conductor must be at
the same potential.

When a solid conductor in (a) carries a net charge, within conductor E=0 hence flux through
Gaussian surface G is zero and hence net charge contained within G is also zero.

A solid conductor carries all its excess charge on the surface.

Hollow conductor in figure (b) must also carry any excess charge on its outer surface unless the
hollow region contains a charge (+Q) (figure (c)) in which case the inner surface must carry an
equal but opposite charge -Q. These requirements are necessary to give a zero flux through the
Gaussian surface G. It can also be shown that in case (b) E=0 within the hollow region.
4. Use of Gauss's Law to find the E-field due to symmetrical charge distributions

(a) E due to a point charge: Derivation of Coulomb’s Law from Gauss’ Law

 Let us consider a spherically symmetric surface

centered around the point charge q (Figure).
 The direction of the electric field at any point on
its surface is perpendicular to the surface and its
magnitude is constant (E).
 Here the electric field is radially outward. +q

The electric flux [Ф E] through this surface is given by:

ФE =  E  d A =  E dA = E  dA Gaussian
surface
 dA is equal to the area of spherical Gaussian surface
and is equal to 4r2.
So that the flux is ФE = E (4r2)

From Gauss’s law we can write ФE = q/o

1 q
Hence the electric field for a point charge is E 
4o r 2

If we consider another charge q on the Gaussian surface then the Coulomb force is
1 qQ
F  QE  (Coulomb’s Law).
4o r 2

(b) E due to charged conducting sphere

i) E inside the sphere
 Let us consider a conducting sphere of radius R r
carrying a charge Q on its surface.
 A spherical Gaussian surface (G) of radius r (<R)
is placed concentric to the conductor. R
Since all of the excess charges lies on the surface of the
sphere, charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is zero.
Gaussian
surface
Hence from Gauss’s law we can write
0
 E d A  o
 0 so that E =0 inside the sphere (r<R)

(ii) E outside the sphere

 We consider a conducting sphere of radius R carries a
charge Q on its surface.
 The resultant electric field is spherically symmetric R
and hence can only have a radial component. R

 A spherical Gaussian surface (G) of radius r (>R) is

placed concentric to the conductor.
By symmetry the field E must be constant at all points on G
and also normal to G. Flux through G
ФE = field x surface area = E.(4r2 )
Total charge enclosed by surface is Q = o (E.4r2)
So that the electric field 1 Q
E
1 Q E 4 o a 2
E=
4 o r 2
The figure shows the plot E as a function of distance (r)
from the center of the charged conducting sphere.
R r

(c) E due to charged non-conducting sphere

(Charge distributed uniformly throughout the volume of a sphere.)
(i) Inside the sphere
Let us consider that charge Q is uniformly distributed throughout a volume of sphere of
radius R. To find electric field inside the sphere r<R, we consider a Gaussian surface of radius r
concentric with the sphere. Now consider two sets of charged shells ---one set inside the Gaussian
surface and one set outside. The charge lying outside the Gaussian surface does not set up an
electric field at point on the Gaussian surface. And the charge inside the Gaussian surface sets up
an electric field as if the enclosed charge were concentrated at the center. Letting Q’ represent that
enclosed charge, we can write from Gauss’s law
o (E.4r2) = Q’
1 Q
so that, E =
4 o r 2 r
Now the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is
R
4 Q 4 3 Qr3 Q`
Q’ =   r 3  r  3
3 4
 R3 3 R Gaussian
3 surface

Substituting this result in the expression for E we get

 Q 
E =  r
3 
…… …… ……..(5.6)
 4 o R 
The quantity in the parentheses is a constant, so, within the spherically symmetric charge
distribution electric field E is directly proportional to r.
1 Q
E
E 4o R 2

(ii) Outside the sphere R r

For points outside the sphere r>R, the charge produces an electric field on the Gaussian surface as
if the charge were a point charge located at the center and the electric field is
1 Q
E= ……. …... (5.7)
4 o r 2
(d) E due to non-conducting plane of charge (large).
 We consider an infinite (or very large) sheet of positive
charges has a uniform charge density .
 By symmetry the resultant E-field must have a direction
normal to the plane and must have the same value at all
points a common distance from the plane.
 Let us consider a Gaussian surface as a cylinder of
cross-sectional area A and height 2h. The cylinder
extends equally on both side of the plane of charge.

