1.

An Introduction to Biology
Introduction :
 Biology is a natural concerned with the study of life and living organis, including their structure, function,
growth, origin, evolution and distribution.
 The term 'Biology' was given Lamarck and Treverinous in the Year 1807.

 There are two main branches of Biology : (i) Botany (ii) Zoology.

(i) Botany : Study of different aspects of plant is called Botany.

Theophrastus is known as father of Botany.
(ii) Zoology : Study of various aspects of animals is called zoology.
Aristotle is called father of zoology and as well as Biology.
Theories related to Origin of Life:
 The Russian Scientist A.I. Oparain scientifically told about origin of life.

 This was proved by Miller and Urey in 1953.

(a) Lamarckism : There are four laws related to this theory of evolution:
(i) The internal forces are fully responsible for increase or decrease in size.
(ii) Formation of a new organ or disappearance of an existing organ is the result of need.
(iii) The development and regenaration of organs is based on the continuous use and disuse.
(iv) The characters acquired by an organism during its life time are transmitted to their offspring by the
process of inheritance.
(b) Darwinism : He gives the theory of natural Selection. In his book 'origin of species'. The following factors are
mentioned for the formation of species by natural selection:
(i) The over-production is shown by every organism.
(ii) The organisms show struggle for their existence.
(iii) This struggle for existence leads to 'appearance of variation.'
(iv) The advantages variations in organisms results in 'survival of the fittest'.
(v) The advantangeous variations are inherited through the fittest and then accumulation for a period gives
rise to a new species.
 Specific branches of Biology:

(i) Anatomy : The branch of Biology under which the internal structure of the body of an organism is
studied.
(ii) Anthropology : The branch of science under which human development, their cultural and customary
activities history and the traditional (primitive) socieities are studied.
(iii) Entomology : The scientific study of insects is called entomology.
(iv) Epidemiology : The branch of the medical science under which the epidemics and its remedial measures
are studied.
(v) Ex-biology : The branch of science under which the possibilities of live are studied on the various
plantes and satellites other than earth.

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 (vi) Gerontology : The branch of science under which the vital facts related to the old ages of the human
beings is studied called gerontology.
(vii) Horticulture : The branch of science under which the development and the cultivating technique tem-
perature, sub-tripical and tropical fruits, vegetables, ornamental and medicinal plants, species and plan-
tation crops etc are studied.
(viii) Hydropathy: The branch of medical science under which the treatment of the disease is done by the
water.
(ix) Mammography: The branch of medical science under which through a comprehensive diagnostic
mechanism the breast cancer of the women are detected.
(x) Morphology : The branch of biology under which the structure, shape, size, type and the nature and
behaviour of the organism are studied collectively is called morphology.
(xi) Neurology: The branch of medical science under which the study of nerves and the diseases related to
the nerves are diagonised and its curable modes are studied called neurology.
(xii) Odontography: The scientific study of the teeth in the medical science is called Odontography.
(xiii) Ornithology : The branch os zoology under which the bones and skeleton systems of the body of the
animals are studied.
(xiv) Pomology: The scientific study of the fruits is called pomology.
(xv) Agrostology: The scientific study of the grasses is called agrostology.
(xvi) Conchology: The scientific study of the human species is called ethnography.
(xvii) Ethnography: The scientific study of the human species is called ethnography.
(xviii) Ethology: The scientific study of the nature, character and behaviour of the living beings (organisms)
are called ethology.
(xix) Genecology: The scientific study of the diversity of the species of the organism and thus the study of
population genetics to the environment is called genecology.
(xx) Geomedicine : The branch of the medical science under which the direct impact of the mutual interac-
tion of the climate and surrounding on the health of the human beings is studied called geomedicine.
(xxi) Heliotherapy : The diagnostic treatement process through the sunlight is called heliotherapy.
(xxii) Hydroponics: The scientific study of the agriculture in which water processing mechanism is devel-
oped called hydroponics.
(xxiii) Phycology : The scientific study of the algae is called phycology.
(xxiv) Sericulture: The branch of the agriculture science under which the culturing of the silk worms and the
production of silk are studied.
(xxv) Toxicology : The scientific study of the poison is called toxicology.
Inventions related to the Medical/Biological Science
Associated terms Inventors Associated terms Inventors
Vitamin Hopkins Kidney machine Choif
Antigen Landsteiner Heart Transplantation Christan Benard
DNA Wastson & Crick Parastitic malaria Ronoload Ross
DDT Pol Muller Anti-pregnancy pills Pincuss

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Associated terms Inventors Associated terms Inventors
Homeopath Haniman Genetic code Hargobind Khorana
Insulin Bating & West First test tube baby Adbers & Stepto
Polio vaccine J.E. Shalk Blood circultion William Harbe
TB Bacteria Robert Koach Bacteria of leprosy Henson
BCG Urin Cholmat Vaccination Adberd Gener
Bacteria Leeuwen hock Polio drop Gene of Albert Sebine Rober
Open Heart Surgery Walton Lilehock Cancer Winerge

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 2. Cell
 Cell Structure: Every cells has three main components— Cell membrane, Nucleus and Nucleoplasm.
(a) Cell Membrane:
 The cell membrance of the cell is the outer layer of the cell and it is basically a semi permeable membrane.
 The main function of the cell membrane is to control the molecular activities between the cell & its
outer medium which interact with the cell.
 Cells are enclosed by a thin film like membrane called plasma membrance, cytoplamic membrane or
plasma lemma.
(b) Cytoplams:
 It is a part of protoplasm laying between plasma membrance and nucleus, jelly-like fluid.
 Participates in the intracellular distribution of nutrients, metabolites and enzymes.
(c) Cell Wall:
 Cells of most fungi, prokaryotes (bacteria and blue-green algae) and plants (except gametes) are sur-
rounded by the cell wall. It is Absent in animals.
 In true bacteria and cyanobacteria, cell was is of peptidoglycan, in some fungi it is of chitin and in most
of the algae and higher green plants it is of cellulose.
(d) Nucleus:
 Discovered by Robert Brown.
 Every eukaryotic cell consists of at least one, almost spherical, dense highly specialized structure called
nucleus. Althought, shieve tube element of mature phloem and RBCs of mammals don't have uncleus.
 Contains nuceloplasm (nuclear sap) which contains chromatin, (Chromatin is composed of DNA mainly).
 Chromatic organizes itself into thread like structure called Chromosomes. The function of
chromososomes is to carry gentic information from one cell generation to another.
 Nucleolus is also present which helps in the production of ribosome.
 Nucleus controls the metabolic activities of the cell by controlling the synthesis enzymes.
(e) Chromosomes:
 Waldeyer coined the term chromosome.
 Sutton and Boveri proved than chromosome is the physical basis of hereditary.
 Each chromosome is made up of DNA and this DNA by replication gives rise to the messenger RNA
which carry the genetic information in the form of code. This–RNA comes out of the nuclear wall into
the cytoplasm where it helps to form a particular kind if protein needed by the cell or body.
 Number is constant for a particular species.
 In human, the diploid number is 46. Of these, 23 are from egg cell and 23 from sperm cell.
(f) Mitochondria:
 Powerhouse of the cell or energy converting organelles, as oxidatio not 'fuel' occures stepwise in these,
resulting in the release of chemical energy. This energy is stored as ATP.
 From mitochondria, ATP molecules are shifted to cytoplasm, which is the chief site of their utilization.

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  They are semi-autonomous organelles. They contain DNA, m-RNA, ribosome and can synthesize some
of their own proteins.
 Each mitochondria is enclosed by a double-membraned envelope, outer and inner. Fluid (called matrix)
is there between these 2 layers.
(G)Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 Provides an increased surface area for various metabolic activities within the cell.
 Provides mechanical support to the cytoplasm.
 2 types : Rough and smooth.
 Both Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum and Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum form passage for transport of
secretary proteins, lipid and sterols.
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum collects and stores the proteins synthezied by its surface bound, ribo-
some.
(h) Golgli Complex : Main function is secretion.
(l) Lysosomes:
 Also called Suicidal bags.
 Contain powerful enzymes (acid Hydrolase), rupture of lysosome membrane releases these enzymes.
 Digest wom-out or unnecessary parts of the cell, or even whole cells by process called 'Autophagy'.
(j) Ribosomes:
 Found on Endoplasmic Reticulum. Made of RNA and proteins in equal amounts.
 Sites of protein synthesis (Ribosome are inactive for protein synthesis, but after combining with mRNA
form polyribosome which play important role in protein synthesis.)
(k) Vacuoles:
 Found in plant cells only.
 Membrane surroundings the vacuole is tonoplast.
Function: Regulation of water, in osmoregulation, in store and indigestion.
(l) Plastids:
 Founds in plant cells only.
 Are of different types:
(i) Chloroplast: Green contains the pigment chloropyll. Contains the matrix (fluid), stroma which has
many flat membranous structures called thylakoids.
(ii) Leucoplasts : Colourless, occur in large no in cells of fruits, seeds etc. They store nutrients (e.g.
amyloplasts of potato store starch).
(iii)Chromoplasts: coloured, containg fat soluble yellow, orange and red pigments (chiefly carotinoids).
Found in flowers and fruits.
(m)Centrosome:
 Found in animal cells and cells of lower plants (eg. Algae) only.
 The first indication that the cell is about to divide is generally given by the centrosome.

