UNIT III - FRICTION IN MACHINE ELEMENTS

Friction

Friction is a measure of how hard it is to slide one object over another.

1. Static friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body, when at rest.
2. Dynamic friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body, when in motion. The dynamic friction is also
called kinetic friction and is less than the static friction.
It is of the following three types:
(a) Sliding friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body, when it slides over another body.
(b) Rolling friction. It is the friction, experienced between the surfaces which have balls or rollers
interposed between them.
(c) Pivot friction. It is the friction, experienced by a body, due to the motion of rotation as in case of foot
step bearings.
The friction may further be classified as:
1. Friction between unlubricated surfaces, and
2. Friction between lubricated surfaces.
These are discussed in the following articles.

Laws of Static Friction

Following are the laws of static friction:
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body tends to move.
2. The magnitude of the force of friction is exactly equal to the force, which tends the body to move.
3. The magnitude of the limiting friction (F) bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction (RN) between
the two surfaces. Mathematically
F/RN= constant
4. The force of friction is independent of the area of contact, between the two surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces.

Coefficient of friction
It is defined as the ratio of the limiting friction (F) to the normal reaction (RN) between the two bodies. It is
generally denoted by μ. Mathematically, coefficient of friction,
μ = F/RN
Consider that a body A of weight (W) is resting on a horizontal plane B, as shown in Fig.
If a horizontal force P is applied to the body, no relative motion will take place until the applied force P is
equal to the force of friction F, acting opposite to the direction of motion. The magnitude of this
force of friction is F = μ.W = μ.R
N, where R
N is the normal reaction.
In the limiting case, when the motion just begins, the body will be in equilibrium under the action of the
following three forces :
1. Weight of the body (W),
2. Applied horizontal force (P), and
3. Reaction (R) between the body A and the plane B.
The reaction R must, therefore, be equal and opposite to the resultant of W and P and will be inclined at an
angle _ to the normal reaction RN. This angle _ is known as the limiting angle of friction.
It may be defined as the angle which the resultant reaction R makes with the normal reaction RN.
From, tanΦ = F/R

Angle of Repose
Consider that a body A of weight (W) is resting on an inclined plane B, If the angle of inclination of
the plane to the horizontal is such that the body begins to move down the plane, then the angle α is called the
angle of repose.

Screw Friction
The screws, bolts, studs, nuts etc. are widely used in various machines and structures for temporary fastenings.
These fastenings have screw threads, which are made by cutting a continuous helical groove on a cylindrical
surface. If the threads are cut on the outer surface of a solid rod, these are known as external threads.
 But if the threads are cut on the internal surface of a hollow rod, these are known as internal threads.
 The screw threads are mainly of two types i.e. V-threads and square threads. The V-threads are stronger
and offer more frictional resistance to motion than square threads. Moreover, the V-threads have an advantage
of preventing the nut from slackening. In general, the V threads are used for the purpose of tightening pieces
together.
1. Helix. It is the curve traced by a particle, while describing a circular path at a uniform speed and advancing
in the axial direction at a uniform rate. In other words, it is the curve traced by a particle while moving
along a screw thread.
2. Pitch. It is the distance from a point of a screw to a corresponding point on the next thread, measured parallel
to the axis of the screw.
3. Lead. It is the distance, a screw thread advances axially in one turn.
4. Depth of thread. It is the distance between the top and bottom surfaces of a thread (also known as crest and
root of a thread).
5. Single-threaded screw. If the lead of a screw is equal to its pitch, it is known as single threaded screw.
6. Multi-threaded screw. If more than one thread is cut in one lead distance of a screw, it is known as multi-
threaded screw e.g. in a double threaded screw, two threads are cut in one lead length. In such cases, all the
threads run independently along the length of the rod. Mathematically,
Lead = Pitch × Number of threads
Helix angle. It is the slope or inclination of the thread with the horizontal. Mathematically,

1. An electric motor driven power screw moves a nut in a horizontal plane against a force of 75 kN at a
speed of 300 mm/min. The screw has a single square thread of 6 mm pitch on a major diameter of 40
mm. The coefficient of friction at the screw threads is 0.1. Estimate power of the motor.
2. The pitch of 50 mm mean diameter threaded screw of a screw jack is 12.5 mm. The coefficient of friction
between the screw and the nut is 0.13. Determine the torque required on the screw to raise a load of 25
kN, assuming the load to rotate with the screw. Determine the ratio of the torque required to raise the
load to the torque required to lower the load and also the efficiency of the machine.

Over Hauling and Self-Locking Screws

The torque required to lower the load

In the above expression, if φ < α, then torque required to lower the load will be negative. In other
words, the load will start moving downward without the application of any torque. Such a condition is known
as over hauling of screws. If however φ > α, the torque required to lower the load will positive, indicating that
an effort is applied to lower the load. Such a screw is known as self-locking screw. In other words, a screw
will be self-locking if the friction angle is greater than helix angle or coefficient of friction is greater than
tangent of helix angle i.e. μ or tan φ > tan α.

3. A load of 10 kN is raised by means of a screw jack, having a square threaded screw of 12 mm pitch and
of mean diameter 50 mm. If a force of 100 N is applied at the end of a lever to raise the load, what should
be the length of the lever used? Take coefficient of friction = 0.15. What is the mechanical advantage
obtained? State whether the screw is self locking.
Friction of Pivot and Collar Bearing
The rotating shafts are frequently subjected to axial thrust. The bearing surfaces such as pivot and collar
bearings are used to take this axial thrust of the rotating shaft.
The propeller shafts of ships, the shafts of steam turbines, and vertical machine shafts are examples of shafts
which carry an axial thrust.
The bearing surfaces placed at the end of a shaft to take the axial thrust are known as pivots. The pivot may
have a flat surface or conical surface
When the cone is truncated, it is then known as truncated or trapezoidal pivot as shown in Fig. 10.16 (c).
The collar may have flat bearing surface or conical bearing surface, but the flat surface is most commonly
used. There may be a single collar.

A conical pivot supports a load of 20 kN, the cone angle is 120º and the intensity of normal pressure is not
to exceed 0.3 N/mm2. The external diameter is twice the internal diameter. Find the outer and inner radii
of the bearing surface. If the shaft rotates at 200 r.p.m. and the coefficient of friction is 0.1, find the power
absorbed in friction. Assume uniform pressure.

Friction Clutches
A friction clutch has its principal application in the transmission of power of shafts and machines which must
be started and stopped frequently. Its application is also found in cases in which power is to be delivered to
machines partially or fully loaded. The force of friction is used to start the driven shaft from rest and gradually
brings it up to the proper speed without excessive slipping of the friction surfaces

Single Disc or Plate Clutch

A single disc or plate clutch, as shown in Fig. 10.21, consists of a clutch plate whose both sides are faced with
a friction material (usually of Ferrodo). It is mounted on the hub which is free to move axially along the splines
of the driven shaft. The pressure plate is mounted inside the clutch body which is bolted to the flywheel.
2. Considering uniform wear
Multiple Disc Clutch