Flux is only non-zero through ends of cylinder. If field at

cylinder ends is E then total flux is ФE = 2EA.
Charge enclosed is q = area  charge density =  A

Hence from Gauss's law we get o( 2EA) =A


So that the electric field at point near the plane of charge is E 
2 o

(e) E near a charged conducting plane

The electric field on the surface of a charged conducting plane can be found by applying Gauss' law
(see Figure below).
Here the charge is uniformly distributed over two surface of the conductor. E-is normal to the plane
and have the same value at all points a common distance
from the plane. +
Let us consider a Gaussian surface as a cylinder + + +
of cross-sectional area A and height 2h. The cylinder + + + +
extends equally on both side of the plane of the + + + + + + h +
conductor.
A + + + + + + + + A
Flux is only non-zero through the ends of cylinder. + + + + + + + +
If field at cylinder ends is E then total flux is Ф E = 2EA. E + + + + + + + E
+ + + + + ++ +
Charge enclosed is q = 2(area  charge density) = 2A + + + + + + + +
Hence from Gauss's law we get + + + + + + + ++ +
o( 2EA) =2A + + + + + + ++ + ++
+ + + ++ ++ +++
So that the electric field at point near the plane of charge + + + + + +++
is + +

 Charge
E …….. …….. (5.9)
o

(f) E between two conducting plate with equal and opposite charge
When two charged conducting plate are brought close together the excess charges are
induced to their inner surfaces. This is a special situation in which a uniform electric field is created
within the plates and electric field outside the combination is zero. The surface charge density on
the inner plates is now double to that of an isolated charged plate. The electric field E within the
plates can be determined by applying Gauss’s law to the surface as shown in the figure below.
The flux is non-zero only through the front face and is equal to
ФE = E A
+
Charge enclosed is q = (area  charge + + -
E
density) = A ` + + + -
+ + +
Hence from Gauss's law we get + -
+ + +
+ + +
- E=0 A
o( E A) =A ` E=
+ + + +
E
- +
+ E=0
0
So that the electric field at point in between +
E=0+ A- -
the plates is + + + + +
+ - -
+ + + + -
+ + + - +
+ + + - -
 +
E …….. …….. (5.10)
+ +
- -
+
o
fig (a) perspective view (b) side view

here  = 2 where  is the surface charge density of an isolated charged conducting plate

g) E due to infinite line of charge.

++++++++++++++ ++++++++++++++ ++++++++++++++

++++ + + + + ++ ++++

 We consider that a section of infinitely long cylindrical plastic rod with a uniformly
distributed positive charge and the charge per unit length of the rod is .
 We choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r, cross-sectional area A and length h
coaxial with the rod.
 Flux is only non-zero through the cylindrical surface.
 The electric field E must have a direction normal to the axis of the rod and must have the
same value at all points on the cylindrical part of the Gaussian surface.
 The area of the cylindrical surface is A = 2rh.
 Flux through the end faces are zero as the field lines are parallel to the faces.

Hence the net flux through the Gaussian cylinder is

E = EA = E (2rh ) (1)
ФE = q/o = h/o (2)

The q is the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface and q = h

Thus o E = h or. o E (2rh ) = h
1 
or,   (3)
2 o r
The above expression gives the value of E at a distance r from a uniformly charged long rod.
Summery
1) If an electric field E passes through a surface A which is described by the vector A, then the
electric flux [E] through A is defined as the product of the area
of A and the magnitude of the normal component of the electric E A
field E: 
  EA cos  E.A
E

   E  dA ( For open surface)

E
A
   E  dA ( For closed surface)
E
The flux of the electric field is a scalar and its SI unit is N-m2/C.