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 Summary of functions of different cells organelles
Cell Organelles Functions
1. Plasma membrane (i) Protection of cell cytoplasm.
(ii) Control of substances entering and coming out of the cell.
2. Cytoplasm
(a) Endoplasmic reticulum (i) Provides an increased surface area for the metabolic activities.

(b) Mitochondria Acts as power houses of cell, release energy by the oxidation
of food.
(c) Golgi complex (i) Produce secretions.
(ii) Forms lysosome.
(d) Centrosome Plays an important role in the formation of spindle during cell
division.
(e) Lysosomes (i) Store enzymes for the digestion of cellular components and
bring about digestion of proetins and carbohydrates etc.
(ii) Bring about digestion of foreign substances entering the cell.
(f) Ribosomes Act as factories of the cell and synthesize proteins from amino
acids.
(g) Plastids (i) In presence of light, green plastids or chloroplasts manufacture
carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide.
(ii) Chromoplasts give different colours to the structures in which
these are present.
3. Nucleus
(a) Nuclear membrane (i) Protects the nucleus.
(ii) Regulates the passage of substances entering and leaving
the nucleus.
(b) Nucleolus Stores ribosomal RNA and controls synthesis of ribosomes
and proteins.
(i) Controls nuclear metabolism and cell metabolism.
(ii) Stores hereditary information.
(iii) Inherits characters from parents to offsprings.

(n) DNA and RNA

 Wilkins, Watson and Crick (1953)— Noble Prize for DNA Structure.
 DNA stands for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid while RNA stands for Ribose Nucleic Acid.
 Compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen nitrogen and phosphorus.
 Made up of Nucleotide monomers (Polynucleotides)
 A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar & phosphate group.

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  Nucleotide: Nitrogenous base + Sugar.
 5 Nitrogenous Bases: (i) Cytosine (ii) Uracil (iii) Thymine (iv) Adenine (v) Guanine.
 Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine are the Pyrimidine Derivatives with a single ring structure..
 Adenine and Guanine are the Purine Derivatives with a double ring structure.
 The pentose sugars are of 2 types: (i) Deoxyribose (ii) Ribose.
 Long and highly complex, spirally twisted, right-handed double helix, Ladder like structure
formed by 2 polynucleotides strands.
 Base thymine is present, but never uracil.
 Adenine links with Thymine by two hydrogen bonds.
 Guanine with cytosine by three hydrogen bonds.
 A single DNA molecule has millions of pairs of nucleotide monomers.
 DNA contains "BLUE PRINT" of life.
 With RNA's help, it directs the synthesis of all structural and functional proteins of protoplasm.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DNA AND RNA
DNA RNA
1. It usually occurs inside nucleus and some cell 1. Very little RNA occurs inside nucleus. Most
organelles. of its is found in the cytoplasm.
2. DNA is the genetic material. 2. RNA is not the genetic material except in
certain viruses. e.g. TMV, Retrovirus.
3. It is double stranded with the exception of 3. RNA is single stranded with the exception of
some viruses. viruses (e.g., double stranded in Reovirus)
4. DNA shows regular helical coiling. There is no regular coiling expect in parts of RNA.
5. DNA forms chromosomes of similar structure. 5. rRNA form, ribosomes.
6. DNA contains several million nucleotides. 6. Depending upon the type, RNA contains 10-
12000 nucleotides.
7. DNA is of only two types, nuclear and extra 7. There are at least three types of RNA-rRNA,
nuclear. mRNA and tRNA.
8. It contains deoxyribose sugar. 8. It contains ribose sugar.
9. Nitrogen base Thymine occurs in DNA 9. Thymine is replaced by uracil in RNA. The other
alongwith three other-Adenine, cytosine and three are Adenine, cytosine and guanine.
guanine.
10. Renaturation after melting is slow. 10. It is quite fast.
11. Hydrogen bonds tire formed between 11. Base pairing through hydrogen bonds occurs
complementary nitrogen bases of the opposite only in the coild parts.
strans of DNA (A : T, C : G)
12. It replicates to form new DNA molecules. 12. It cannot replicate itself except in RNA-RNA
viruses.
13. DNA transcribes genetic information to RNA. 13. RNA translates the transcribe message for
forming polypeptides.

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14. DNA controls heredity, evolution, metabolism, 14. RNA controls only protein synthesis.
structure and differentiation.
15. Its quantity is fixed for cell. 15. The quantity of RNA of a cell is variable.
16. DNA controls metabolism and genetics 16. It only controls metabolism under instruction
including variations. from DNA.
17. Purine and pyrimidine bases are in equal 17. There is no proportionality between number
number. of urine and pyrimidine bases.
18. It can be hydrolyzed by enzyme DNA-ase 18. RNA is hydrolysed by RNA-ase.

 Miscellaneous Facts:
1. Human nerve cell is the longest animal cell.
2. In human beings, cells of kidney are the smallest.
3. Ostrict egg is the largest cell in size.
4. The smallest cell is Mycoplasma gallisepticum.
5. Largest a cellular plant Acetbulria and animal is Amoeba

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 3. Histology
Introduction : The study of tissue is called Histology. Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate be-
tween cell and organs. A tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that
together carry out a specific function.
In almost higher animals including human beings are four types of tissues and these are.
(i) Epithelium tissue : The epithelial tissue forms a continuous layer over the free surface of many other tissues.
Consequently, it covers the external surface of the animal body and the internal (luminal) surfaces of visceral
organs, body cavities and blood vessels. It protect the underlying or overlying tissues and the materials are
exchanged across the epithelial tissues, cells of the epithelium are set very close to each other and separated by
the very thin films of extracellular meterial. The epithelial tissue rests on a non cellular basement membrane
which separates it from the underlying connective tissue.
(ii) Connective tissue: It provides the structural framework and support to different tissue forming an organ. It
also plays a key role in the body defense, tissue repair, fat storage and transmission of blood vessels to the other
tissues. The connective tissue has large amount of extracellular material consists of insoluble protein firbers
lying in an amorphous, transparent matrix. In the blood the extra cellular material is a fiber-free fluid. In bones
connective tissue is dense, mineralized and rigid. There are various types of connective tissues:
(i) Areolar tissue : Areolar tissues exist among the hollow, inners behind the skin and on the arteries and
veins. it connects various tissues and form cushions which helps in locating and confining the organs at
their usual places and in maintaining their common original shapes.
(ii) Adiposetissue : Adipose tissue synthesises the fats and stores it with sharp metabolic activities. It pre-
vents the harmful impact inside the body by making thermally insulated layer below the skin. Thus it
makes a comfortable cushion to prevent the shock occurring near the kidney and eye ball.
(iii) White fibrous tissue : It has greater tensile power in the connective tissue. White fibrous tissue provides
loco motional motion between the joints of the skeletons of the skull.
(iv) Tendons : It is an extremely densed, powerful and fibrous connective tissue and these firbes are naturally
slakced but practically extremely elastic. The secretion of these fibres is performed by the closed connec-
tive tissues. Tendons connect te muscles to the bones.
(v) Ligaments : This is a densed fibrous connecetive tissue which is extremely soft and connects bones to
bone.
(vi) Bone : The is basically a solid, hard and powerful connective tissue in whose matrix the apatite salts of
calcium and phosphorus exist which provides stronger rigidity but a complete lack of elasticity.
(vii) Cartilage : This is a solid semi-hard and elastic connective tissue.
The park of the nose of the man exterior part of the human ear etc. is made from cartilage. The entire body
of the shark fish is made of cartilage.

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 4. Sensory Organs
A group of tissues that performs a specific function or group of functions is called Organ. A specialized organ,
where sensory neurons are concentrated and that functions as a receptor is called sensory organ. There are five
sensory organs–eye, ear, nose, tongue & skin.
(i) Eye : Eye is made up of 3 layers–Upper sclerotic, Middle choroid and lnner retina.
(a) Sclerotic Layer:
 The transparent bulging, circular part of sclerotic layer which lies in the front is called comea.
 Cornea is covered by the thin conjunctive.
(b) Choroid Layer:
 Choroid layer starts from iris which is next to cornea. It controls the amount of light entering into the
eye (in brighter light, the iris auto-
matically shuts tighter, reducing the
amount of light entering the pupil).
 The circular apereture of iris is called
pupil.
 Next is lens (proteinous). It is bicon-
vex in nature.
 Space between lens and cornea is
filled with a transparent fluid called
Aqueous Humour.
 The space behind the lens is filled
with Vitreous Humour.
(c) Retina:
 Image of the object is formed on
retina. Image is formed upside down
on it and the process of interpreta-
tion takes place in brain.
 Retina is composed of 2 types of cells:
(i) Rod cells : Sensitive to dim light and contain the pigment Rhodopsin (In noctumal animals more).
(ii) Cone cells : Colour sensitive for 3 primary colors (Red, Blue and Green). They are found more in
diumal animals. Transferred from parents. Found more at yellow sport.
Yellow Sport (Macula Lutea) : On retina, finest image is formed here. Favea centralis is the
depression in the middle of Yellow Sport.
Blind Spot : No image formation takes place here as te optic nerves innervate the eyeball here.
Also the rods and cones are absent here.
 Color of eye is the color of the iris.
 Corea is donated in eye donation.
Eyes glow in animals due to tapetum.