2) Gauss’ Law: "If the volume within an arbitrary closed mathematical surface holds a net electric
charge Q, then the electric flux [Ф E] though its surface is Q/o"
Gauss' law can be written in the following form:
Q Q
    E   E  dA  ( For a closed surface)
E  
o o
1 q
3) Electric field for a point charge E
4o r 2
1 qQ
Coulomb force on Q F  QE 
4o r 2

4) E due to charged conducting sphere

0
i) E inside the sphere  E  d A   0 so that E =0 inside the sphere (r<R)
o
1 Q
(ii) E outside the sphere E=
4 o r 2

5) E due to non-conducting plane of charge (large).


The electric field at point near the plane of charge is E 
2 o
6) E due to infinite line of charge.
1 
E at a distance r from a uniformly charged long rod  
2 o r
Problem : Gauss’s law
Calculation of electric flux:

Ex-1. Use Gauss's law to calculate electric field at a distance, r, from a

point charge, q.
Ex-2. A point charge q1 = 5.0 nC is located at the origin, and a second
point charge q2 = 3.0 nC is on the x axis at x = 1.0 m. What is the
total electric flux due to these two point charges through a spherical surface centered at the
origin and with radius a) 0.5 m, b) 1.5 m, and c) 2.5 m?
Ex-3. The cylindrical imaging drum of a photocopier is to have an electric field just outside its
surface of 2.0 x 10 5 N/C. what is the surface charge density on the drum surface?
Ex-4. A 10 C point charge is located at one of the corners of a cube. If the cube is 10 cm I on a
side, what is the flux through each of the cube sides.
y
Ex-5. For the constant electric field E = 10 5 N/C I , find the flux
through a planar surface of area 1m2 when the surface dA
is dA
a) on the x-y plane.
b) on the y-z plane. x
c) on the z-x plane. dA
z
Ex-6. Consider a closed triangular box in the presence of a
constant , horizontal electric field of magnitude E = 7.8
x 104 N/C, as shown in figure. Calculate the electric flux
through 30cm
a) the vertical face labeled A´
b) the slanted surface labeled A
c) the entire surface of the box 10cm 600

Ex-7. a) A cube with 1.4 m edges is oriented as shown in figure

z
below in a region of electric field (a) E = 3.00y j ,
b) E = -4.00 i + 3.00 y j . E in Newton per Coulomb and
y in meters.
In both the cases determine the charge enclosed by
the cube?
y
Ex-8. Use Gauss's law to calculate E a distance , a, from a
infinite wire with linear charge density, .
Ex-9. Use Gauss's law to calculate E at a distance, a, from a
non-conducting infinite sheet . The sheet has a thick ness, x
t, and charge density, .
Ex-10. Use Gauss's law to calculate E at a distance, a, from a conducting sheet with surface charge
density,.
Ex-11. Figure below shows cross sections through two large , parallel , non-conducting sheets with
identical distributions of positive charge with surface charge density . What is E at
points (a) above the sheets, (b) between them, and (c) below them?

+ + + + + ++ + + + + +
+ + + + + ++ + + + + +
Ex-12. Two large thin metal plates are parallel and close to each other as in - +
figure below, but with negative plate on the left. On their inner faces, the - +
plates have surface charge densities of opposite signs and of magnitude - +
7.0 x 10-22 C/m2 . . What are the magnitude and direction of the electric - +
field E (a) to the left of the h g plates (b) to the right s of the plates (c) +
-
between the Plates +
Ex-13. Figure below shows a section through two long thin concentric -
+
cylinders of radii a and b with a <b . The cylinders have equal and -
opposite charges per unit length . Using Gauss’ law prove (a) that E -
= 0 for r <a and (b) that between the cylinders, where a<r<b,
1 
E 
40 r
Ex-14. The nucleus of an atom of gold has a radius R = 6.2  10 15 m and a positive charge q = Ze,
where the atomic number Z of gold is 79. Plot the magnitude of electric field from the
centre of the gold nucleus outward to a distance of about twice its radius. Assume that the
nucleus is spherical with a uniform charge distribution.
Ex-15. Charge is distributed uniformly through out the volume of an infinitely long cylinder of
r
radius R. (a) Show that at a distance r from the cylinder axis (for r < R), E  , where
2 0
 is the volume charge density. (b) Write an expression for E when r > R.
Ex-16. A thin-walled metal sphere has a radius of 25 cm and a charge of 2  10 7 C . Find E for a
point (a) inside the sphere, (b) just outside the sphere, and (c) 3.0 m from the centre.
Ex-17. A point charge causes an electric flux of -750 N.m2/C to pass through a spherical Gaussian
surface of 10.0 cm radius centered on the charge. (a) If the radius of the Gaussian surface
were doubled, how much flux would pass through the surface? (b) What is the value of the
point charge?
Ex-18. A solid non-conducting sphere of radius R has a non-uniform charge distribution of volume
charge density    s r R , where  s is a constant and r is the distance from the center of the
sphere. Show that (a) total charge on the sphere is Q   s R3 and (b) the electric field inside
1 Q 2
E r
the sphere has a magnitude given by
4o R 4
Problems of Gauss’s law
1. A cylinder is immersed in a uniform electric field as shown in the figure below calculate the
flux through its (a) left surface, (b) right surface (c) Cylindrical surface?