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 Defects of Eyes:
1. Myopia: Cannot see distant objects, image formed before retina, concave lens is used. The power of the
lens is denoted by negative sign.
2. Hypermetropia : Cannot see near objecets, image formed behind retina, convex lens is used. The power of
the lens is denoted by positive sign.
3. Astigmatism : Curvature of cornea becomes irregular and image is not clear. Cylinderical lens is used.
4. Cataract : Due to defective protein metabolism the lens becomes opaque. Operation is needed.
5. Glaucoma : Due to defect in aqueous humour.
6. Xerophthalmia: It is due to definciency of Vitamin A. In the conjunctiva or comea becomes keratinized. it
may lead to blindness.
7. Presbiopia : In this, power of accommodation of lens decreases due to age factor and defected metabolism.
Also known as age sightedness. Can be removed by bifocal lens.

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 Ear : Divided into 3 parts–external ear, middle ear (tympanic cavity) & internal ear (membranous labyrinth)
1. External Ear (Pinna + External Auditory Meatus):
 Leads into auditary canal or external auditary meatus. Auditary canal terminates at ear drum or tympa-
num.
 Pinna collects the sound waves and transmits them to ear drum which further transmits it to the middle
ear.
 Have wax glands which produce cerumen to trap dust particles.
2. Middle Ear (Tympanic cavity) : It encloses 3 ear ossicles : Malleus (Hammer-shaped) Incus (Anvil-
shaped) Stapes (Stirrup-Shaped).
 These 3 transmit sound to the internal ear (through stapes, which is connected to the internal ear.)
 Fanastra avails : Connectes middle ear to internal ear.
 Middle ear is connected to the pharynx by eustachian tube.
3. Internal Ear (Membranous Labyrinth):
 Most delicate part, Enclosed by parotic bone.
 Various parts are there which perform 2 acts: Maintenance of balance and hearing.
 Succulus and cochlea part are asosicated with hearing. It is filled with a filled with a fluid perilymph. it
ultimately leads to nerve impulses through corti (rod shaped structure). Cochlea is a small snail shaped
tube, in a 2 3 / 4 turned spirally).
 In the internal ear are 3 semicircular canals and, utiaulus which are filled with a fluid endolyinph. They
perform the balancing act.

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 5. Human Organs System
Introduction : As discussed earlier tissues performed identical function. Organs are formed by the functional
grouping together of multiple tissues. A group of organs that work together to carry out a particular task. The
human body is made up of several organ systems that work together as one unit. Major organ system is following:
St. System Function Participating organs
1. Skeletal System Supports and protects the body while Bones, joints, ligaments etc.
giving it shape and form
2. Muscular System Enables movement of the body. Muscles
3. Respiratory System Environment & gases in the blood Lungs, nose etc.
4. Nervous System Monitors & Co-ordinates internal organ Brain, spinal cord, nerves
function and respond to chaing the etc.
external environment.
5. Circulatory System Transport nutrients & gases to cells and Heart, blood vessels, blood
tissues throughout body spleen etc.
6. Digestive System Break down food polymers into smaller Mouth, stomach, intestines,
molecules to provide energy for the body. pancreas etc.
7. Endocrine System Helps to maintain growth & homeostasis Pituitary gland, pineal gland
within the body hyptohalamus etc.
8. Reproductive System Enables the production of offspring Penis, vagina, testes,
through sexual reproduction. ovaries, uterus etc.
9. Excretory System Removes wastes & maintains water Kidneys, ureters, urinary
balance in the body bladders etc.
10. Integumentary System Protects the internal structures of the Skin, nails, hair, sweat
body from damage, prevents dehydration glands
stores fat & produce vitamins & hormones.

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 6. Human Skeletal System
 Skeletal System : Skeletal system constitutes hard internal or external living or non-living parts that form the
supporting framework of the body. It is divided into two parts:
(i) Exoskeleton : It is present on the outside of the body. Found in both invertebrates and vertebrates.
(ii) Endoskeleton : It is occurs inside the body and is made up of cartilages and bones. Found in corals,
echinoderms and vertebrates.
 Human endoskeleton : It is divided into two main parts: (i) Axial Skeleton (80 bones) (ii) Appendicular
Skeleton (126 bones).
(i) Axial Skeleton : It lies along the principlal axis of the body. It includes skull, vertebral column, ribes and
sternum.
(a) Skull : It is made up of two parts:
(i) Cranium (8 bones–provides a bony protection for the brain)
(ii) Face (there are 14 bones which from the skeleton of the face). 6 ear bones and one more bone is
called hyoid, which is horse shoe shaped present in neck between lower jaw and sound box. It
supports Tongue.
(b) Vertebrat Column : it is made up of 33 vertebrae.
Functions :
 It holds the head.
 Provides base to the neck and body.
 Helps the human in standing, walking etc.
 Provides the protection to spinal cord.
(c) Ribs : There are 12 pairs of Bone which form the sides of chest cage.
(ii) Appendicular Skeletion : It is made up of girdles (Pectoral and pelvic) and limb bones (forelimb and hind
limb).
Limb Bones : Forelimbs: Consists of 60 bones; Hind limbs: Consists of 60 bones.
Hindlimbs : Femur (2)– Thigh (longest bone of the body)
Fibula (2)– Shan (thinnest bone).
Pelvic Girdle : Has 2 hip bones. The smallest bone of the body is stapes (Bone of ear).
Functions of Skeleton System:
 To provide a definite shape to the body.
 To provide protection to soft parts of the body.
 To help in respiration and nutrition.

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 7. Human Respiratory System
 Respiratory System : All physical and chemical reactions in which atmospheric air oxidizes food in the body
resulting in production of energy and liberation of CO2 are included in repsiration.
(a) Types of Respiration:
(i) Anaerobic Respiration: When nutrients are oxidized without using O2 (also called fermentation)
In yeast, glucose forms ethyl alcohol and CO2.
In bacteria and muscles, glucose is converted into lactic acid.
It is a low energy yielding process.
(ii) Aerobic Respiration: Cells utilize O2 for oxidizing nutrients. O2 is used either atmospheric air or from
water.
It is found in most plants and animals.
It provides much more energy than the anaerobic one.
It involves:
(a) External respiration : Gaseous exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood and air (or water). Trans-
parent of gases to the tissues.
(b) Internal respiration : Gaseous exchange between blood and tissues.
(c) Cellular respiration : Oxidation of nutrients in the cells and liberation of energy.
 Respiratory Organs:
(i) Nasal Cavity : It opens
to the exterior through
nostrils. The small hair
present in the cavity
help to filter particles of
dust and other foreign
matter.
The air in the nasal cav-
ity gets warmed (be-
cause nasal cavity has a
very good blood supply)
and moistened before it
enters lungs.
(ii) Pharynx : From the na-
sal cavity the air enters
the pharynx. It serves as
a common pasage for
both air and food.
The opening into the

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 wind pipe or trachea is a narrow slit, the glottis. The glottis is protected against the entrance of food by a
triangular flap of tissue, the epiglottis.
(iii)Larynx (Voice Box): Called Adam's apple in man. It is the first part of trachea present in the neck.
When air is forced into the larynx, the vocal cords–the greater the tension, the higher the ptich.
(iv)Trachea: It is four and a half inch long tube with C-shaped ring of cartillages in its walls. These ring of
cartilage make the wall non-collapsable.
The trachea branches into two bronchi on to each lung and these branches within the lung into many
smaller bronchioles.
(v) Lungs : Surrounding each lung is a double walled sac, the pleural cavity. Hence, the convering of lungs is
called pleural membrane.
The right lung is divided into three lobes and let into two. The left lung is smaller than the right and has a
concavity, the cardiac notch, where the heart lies.
inside the lung each Bronchi divides into numerous bronchioles, each of which terminates into an elon-
gated saccule, the alveolar duct, which Bears on its surface air sac or alveoli. The latter provides a large
surface for gaseous exchange.
 Pulmonary volumes & Capacities:
Pulmonary volume : Volume of air in the lungs.
Pulmonary capacities : Combination of two or more pulmonary volumes.
All pulmonary volume and capacities are about 20% to 25% less in women than in men, more in athletic
people than non-exericising ones and more in non smokers than the smokers.
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 8. Human Nervous System:
 Nervous System:
 In this system thin thread like nerves are spread throughout the body. i.e. Its unit is neuron Minimum power
of regeneraion is found in Nervous System, Largest cell of our body is Neuron.
 After receiving the information of environment changes from the sensitive organs, it spreads them speedily
like electrical impulses and establishes working coordination among the different organs. Nervous system
is of following types:
(i) Central Nervous System : Brain + Spinal Chord
(ii) Peripheral Nervous System : Nerves
(iii)Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic + Parasympathetic Nervous System.
(i) Central Nervous System : Consists of Brain and Spinal Cord. Brain has following parts:
(a) Cerebrum : It has two distinct parts: Outer grey matter or cerebral cortex and inner white matter.
Grey Matter:
 It s co ntro ls
activities such as speech,
taste, smell, hearing (con-
scious activities)
 It is the seat of
intelligence, reasoning,
learing, will, pleasure,
pain, fear etc.
 White matter
is beneath of grey matter.
 If cerebrum is
removed, the person will
become a simple relfex
animal.
(b) C e r e b e l l u m :
concerned with
equilibrium of the
body and brings
about co-ordina-
tion and control of
muscular activi-
ties of the body.
(c) Medulla Oblon-
gata : Lowest part
of the Brain and is

20
 connected to the spinal cord. Controls the involuntary actions (respiration heart beat, flow of blood
in blood vessels secretion of glands etc.)
 Spinal Cord: the poster region of the medulla oblongata forms the spinal cord.
Main functions are:
 Coordination and control of reflex actions.
 It carries the wave coming out of the brain.
 Reflex Action:
 First discovered by Marshal Hall.
 Can be defined as the spontaneous response of the external stimulli.
 Co-ordinate by spinal cord.
 In this, the stimulus received by the receptor organ is conveyed to the spinal cord by the sensory or afferent
fibers. The order is transmitted to the effectors organs like muscles by motor or different nerve fibers.
 Conditional Reflex:
 First shown by pavolow on dog.
 When the reflex action becomes the regular feature of an animal or the animal becomes habitual of it, such
a reflex action is known as the conditional reflex.
 It is controlled by the cerebrum.
(ii) Peripheral Nervous System : Composed of cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
Cranial arise from brain while spinal from spinal cord.
Cranial are 12 pairs while spinal are 31 pairs.
Nerves : It is of 2 types:
(i) Efferent : The fibres which carry impulses from the CNS. Many of them pass through the muscles
making them to contract, and are therefore called Motor Nerve Fibres.
(ii) Afferent : Those which carry impulses to the CNS. The information which they transmit from the skin
and deeper tissues often evokes subjective sensation within the nervous system and are therefore called
Sensory Nerver Fibres.
(iii)Automatic Nervous System: Not under voluntary control.
Controlled by central nervous system.
Control digestion, excretion, secretion of sweat and digestive juices etc.
Divided into two :
(i) Sympathetic Nervous sytem : Increases the defense of body against adverse conditions.
It is active in stress condition, pain, fear and anger.
Speeds up heartbeat, BP etc.
Expenditure of energy takes palce.
Acetyl-chlorine and sympathein are released.
(ii) Parasympathetic Nervous System:
 Provides relaxation, comfort and pleasure at the time of rest.
 Lowers heartbeat thus lowering the B.P.
 Restoration and conservation of energy takes place.
 Only acetyl-chlorine is released.
 It increases the secretion of saliva and other digestive juices.
 The contraction of pupil is caused by this.
 It creates contraction in other muscles of urinary bladder.


21
 9. Human Circulatory System
 Circulatory System : In the human body there exists a developed, closed and double circulatory system and it
is composed through the two parts–Blood Circulatory System and Lymph Circulatory System.

(i) Blood Circulatory System: The blood circulatory system was invented by William Horway. Circulatory
system moves throughout the body. This system is composed of the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins.
The main vascular substance of this system in blood. This remarkable system transports oxygenated blood
from the lungs and heart throughout the body via the arteries. The blood goes through the capillaries which
are situated between the arteries and veins. And the blood that has been depleted of oxygen by the body is
them returned to the lungs and heart via the veins.

22
 (a) Human Heart and Its Functioning:
(i) Heart : The human heart is located and confined in the middle of both lungs of the chest cavity. All
around the heart there exists a membrane called Pericardial Membrane in which pericardical fluid
if filled up through which any exterior hammering is resisted and the heart remains safely protected.
(ii) Auricle & Ventricle : The human heart is a four chambered organ in which there exists upper two
chambers called Auricle and lower two chambers called Ventricle. The right auricle obtains the
blood from vencava while the left auricle gets it sthrough pulmonary veins. The blood through the
auricle reaches in te ventricle by the small holes of which valves are attached.
(iii)Tricuspid valve & Bicuspid value: Between the right ventncle there exists a valve called Tricus-
pid valve, while between the left auncle and te lefet ventricle another valve exists which is called
Bicuspid valve. The valve prevent the blood flow sin the opposite direction. Through the right
ventricle the blood goes to the lungs by the pulmonary Artery, while through the hleft ventricle the
blood is brought to the various human orgnas by the Aorota. There exists some semillunar valves at
the emancipating sites of the aorota, which bring the blood through the ventricle up to the aorotas
only and due to it the blood from the aorota again doesn't enter into the ventricle. The blood Trans-
portation work in the heart is done by the coronary artery.
(iv)Blood vessels: The process of the blood circulation in the human body is done by the arteries and
veins while the blood capillaries connect te arteries and veins both. Thus the three circulatory
components arteries. Veins are blood capillaries compose the blood vessels.
(v) Arteries : The blood vessels which transport the blood from the heart to the various organs of the
body are called Arteries'. Through the arteries only pure blood (oxygenated blood) flows, but through
the pulmonary arteries only impure blood (deoxygenerated blood) flows. Also in the arteries, valves
do not exists.
(vi)Veins : The blood vessels which bring back the blood from the various organs of the body to the
heart are called veins. Through the veins only impure blood (deoxygenated blood) flows, but Through
the pulmonary veins only pure blood (oxygenated blood) flows.
Difference between Artery and Veins
Artery Vein
1. The blood is Brought the heart 1. The blood comes back from the organs to
toward the organs of the body. the heart.
2. It is of red colour. 2. It is of deep red colour of violet blue colour.
3. The value do not exist. 3. The valves exist.
4. It is located at the depth in the body. 4. It is located at the upper layer of the body.
5. Its cavity is narrow. 5. The walls of it are thiner and elastic.
6. On being empty it doesn't shrivel. 6. It cavity is flattend.
7. Other than pulmonary artery the pure or 7. It is shriveld on being empty.
oxygenated blood flows through it.
8. Other than pulmonary vein, the impure or
deoxygenated blood flows through it.

23
(vii)Blood circultion in the human body : The right auricle of the heart obtains the impure entire
human body through the Venacava The blood to the right ventricle and through it impure blood is
pumped out to the lungs by the pulmonary aorota to purify the blood. The purified blood of the
lungs is now reached or brough to the left auricle through the pulmonary veins. The left auricle now
brings this blood into the left ventricle. The left venricle now pumps out this pure blood to the entire
arteries of the human body. Thus the blood is pumped out to the entire body through the heart and
again the body, the blood is brough to the heart and this process is continuously repeated again and
again.
(viii) Working function or machanism of the Heart : The Heart which is the pumping station of the
blood of the human body oprate in two phased:
(a) Systole, Diastole & Heart Beat: In the first phase ventricles of the heart contract and the blood
are pumped out to the aorotas and this phase is called Systole. But in the second phase the
ventircles of the heart expand and obtain the blood through the auricles and this phase is called
Diastole. The composite form of systole and diastole is called Heart beat.
In an adult or healthy person the heart beat fs nearly 72 per minute in the position of rest, while
for hard core physical worker its value may go upto 180 per minute.
(b) Stroke volume & pace-maker: Also our heart In producing 1 heat beat, nearly 70 ml blood is
pumped out and this blood volume is called stroke volume. During the time of heart beat both
auricles of the heat contract simultaneously and then both ventricles contract simultaneously.
The process of heart beat starts from a group of small tissues located and corifined at the upper
part of the right auricle and it is called sino auriculr node or sino-atrial node. This is also called
pacemaker. Heat failure: When S.A node does not initiate any impulse.
(ix)Electrocardiogram (Electrocardiography or ECG): Inside the heart the process of systole and
diastole produce the impulses in the form of electro chemical waves which begin from the sino-
atrial node and go up to, the ventricles. The electrical changes appear due to the heart beats and
these can be easily recorded through the device called Electrocardiogram. This graphical electrical
recording is called Electrocardiography of EGG which is done diagonse the cardio logical diseases.
(x) Regulation of Heat Beat: The process of heart beat is an automatic process which is commanded
through the sino-artial node and it is controlled or regulated by a controlling centre located in the
medulla oblongata of rhombencephalon. This controlling centre is called Cardiac centre. The hor-
mones the thyroxine and adrenal directly control the heart beat.
Other than nerves and horomonal regulation, some chemical substances present in the blood also
control the heartbeat. The C02 preent in the blood, decrease the pH value and increase the heart
beat. Thus it can be concluded that due to the acidity the heart beat is increased while due to the
alkalinity, the heat beat is drecreased.
The contraction of the muscle and the closure of the valvaes during the heat beat produce the
sounds of the heart and it is listended by the aid of a stethoscope whose sounds'are appeared like
lub-dup-lub-dup-jub.
(xi)Blood pressure: Through the systole of the heart the pressure exerted on the walls of thearteries is
called blood pressure and more appropriately systolic pressure which is actually produces due to
the contraction of ventricles. The numerical vlaue of the pressure of contraction is equivalent to the
column of 120 mm of Hg.