dA E

dA E b E dA
a c
E

  
2. A nonuniform electric field is given by E  3.0 x i  4.0 j pierces the Gaussian cube shown in
the fig given below. (E is in Newton’s per coulomb and x is in meters). What is the electric
flux through the (a) right surface, (b) left surface, and (c) top surface?

x x=1.0 m x=3.0 m

3. The cylindrical imaging drum of a photocopier is to have an electric field just outside its
surface of 2.0×105 N/C. what is the surface charge density on the drum surface?
z

4. A cube with 1.4 m edges is oriented as shown in figure

below in a region of electric field a) E = 3.0y j , b) E = -4.0
i+3.0y j. E in Newton per Coulomb and y in meters. In both
the cases determine the charge enclosed by the cube? y

x
5. Figure below shows cross sections through two large, parallel, non-conducting sheets with
identical distributions of positive charge with surface charge density . What is E at points (a)
above the sheets, (b) between them, and (c) below them?
+ + + + + ++ + + + + +
+ + + + + ++ + + + + +
6. A thin-walled metal sphere has a radius of 25 cm and a charge of 2  10 7 C . Find E for a point
(a) inside the sphere, (b) just outside the sphere, and (c) 3.0 m from the centre.

7. A point charge causes an electric flux of -750 N.m2/C to pass through a spherical Gaussian
surface of 10.0 cm radius centered on the charge. (a) If the radius of the Gaussian surface were
doubled, how much flux would pass through the surface? (b) What is the value of the point
charge?
 WILLIAM GILBERT, VOLTA, THOMAS
BROWNE, MICHAEL FARADAY, BENJAMIN
FRANKLIN,
THOMAS ALVA EDISON, SWAN
NICOLAI TESLA

MARCONI (???????????????????)
 Thomas Browne, wrote
several books and he
used the word
“electricity” to describe
his investigations based
on Gilbert’s work.

In about 600 BC, the In the year 1600,

Ancient Greeks discovered English physician
that rubbing fur on amber William Gilbert used
(fossilized tree resin) the Latin word
caused an attraction “electricus” to describe In 1831 electricity became
between the two – and so the force that certain in 1800, Volta viable for use in
what the Greeks substances exert when constructed the technology when Michael
discovered was actually rubbed against each voltaic pile Faraday created the
static electricity. other. electric dynamo (a crude
power generator)

In 1752, Ben Franklin conducted his

experiment with a kite, a key, and a storm.
This simply proved that lightning and tiny
electric sparks were the same thing.
A replica and diagram of one of
the ancient electric cells ?????? Lightning catch ????????
(batteries) found near Bagdad.
 Later in the 1800’s and early 1900’s Serbian
American engineer, inventor, and all around electrical
wizard Nikola Tesla became an important contributor
to the birth of commercial electricity. He worked
with Edison and later had many revolutionary
developments in electromagnetism and had
competing patents with Marconi for the invention of
radio. He is well known for his work with alternating
current (AC), AC motors, and the polyphase
distribution system.
Others who worked to bring
Swan and Edison later set up a joint the use of electricity to
company to produce the first practical where it is today include
filament lamp, and Edison used his Scottish inventor James
Watt, Andre Ampere, a
direct-current system (DC) to provide
French mathematician, and
power to illuminate the first New York German mathematician and
electric street lamps in September 1882. physicist George Ohm.
 Electric Charges, Forces, and Fields

Electric Charges
Conductors, Semiconductors , Insulators and
Superconductors
Coulomb’s Law
Definition, Vector form, Direction
Comparison of Coulomb’s Law with Gravitational Law
Charge is Quantized and Conserved

Problems

Next: The Electric Field

 Electric Charges
Electric charge is a basic property of matter
Two basic charges
Positive and Negative
Each having an absolute value of
1.6 x 10-19 Coulombs
Experiments have shown that
Like signed charges repel each other
Unlike signed charges attract each other
For an isolated system, the net charge of the
system remains constant
Charge Conservation
Lightning Rods
•Perform two functions
•provide safe conduit for lightning away from house
•diffuse situation via “coronal discharge”
Charges are attracted to tip of rod, and “electric field” is
highly concentrated there.
Charges “leak” away, diffusing charge in what is sometimes
called “St. Elmo’s Fire”, or “coronal discharge”
 Type of materials
Conductors: Materials, such as metals, that allow the free movement of charges
Example: metals, tap water, human body, Iron, copper, Nickel…..etc.

Insulators: Materials, such as rubber and glass, that don’t allow the free movement
of charges
Examples: glass, paper or Teflon are very good electrical insulators.

Semiconductors: Materials with electrical conductivities between those of insulators

and conductors called semiconductors. The electrical resistivity decreases in the case
of semiconductors with the rise of the temperature.
Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.

Superconductors: Superconductivity occurs in certain materials at very low

temperatures. When superconductive, a material has an electrical resistance of
exactly zero and no interior magnetic field. It was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh
Onnes in 1911.

Superconductivity occurs in many materials: simple elements like tin and aluminium,
various metallic alloys and some heavily-doped semiconductors. Superconductivity
does not occur in noble metals like gold and silver, nor in pure samples of
ferromagnetic metals.
 Coulomb’s Law

Charles Augustin Coulomb

deduced the law of interaction Like charges repel
between two charged particles Unlike charges attract
in 1785 from his experimental
observations.
 Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb found that the electric force betweentwo charged objects is
Proportional to the product of the charges on the objects, and
Inversely proportional to the separation of the objects squared

The vector form of coulomb’s law is

 1 q1 q 2 
F  d
4 o d 3

k being a proportionality constant, having a value

of 8.988 x 109 Nm2/c2
 Note on constants
k is in reality defined in terms of a more
fundamental constant, known as the
permittivity of free space.

1
k
4 0
2
12 C
with  0  8.854 x10 2
Nm
 Electric Force
As with all forces, the electric force is a Vector
So we rewrite Coulomb’s Law as
 q1q2
F12  k 2 r̂12
r
This gives the force on charged object 2 due to charged
object 1 q1 q2

r̂12 is a unit vector pointing from object 1 to object 2

The direction of the force is either parallel or
antiparallel to this unit vector depending upon the
relative signs of the charges
 Electric Force
The force acting on each charged object has the
same magnitude - but acting in opposite directions

 
F12  F21 (Newton’s Third Law)
Example 1
A charged ball Q1 is fixed to a horizontal surface
as shown. When another massive charged Q2
ball Q2 is brought near, it achieves an Q2
equilibrium position at a distance d12 directly
above Q1. d12 d23
When Q1 is replaced by a different charged ball g
Q3, Q2 achieves an equilibrium position at a Q1 Q3
distance d23 (< d12) directly above Q3.