24
 Just opposite to it there is a diastolic pressure which is produced due to the diastole of the ventricle,
whenever the blood is in the entering phase through the auricle to the ventricle. This pressure is
equivalent to the pressure produced due to the column of 800 mm Hg.
For a healty adult person the systole and diastole pressure is 120/80. The device which measures the
blood pressure is called Sphygmomanometer.
(xii) Hypertension & Hypotension : The systolic pressure over 140 or diastolic pressure over 100 is
considered to be abnormal and it is called hypertension or high blood presure. But in some persons
the blood pres sure is lower than normal and then such persons are said to have low blood pressure
or hypotension. The average pulse rate for the adults who are mentally and physically read are 65 to
70 for the men and 70 to 75 for the women. The pulse rate is too high in babies, lesser in sleeping
stage and abruptly enhances in fever etc.
(xiii) Miscellaneous : The heart which is the pumping station of the blood is a muscular organ and its
average weight for an adult healthy man is 3400 gm, while for an adult healthy woman its weight is
255 gm.
The blood in the human body flows two times through the heart and that why our heart is called a
double circulatory device. The micro inner organelles coomponents auricles receive blood from the
veins, while the ventricles pump blood into the arteries. The blood vessels that carry the blood from
the intestine to the liver is called the hepatic portal vein.
(b) Blood : It is a fluid connective tissue. It is 6.8 liters,in man and 500 ml less in woman. Its constitute 6-
8% of body weight (pH 7.4)
(i) Constituents of Blood : Solid or
cellular part called Blood Cells
and fluid part called the Blood
Plasma. Approx 60% blood is
Fluid only.
(a) Red blood corpuscles (RBC)
(b) White blood corpuscles
(WBC) (c) Platelets plasma
(65%) (d) Lymph (Plasma +
WBC).
(a) Red blood corpuscles
(RBC): These are also called
erythrocytes, disc-shaped (for
increased surface area).
There is no nucleus.
These contain a pigment called Hemoglobin which gives red colour to the blood.
Average man: Amount of Haemoglobin is 14-15.6 gm/100 cc of blood (11-14 in woman).
RBCs are produced in spleen and liver in foetus and in bone marrow after birth @ 1.2
million per sec.
Number of RBCs is 4.5-5 million/cubic mm of blood. Life of RBC is 120 days after which they
are barken down in spleen or liver. Product of breakdown of hemoglobin is a pigment (yellow
colour) called bilirubin which is normally disposed off through bile whereas Heamoglobin trans-

25
 ferred to red bone marrow. Retention of bilirubin leads to jaundice.
No. of RBCs is 4.5-5 million/cubic mm of blood. At high altitude, RBCs increase in number.
More: Polycythemia
Less: Anemia
(b) White blood corpuslces (WBC): These are also called Leucocytes, rounded nucleus. Far less
numerous than RBCs (1 : 400-500) (5,000-10,000/cu mm),
life 3-4 days.
These are soldiers of body's defence system.
Takes part in antigent and anitbody formation.
Helps in blood clotting.
 Are of 2 types :

(i) Granulocytes: Basophills, Eosinophills, Neutrophills.

(ii) Agranulocytes: Monocytes, Lymphocytes.
Basophils : Take up basic stains. Have an s-shaped nucleus. Secrete an and-coagulatn He-
parin, which prevents clots within the blood vessels.
Eosinophills or Acidophills : Take up addicts,tains. Assists in defence mechanism.
Neutrophils : Stain equally well with both acidic and basic dyes : Most numerous of the
WBCs (60-70%). Defence IP
Monocytes : Largest of all. Very motile. Defence
Lymphocytes : 25% of the WBC. Takes part in antigen and antibody formation.
Lymphocytes & Phagocytes : Lymphocytes are white blood cells (WBC) while phago-
cytes are cells that attack and engulf invading microbes.
(c) Platelets : Also called Thromobocytes, formed in bone marrow, sets off blood clotting.
(d) Plasma (65%) : It is the liquid part of the blood.
This is clear, yellow find. It contains 90% water, proteins and organic salts.
It rgulates pH of blood.
 It contains 7% proteins which include Albufffcn, globulin and Fibrinogen. The protein in
plasma includes antibodies also, to assist in defence mechanism.
 Plasma transports nutrients from the small intestine to the body tissues and return the waste
material to the kidneys, where it is filtered out.
 Regulates pH of blood.
 Also called I hrombocytes, formed in bone marrow, about 250,000/ cu mm of blood, life 3-
7 days, sets off blood clotting.
(d) Lymph (Plasma + WBC):
 Lymph = Blood - BBC, i.e., Plasma + WBC.
 Lymph forms second circulating system. It acts as middle man between blood and tissue. It
has more of lymphocytes as compared to that of blood (Blood has more of neutrophils).
All interchanges of nutrients and waste products between blood and tissues takes place through
lymph only.

26
 Spleen produces lymph. At the same time it also acts as the gave yard of lymph.
Spleen is also known by the name of 'Blood Bank' because, RBC's, WBCs and lymph are pro-
duced in spleen. It is situated above left kidney behind the stomach.
(ii) Blood Groupings :
 Fatherof Blood Groupings : Kari Landsteiner (Australian pathologist). He discovered A, B and O
blood groups in 1900.
 Decastello and Sturle in 1902 discovered AB blood group.
 ABO system of blood groups is based on antigents and antibodies.
 Antigens: They are proteins and are found on the surface of RBCs. Antiqens are A and B.
 Antibodies: They are produced in lymph glands and are present in blood plasma. Antibodies are a
and b.
Blood Group Antigen Antibody Can donate to Can receive from
A (25%) A b A,AB A, O
B (35%) B a A,AB B, O
AB (7%) A&B – AB AB, AB, O
O (35%) – a&b AB, A, B, O O
(Percentage in brackets imply the percentage of the World pupulation of that particular blood group).
AB : Univeral recipient
O : Universal donor
RH Factor : It is based on Rh antigen. Discovered in 1940 by iaflitiSteiner and A S. Veiner. It discovered in Rhesus
monkey. A person can be Rh+ or Rh–. In world population Rh + are 85% and Rh - are 15% only + can receive blood
from Rh– but no vice-versa.
Blood, transfusion technique was first developed by James Biunciett in 825.
(ii) Lymph Circulatory System : The lymph is a vascular fluid substances which is collected inside the tissues
and comes or transmits in the lymph cells. The lymph is basically a yellowish coloured fluid in which the
defensive lymphocytes cells exist. The flow of lymph takees place towards the heart from the unidirectional
tissues.
The lymph system plays an important role in the spread of cancer throughout the body carrying cancerous
tissue from a maligant growth to the various parts of the body. Due to it the lymph nodes near the cancerous
growth are often removed whenever cancer us surgery is performed.
(a) Structure of the lymph circulatory system: The basic structure of the lymph circulatory system is com-
posed through the various micro organelle components like lymph capillaries, lymph vessels, lymph nodes,
lymph organs etc.
(b) Various organelle components:
(i) Lymph Nodes : The lymph vessels at some places become flattened and form the bag shaped structure
which are called lymph nodes. Actually it is the tuberous part of the lymph vessels. In the lymph nodes
White Blood Corpuscles (WBC) and some anitbodies cultivate.
Whenever any infection in the human body occurs then to Cross sectional view of Lymph destory or
kill the microbes (Virus, circulatory system bacteria etc) the lymph and WBC accumulated in the lymph
nodes of the infectious places, due to it sometimes glandular swelling takes place at these locations.

27
(ii) Lymph organelles: There is various lymph organelles coexist in the human body and these are lymph
Follicle, Spleen, Thymus Gland and Tonsils.
(iii)Working function of the Lymph : There are so many working functions of the lymph in our human
body and the main of these are given below:
(a) Temporary accumulation of the water: For the water entering in the human body the lymph
vessles work the temporary reservoir.
(b) Absorption of the excess water: The lymph absorbs the water from the fluid of the the tissue and
transports it into the the blood circulation.
(c) Transporation of the macromolecules : Through the lymph larger molecules of protein, hormone
etc is brought and is dropped in the blood circulation but these macromolecules do not penetrate
into the walls of blood capillaries. Thus these molecules do not directly reached in the blood circu-
lation.
(d) Transporation of the fat: Some molecules of the food stuffs like of the fat are transported by the
lymph. After the digestion fatty acid and glycerol do not undergo to the blood vessels and undergo
to the lactial, from where these are transported to the lymph system.
(e) Protection from the infection : The lymphocytes present in the lymph kill or destroy the microbes
like bactend and virus and protect ouro body from the infection.


28
 10. Human Digestive System
 Digestive System : The process of con-
verting food into energy giving sub-
stances is carried out by this system.
There are five stages of digestion: (i)
Ingestion (ii) Digestigon (iii) Absorption
(iv) Assimilation (v) Defecation.
(i) Ingestion: It invovles taking of food
into the mouth.
(ii) Digestion: Conversion of non-
absorable foo d into
absorable.
The digestion of food started from
the mouth.
Saliva is secreted by salivary gland
in mouth in which two types of en-
zymes are found : ptyalin and mal-
tase.
The nature of saliva is acidic (PH
6.8)
(a) Digestion in stomach: The food
lies approximately for four
hours in stomach.
After reaching the food in stom-
ach gastric glands secretes
the gastric juice. This is a
light yellow acidic liquid.
The enzymes in the gastric juice of stomach are pepsin and Rennin.
Pepsin breaks down the protein into peptones.
Rennin breaks down the protein into peptones.
(b) Digestion in Small intestine: (Duodenum + Jejenum + lleum):
Here the food from the stomach is mixed with bile (from liver) and pancreatic juice (from pancreas)
and moves forward by peristaltic movement. (Absorption of food stars).
Duodenum receives the bile-pancreatic duct formed by the unioin of bile duct and pancreatic duct.
As soon as the food reaches the duodenum bile juice from liver combines with it.
Bile juice makes the food alkaline. (It is stored in gall bladder).
Pancretic juice contains several enzymes, which act on proteins, carbohydrates and fats:

29
 Enzymes Acts on
Trypsin Proteins
Amylase Starch, Glycogen
Lipase Emulsified Fats
(c) Digestion in large intestine (Caecum + Colon + Rectum): Here absorption of water starts.
It receives undigested material from the small intestine and absorbs water. The remaining waste mate-
rials is sent to rectum and discharged through anuns.
(d) The main organs involved in digestion
(i) Liver
 It is larger gland of the human body. It is bilobed, right lobe being the larger and left lobe the
smaller. Weight –15.2kg.
 Bile juice is secreted through it, which is yellowish in colour.
 Bile helps in digestion through three ways:
(i) It emulsifies the fats.
(ii) It prevents decomposition of food by checking the growth of bacteria and
(iii)It neutralizes the acid coming from the stomach.
 It has diverse functions which are following :
(i) Regulation of blood sugar.
 Deamination : In the liver, the amino acids, comign from the alimentary canal are stored out.
Those necessary for the protecin synthesis are distributed to the tissues.
 The excess or uncessary amino acids are broken down.
 Blood clotting : It produces heparin, prothrombin and fibrinogen.
 Synthesis of Vitamin 'A'.
 Storage: Besides glycogen, liver stores.
 Lipids such as fats, fatty acids and chlolesterol.
 Minrals like copper and iron.
 Vitamins namely A, B12, D and E and '
 Bile in the gall bladder.
(ii) Pancrease : It is both an exocrine and endocrine gland.
It is the second largest gland of the human body.
Pancreatic juice Is secreted by it. It contains 9.8% of water and remaining part is of salt and
enzymes.
These proenzymes digest all three types of food materials like carbohydrates fats and protein.
The endocrine part (called Islets of langerhans) secretes hormones, whereas exocrine part secrets
pancreatic juice.
 Insulin : Insluin is secreted by B-cell of Islets of langerhans which is a part of the pancreas. It controls the
process of making glycogen from glucose. Diabets is caused due to deficiency of Insulin. Excessive flow of
Insulin causes hypoglycemia in which one loses the reproductive capacity and vision dete rio rates.

30
 IMPORTANT DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
Secreted by Enzymes Acts on Products
Salivary Glands Ptyalin (Salivary Amylase) Starch, glycogen Maltose, Isomaltose, 'Limit
Gastric dextrins Dextrins
(i) PepsirV(Activated from Proteins, Calcium Peptones
Prorennio by HCl) parocaseinate Paracasein and Whey Proteins
(ii) Refinin (Activated from Casein Fatty Acids and Monoglycerides
(iii) Gastric Lipase Fasts
Pancreas (i) Trypsin (Activated from Proteins Peptides
Trypsinogen by Proteins, casein Proteins, Casein Peptides,
Enterokinase)
(ii) Chymotrypsin (Activated Starch, Glycogen Poracasein (curd)
from Chymotrypsinogen Dextrins Emulsified Maltose, Isomaltose, 'Limit'
by Trypsin) Dextrins Fatty Acids, Glycerol,
(iii) Pancreatic Amylase
(iv) Pancreatic Lipase Peptides Monoglycerides, Diglycerides
(v) Carboxypeptidoses and Triglycerides Amino Acids
(Activated from DNA and Dipeptides
Procarboxypeptidases Amino Acids and Dipeptides
by Trypsin)
(vi) DNAse RNA Deoxyribonucleotides
(vii) RNAse Ribonucleotides
Intestinal Glands (i) Intestinal amylase Starch, glycogen Maltose, isoma Itose,
(ii) Maltose dextrins Maltose 'Limit' Dextrins
(iii) Isomaltase Isomaltose 'Limit' Giueose
(iv) 'Limit' Dextrinase Dextrins Sucrose Glucose
(v) Invertase (Sucrase) Lactose Glucose
(Vi) Lactase Emulsified fals Glucose, Fructose
(vii) Intestinal bacteria (Tri, Di-) Glucose, Galactose
(viii)Nucleotidases Monoglycenides) Fotty Acids, Glycerol
(ix) Nucleosidases Nucteotides Nucleosides and Inorganic
Nucleosidases Phosphates
Nitrogeneous Bases, Pentose
sugars



31
 11. Endocrine System and Hormone
 Endocrine System : Under
the endocrine system are
found at the various parts of
the human body. Through
these glands some special
types of fluids are Secreted
which are called hormones.
The hormone is a complex
chemical substance which is
mainly made fro m amino
acid, catecholamine and ste-
roids and plays the key role of
massage camer of the various
organs of the human body,
thus the hormones are the
valuable chemical substances
releases or secrets through the
various glands of the human
body and Cross sectoinal view
of. Human goes to the blood
which Endocrine system circulates in the entire body.
The hormones are the most fundamental fluids respondent for the
growth and development, saftey and behaviour, sexual characteris-
tics and reproductive activities of the human body.
The most important work of the hormone is to maintain a balance
in the inner environment of the body so that metabolic activities,
osmatic pressure etc not to be disturbed in changing situation.
The organs through which hormones are secreted are called duct-
less glands or endocrine glands. Types of glands : There are vari-
ous types of glands which exist in the human body. A brief descrip-
tion of these glands has been given below :
(i) Exocrine gland : The glands of the human body whose se-
creted fluids are transported through the duct to the various or-
gans, called exocrine glands. Thus in the exocrine gland to bring
the hormones to the various organs, ducts are available. Also
through these ducts enzymes are secreted. The milk gland, sweat
gland, salviary gland, mucous gland, tear gland etc are the ex-
amples of exocrine gland.

32
(ii) Endocrine gland: Tnis is basically ductless gland and the
secreted hormones are brought through the blood plasma
to the various parts of the human body. The glands like pi-
tuitary gland, thyorid gland, adrenal gland etc are the ex-
amples of endocrine gland.
(iii)Mixed gland : There exist some glands which are of exo-
crine and endocrine both types and through these glands
the secretion of enzymes and hormones both take place tht
why these are called mixed glands. The pacreas of the hu-
man body is the best example of the mixed gland.
Main endocrine glands and secreted hormones, their
working functions and effect on the human body.
(a) Pituitary gland : This gland is located in a narrow ditch
shaped structure of the bone of skull called sphenoid. The
complete system of the pituitary gland with sphenoid bone
of the skull is called Sellaturcica. The average weight of
the pituitary gland is 0.6 gm and this gland is called Master
gland.
Secreted hormone its working function end effect:
(i) Somatotropic Hormone (STH) : This hormone is directly
respondent for the growth and development of the human body, specially this hormone controls or regu-
lates the sustained growth of the bones. Due to the excess secretion of STH, disorder or deformation
appears in the human body and it is called Gigantism or Acromegaly. Thus the height of the human body is
extremely increased. But due to the lack of STH dwarfism is appeared in the human body.
(ii) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): This hormone provokes and motivates the thyroid gland to se-
crete hormone.
(iii)Adreno Corti Cotropic Hormone (ACTH): This hormone (ACTH) controls or regulates the secretion
activities of the adrenal cortex.
(iv)Gonadotropic Hormone (GTH): This hormone controls the working functions of the reproductive organs
and it is of two types :
(a) Follicle Stimulating Hromone (FSH): This hormone helps in semen reproductive of the seminiferous
tubules of the testes. The FSH also helps in the growth of follicle in the ovary.
(b) Luteiniging Hormone (LH): The LH secretes testostirone and estrogen in the male and female respec-
tively.
(v) Lactogenic Hormone (LTH): This is a milkified hormone and its main work is to secret milk in the female
breast for the babies.
(vi)Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) : The ADH contracts the small blood arteries and due to it the blood pres-
sure of the human body is abruptly enhanced (increased). This hormone is also making a balance in the
water level and osmatic presstire of the human body.
(b) Thyroid gland : It is the largest endecrine gland located in the neck between the trachea and laynx. Con-
trols BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate). BMR is the minimum energy requirements for maintenance of body
during rest dr sleep. For normal human adult, it is 1500 kcal/day.