For 1a and 1b which is the correct answer

1a: A) The charge of Q3 has the same sign of the charge of Q1
B) The charge of Q3 has the opposite sign as the charge of Q1
C) Cannot determine the relative signs of the charges of Q3 & Q1
1b: A) The magnitude of charge Q3 < the magnitude of charge Q1
B) The magnitude of charge Q3 > the magnitude of charge Q1
C) Cannot determine relative magnitudes of charges of Q3 & Q1
 Example 1
A charged ball Q1 is fixed to a horizontal surface
Q2
as shown. When another massive charged
ball Q2 is brought near, it achieves an Q2
equilibrium position at a distance d12 directly
above Q1. d12 d23
g
When Q1 is replaced by a different charged ball
Q1 Q3
Q3, Q2 achieves an equilibrium position at a
distance d23 (< d12) directly above Q3.

1a: A) The charge of Q3 has the same sign of the charge of Q1

B) The charge of Q3 has the opposite sign as the charge of Q1
C) Cannot determine the relative signs of the charges of Q3 & Q1

• To be in equilibrium, the total force on Q2 must be zero.

• The only other known force acting on Q2 is its weight.
• Therefore, in both cases, the electrical force on Q2 must be directed upward
to cancel its weight.
• Therefore, the sign of Q3 must be the SAME as the sign of Q1
 Example 1
A charged ball Q1 is fixed to a horizontal surface Q2
as shown. When another massive charged ball
Q2 is brought near, it achieves an equilibrium Q2
position at a distance d12 directly above Q1.
d12 d23
When Q1 is replaced by a different charged ball g
Q3, Q2 achieves an equilibrium position at a Q1 Q3
distance d23 (< d12) directly above Q3.

1b: A) The magnitude of charge Q3 < the magnitude of charge Q1

B) The magnitude of charge Q3 > the magnitude of charge Q1
C) Cannot determine relative magnitudes of charges of Q3 & Q1

• The electrical force on Q2 must be the same in both cases … it just cancels
the weight of Q2
• Since d23 < d12 , the charge of Q3 must be SMALLER than the charge of Q1
so that the total electrical force can be the same!!
 More Than Two Charges
Given charges q, q1, and q2
If q1 were the only other charge,  q1
Fq
we would know the force on q 1q
 
due to q1 - Fq q
1 q Fnet
If q2 were the only other charge, 
Fq
we would know the force on q 2q q2

due to q2 - Fq q
2

What is the net force if both charges are present?

The net force is given by the Superposition Principle

  
Fnet  F1 F 2
 Superposition of Forces
If there are more than two charged objects
interacting with each other
The net force on any one of the charged
objects is
The vector sum of the individual Coulomb
forces on that charged object
 qi
Fj  q j  k 2 rˆij
i  j rij
 Example Two
y (cm)
qo, q1, and q2 are all point charges
4
where qo = -1C, q1 = 3C, and
3 qo
q2 = 4C
2
What is the force acting on qo? 1
q1  q2
  
We have that F0  F10  F20 1 2 3 4 5 x (cm)

  What are F0x and F0y ?

Ne e d to calculate F10 and F 20 
Decompose F20 into its x and y
q0 q1  components
F10  k F10   F10 yˆ
r102 
F 20   F 20 cos   xˆ   F 20 sin   yˆ
q0 q 2 
F20  k F 20   F 20 rˆ x2  x0 y0  y 2
2 20 cos   sin  
r20 r20 r20
 Example Two - Continued
 
Now add the components of F10 and F20 to find F0 x and F0 y

X-direction: F 0 x  F10 x  F 20 x y (cm)

F10 x  0 4
3 qo 
F 0 x  F 20 cos  2
F20

F10 
1 F0
q1 q2
Y-direction: F  F  F
0y 10 y 20 y
1 2 3 4 5 x (cm)
F0 y   F10  F20 sin 
 Example Two - Continued
Putting in the numbers . . . y (cm)
4
cos   0 . 8 3 qo 
F20
r10  3cm r20  5 cm 2 
F10 
1 F0
F10  30 N F20  14 . 4 N q1 q2
1 2 3 4 5 x (cm)
We then get for the components
F0 x  11 . 52 N F0 y   38 .64 N

The magnitude of F0 is F0  F02x  F02y  40 .32 N

At an angle given by
  tan 1 F0 y F0 x   tan 1 (38.64 / 11.52)  73.40