33
 Secretes : The hormone secreted through it is called thryoxine in which idoine is abundantly found. Thryoxin
Regulates physical, mental and sexual development.
 Working function of thyroxine and its effect: This hormone activates and abruptly increases the cellular respi-
ratory activities and this hormone is directly accountable for the normal and balanced growth of the human body
specially bones, hairs etc. The normal funding of the sex organs depends on its activation. Along with the hor-
mone of pituitary gland the thyroxine controls or regulates the water level balance in the human body.
 Disease occurring due to the deficiency of thryoxine:
(i) Cretinism: This disease occurs in the children due to the lack of the thyroxine hromone. The mental and
physical development of the children is completely disrupted in the critinism.
(ii) Myxodema: This disease occurs in the adultphase in human beings and in it the metabolic activities is
disturbed and consequently the heart beat and the blood pressure of the body abruptly downfall.
(iii)Hypothyroidism: Due to the lack of long duration of the thryoxine this disase occurs. In this disease
normal sexual activities are disrupted and sometimes due to it huamn being becomes dumb or deaf.
(iv)Simple Goiter: This disease is appeared due to the lack of iodine in the food stuffs and the size of the
thyorid gland is extrmely increased. That's why to take the remedial measures iodised edible salt is recom-
mended to the people suffering simple Goiter or goiter.
 Disease occuring due to the excess of the thyroxine :
(i) Toxic Goiter : This disease is appeared due to the excess secretion of the thryoxine in the human body and
in it the heart beat, blood pressure and the rate of respiration of the body are sharply increased.
(ii) Exophthalmic Goiter: This disease occurs aldo due to the excess thyroxine secretion in the human body
and in it eyes swelling take place and sometimes eyes are detached from their cavities. Below the eye ball
a fluid substance mucous is accumulated.
(c) Parathyroid Gland : The parathyroid gland is located in the throat (pharynx) just behind the throyid
gland. Through it two types of hormones are secreted:
(i) Parathyroid Honnone: This hormone is secreted through the parathyroid gland when there exists the
definciency of the calcium in the blood.
(ii) Calcitonin: When the amount of the calcium is excessively increased in the blood then calcitonin
hormone is secreted which is used in controlling the amount of the calcium in the blood of the human
body.
(d) Adrenal Gland : 2, on each kidney. Adrenal gland is also known as 4S glands. (4S stands for Sugar
metabolism, Salt/retention, sex hormone and Source of energy).
The adrenal gland of the human body has two components parts-exterior (Cortex) and interior (Medula).
Cortex : The cortex is vital for the human life and nif is detached from the human body then human beings
be only survive one or two weeks.
Cortex secretes two types of hormones:
(a) Mineralo corticoids: Maintain electrolyle balance in the body and distribution of water to the tissues.
It is also known as salt retaining hormone. It is mainly associted with the reabsoprtion of the salt
through the kidney tubules and to have a balanced control of the another salt level in the human body.
Its hyposcretion results in Addison's disease. In this disease, excessive loss of Na, Cl ions takes place
and level of K ions increases in blood. It hypersecretion leads to retension of Na, Cl ions and/nore
absorption of water.

34
 (b) Gluco corticoids : It influences carbohydrate metabolism and also effect protein and fat metabolism. It
also controls the metabolic activities of the carbohydrates, protein and fat of the human body. Its
hyposeiirBtion leads to fall in glucose level due to which body temperature decreases. Its hypersecre-
tion leads to Cushing Disease in which irregular deposition of fat takes place and glucose level increase
in blood.
(c) Sex hormone: The sex hormone controls the sexual activities of the human body.
 Secreted hormone through the medula and its working function: Through the medula two hormones—
epinephrine and norepinephrine are secreted and both are basically amino acids. Both the hormones work in
sustained and cohesive manner and combindely stimulate the heart muscles and promote the growith of con-
traction. Consquently the blood pressure is shaiply enhanced.
The epinephrine hormone helps in reactivating the stopped heart beat of the human body.
 Fight and Flight Hormoen : The hormone whose secretion takes through the adrenal gland is called fight and
flight hormone.
 Gonads: Under the reproductive gland or Gonad the human organs ovary and testes have been kept. Both
testes and ovaries, in additon to producing and ova, also produce hormones.
(a) Ovary: In lemales, the follicular cells and corpus luteum secretes the following hormones:
(i) Estrogen: Follicular cells produces Oestrogen which controls the female secondary sexual characters
(Broadening of pelvis, development of breasts, growth of uterus and vagina, public hair, onset of men-
strual cycle, etc)
(ii) Progrestron: The progestron hormone along with the estrogen hormone combinedly help in breast
(female chest) growth. Corpus luteum secretes Progesterone which is essential for the completion of
each menstrual cycel. It controls the fin changes in the uterine wall and brings about the attachment of
embryo and causes development of breasts in the later months of pregnancy.
Corups also secretes Relaxin at the end of gestation period, and helps in easy brith by relazing the
uterus and ligaments of the pelvic girdle.
(iii)Relaxin: The hormone produced by the corpus Lutuem and it is directly respondent for the inhibition
of uterine contraction. During the pregenancy in the female the relaxin hormone is present in the ovary
and uterus through which the public symphysis is made soften and the uterine cervice becomes widen.
Thus pelvic girld becomes smooth and falttend which helps in child birth.
(a) Testis (testicle): Its intersitial cells (Leydig's cells) secrete testosterone which is responsible for male,
secondary sxual characters (beard, body hair, deep voice1, muscles, formation of sperms, sexual urge etc.)
 Thymus Gland:
 Situated near the Heart.
 Produces Thymine.
 Plays important role in formation of antibodies in children.
 Decreses in size as sexual maturity increasesas it absorbs GTH, thus preventing development of gonads.
 Pancreas:
 It is an exocrine as well as endocrine gland
 Its endocrine part is known as Islets of langerhance. Its 3 types of cells secrete 3 different hormones.
(i) Beta cells secrete Insulin which controls the amount of sugar in the blood. Its hyposecretion leads to
Diabetes Mellitus.

35
 (ii) Alpha cells secretes Glycogen which incrases blood sugar level.
(iii)Gamma Cells secretes Somatostatin which controls the functioning of alpha and beta cells.
Chemical Nature of Major Hormones
Chemical group Hormone Major Source
Peptides and proteins Growth Hormone Posterior pituitary gland
Oxytocin
Amines ADH (asporessin) Parathyroid gland
Parathormone Thyroid gland
Calcitonin Inslets of Langerhans
Insulin (pancreas)
Glucagon Stomach mucosa
Gastrin Duodenal mucosa
Secretin Adrenal medulla
Amines Adrenaline Sympathetic nervous system
Noradrepaine and
Releasing and inhibiting adrenal medulla
Chemical group Steroids Hormones and factors of the Thyroid gland
hypothalamus Hypothalamus
Fatty acids Folicle Stimulating Hormone Anterior pituitary gland
Hormone
Testosterone
Oestrogen Major Source
Progesterone Testis
Corticosterooids Ovoary and placentea
Prstaglandins Adrenal cortex Many tissues.

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36
 12. Human Excretory System
 Excretory System: Waste materials excreted in animals are of many kind: nitrogenous substances, cabondioxide,
pigments, excess water, etc.
The nitrogenous waste can be excreted in the following farms:
 Ammonia : Highly toxic, soluble in water and has to be immediately excreted In aquatic animals (called
Ammoniotelic).
 Urea : Far less toxic than ammonia. Less water required than ammonia. In mammals, alligators, turtles
(called Ureotelic).
 Uric acid : In animals where conservation of water is needed. In birds, insectrs, land reptiles (called Urico-
telic)
 Excretory System of mammals:
1. Kidney:
 Left kidney is higher than the right kidney.
 A kidney is composed of 1.2 million microscopic structure and functional units called nephrons
oruniniferous tubules.
2. Ureters: Open into urinary bladder.
3. Urinary Bladder:
 Size depends upon the amount of urine in it (upto 700-800 ml)
 The lower part is guarded by 2 sphinctors : inner involuntary and outer voluntary.
4. Urethera
 Leads to the exterior
 In females, it carries only unne. Opens by urinary aperture in the vulva in front of vaginal aperture. In
males it carries urine as well as spermatic fluid.
 Act of passing urine is called Micturition.
 Nephron : Functional unit of kidney. It is a long tube differentiated into 4 regions.
(i) Bowman's Capsule:
 Contains a globular bunch of capillaries, the glomerulus.
 The Bowmans' capsule and the glomerulus together form a globular body called Malpighian body.
 In glomerular filtratle : water (99%), inorganic salts, amino acids, fatty acids, glucose, urea, uric acid,
hippuric acid, hormones, vitamins are present.
(ii) Proximal Convoluated Tubule (PCT):
 Starts.irorn the neck of Bowman's capsule and is highly twisted.
 Almost whole of the glucose and vitamins, about 75% of amino acids, about 70% of Na and K, a large
amount of Ca and Mg and 75% water is absorbed.
(iii)Loop of Henle: U-shaped. Consists of 2 straight limbs: descending and ascending. No water is absorbed in
ascending iimb.
(iv)Distal Convoluted Tubufe (DCT):
 Greately twisted.
 Reabsorbs some Na and Ct.

37
  Leads to Collecting Tubules which leads to ureters.
 The yellow colour of urine is caused by the pigment urochorme, which is a breakdown product of haemoglobin
from worn out RBCs.
 The urine on standing gives a pungent smell. It is due to conversion of urea into ammonia by bacteria.
 pH of urine is between 5-8. Average pH is 6.0 (slightly acidic.)

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38
 13. BALANCED DIET
The components of food are : Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitmins, water and rouhage. If all the compo-
nent present in optimum proportions and quantity for maintaining the body in perfect state of health activity and
development than the food is called balanced diet.
(i) Carbohydrates: These are organic compound in which the ratio of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen is involved
1 gm gives 17 kJ of energy. These are classiefied into three main groups :

(a) Monosaccharides: These are the simplest carbohydrates (e.g. glucose, fructose, galactose etc.). These
have six carbon atoms.
(b) Diasachharides: Consists of 2 units of monosarccharides (e.g. sucrose, lactose and maltose)
(c) Polysaccharides: These are compound of sugar which are formed due to joining large number of
monosacchrides. Ex. Starch, Glycogen; Cellulose, Chitin etc.
Functions of Carbohydrates in human body :
 Works as fuel.

39
  Lactose of milk is formed from glucose and yalactoe.
 Glucose is used for the formation of fat and amino acids.
Sources of Carbohydates: Wheat, Ribe, Maize, Sweet potato etc.
(ii) Proteins:
 Made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulphur.
 Important for growth and repair of the body. (75% of our body is proteins only)
 Made up of Amino acids. 22 type of proteins is necessary for human body.
Functions:
 It takes part in the formation of cells, protoplasm and tissues.
 In case of necessity these provides energy to the body.
 Controls the development of genetic characters.
 These are helpful in conduction also.
 About 70-10 gms of proteins are dally needed.
Sources: Groundnuts, soyabean, pulses, lean meats, fish, eggs, milk etc.
Protein Energy Malnutrition: In the age group of 1-5 years.
Its is primarily due to inadequate in take of food (particularly proteins) both in quantiy an quality. It causes :
Kwashiorkor: Means neglected child (when mother stops breast feeding).
Symptoms : Abdomen and feet sweless skin become, dark and scaly, enlarged liver, anaemia. In infants under
1 year of age.
Measures:
 Deficiency of proteins, carbohydrates and fats
 Symptoms : Losing of body weight, wasting of muscles, ribs look prominent.
 In children between 6 months and 3 years.
(iii)Fats: Fat is an ester of glucerol and fatty acids. Less oxygen than carbohydration.
Normally fat remains as solid at 20°C temp but if it is in liquid form at this temp. then this is called oil. Thesre
are two types of fatty acid :
(i) Saturated fatty acid : solids at room temperature.
(ii) Unsaturated fatty acid : liquid at room temperature.
Functions:
(i) Provides energy to the body.
(ii) Makes food materials tasty.
(iii)Protect different parts of the body form in.
(iv)Vitamins: Was invented by Sir F.G. Hopkins. The term vitamin was coined by Funck. On the basis of solubil-
ity, vitamin arte of two types:
(i) Vitamins soluble in water: Vitamin B and C.
(ii) Vitamin soluble in Fat: Vitamin A, D, E & K.

40
 DISEASE CAUSED BY DEFICIENCY OF VITAMINS & THEIR SOURCES
Vitamin Chemical Name Disease Source
Vitamin-A Retinol Colour-blindness Milk, Eg.
Vitamin-B1 Thainine Beri-Beri Ricerbran, Whole whole wheat, Groundnut
Vitamin-B2 Riboflavin Cracking of skin Meat, Green Veg.
Vitamin-B6 Pyridoxine Anaemia Milk cereals, Meat
Vitamin-B12 Cyanocobalamine Pernicious Anaemia Meat, Fish Eggs, Milk
Vitamin-C Ascorbic Acid Scruvy, Swelling of Gums Lemon, Orange, Citrus Fruit
Vitamin-D Cholecalciferol Rickets (In children) Fish oil, egg, york
Vitamin-E Tocopherol Less Fertility Green vegetables
Vitamin-K Phylloquinone Delayed blood clotting Carrots, Cabbage, tomatoes
 Cobalt is found in vitamin S-12;
(v) Minerals : Mineral is a Homogeneous inorganic material needed for body. This control the metabolism of body.
(vi)Water:
 65-75% of body weight.
 In controls the temp. Of our body sweating and vaporizing.
 It is the important way, of excretion of the excretory subtances from the body.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
Diesease Affected Organ Symptoms
Tuberculosis Lungs Repeated Cough; High fever
Cholera Intestine Vomitin, Dehydration, Muscular Cramp
Leprosy Vervous system, skin Spots on body, nervous affectecd
Pneumonia Lungs High fever
Typhoid Intestine High fever, Headache

VIRAL DISEASES
Disease Virus Symptoms
Common cold Rhinovirus Headache, Watery eyes, sneezing, cough
Dengue Fever RNA containing dengue virus High fever, backache, pain behind the eye-ball
Transmitted by female tiger
mosquito aedes aegypti during
day time
Hepatitis or Jaundice Hepatitis—A & B virus Loss of appetite, nausea, yellow eyes and
yellow urine
Aids HIV Weak immune system

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 Viral diseases in animals:
Animals Viruses Diseased
Cow Herpes virus Herpes
Cow Blue tung virus blue tung
Cow Variyola vaccinia Small pox
Buffalow Poxverdi orthopox Small pox
Domestic animals Rabdovergi vasculo virus Fever
Dog Sterit virus Rables
Cow & buffalow Picomaverdi aphtho Mouth and gland infection
Cow & buffalo Paramixoverdi morbeli virus Renderpest disease

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42
 PART-BOTANY
Botany is Study of different types of trees, plants and their functions is called botany.
Father of Botany: Theopharastus.

14. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTAE

Plant kingdom is classified in two groups: (i) Cryptogems (Plant without seed) (ii) Phanerogams (seed bearing
plant)
(i) Cryptogams: (a) Thalphyta (Algae, Fungi), (b) Bryophyta and (c) Pteridophyta
(a) Thallophyta:
 Largest group of plant kingdom.
 Plants are not differentiated into root, stem and leave etc.
 There is no conducting tissue
Algae: Study of Algae is called psychology, phloem does not contain companion cells, eg. Ferns, Azolla,
Pteridium.
Fungi: Study of fungi is called mycology.
It is chlorophyll less. There is no central carrier tissue.
Accumulated food in fungi remains as glycogen.
Cell wall is made up of chitin. e.g. Albungo, Phytohthora, Mucor etc.
(b) Brypophyta:
 Lack of Xylem & Phloem tissue.
 Lack of true roots, stems and leaves.

43
  Also called Amphibian category of plant kingdom.
(c) Pteriodophyta:
 Found in wet shady resions, forests and mountains.
 Body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
 Conducting tissues are well developed but xylem does not contain vessels.
(ii) Phanerogams: (a) Gymnospermae (b) Angiospormae (Monocotyledons, Dictoyledons)
(a) Gymnosperm:
 Found in the forms of trees and bush.
 Pollination takes places through air.
 The longest plant of the plant kingdom, sequoia gigentia comes under it Its height is 120 m This is also
called Red wood of California.
 The smallest plant is Zaimia Pygmia.
Importance of gymnosperms:
 As a food.
 Vapour Oil: We get trap in oil from the trees of pine, cedrus oil from deodar trees etc.
 Tannin: It is useful in makinq ink.
 Resin: It is extracted from some conical plants which are used in making varnish, polish, paint etc.

 It has chlorophyll and is autotropic.

 Can be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
(b) Angiosperm:
 Seeds are inside the fruits.
 There is seed wall in seeds. On the basis of number of cotyledons plants are divided into two categories
: (i) Monocotyledon (ii) Dicootyledon.
 Monocotyledon
Category Main Plant
Liliace Garlic, Onion
Palmae Nul, Palm, Coconul
Gramnacease Whal, maize, Bamboo

 Dicotyledon
Category Main Plant
Cruciferae Radish, Trimuph, Mustard
Mavaceae Jute, Ladyfinger
Solanaceae Potato, Chilly, Brinjal, Tomato

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44
 15. PLANT MORPHOLOGY
Study of forms and Features of different parts of plant like roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits etc. is called mor-
phology.
(i) Root: Desfiendingpart of the plant which develops from radical. Roots are of two types: (i) Tap root
(ii) Adventious root
Modification of tap roots: (a) Conical: eg. Carrot (b) Napiform : Carrot, turnip, beet (c) Fusiform : Radish

Modifications of Adventitious roots

Roots Examples Roots Examples
Fibrous root Onion Aerial root Ocrede
Leafy root Briophylem Assimilatory Tinspora
Climbing root Betal leaf, plasma Parasite root Kascutta
Buttress root Terminolia Moniliform Grapes, bitter gurad
Sucking root Cuscuta Modulose root Mongo turmeric
Resiratory root Juicia Prop root Banyan tree
Epiphytic root Orcede Stilt root Maize, sugar cane
Fasciculated root Dahlia

(ii) Stem: Part of plant which grows towards light.

Modification of stems.
Underground stem:
(a) Tuber: Potato
(b) Crown: Colocasia, Saffron
(c) Bulb: Onion, Garlic
(d) Rhizome: Turmeric, Giner
(iii)Leaf: Its main function is to made food through photosynthesis.
(iv)Flower: Rebroductive part of the plant.
Calyx, Corolla, Andirocium and cynocium are jthe parts Off lower
(a) Androcecium: Stamens are present, poilengrains are found in other.
Gynoecium: The Gynocecium includes all thefemale reproductive organ of a flower it is formed of a single
or several pistils. Each Pistil is compbsed of one or more fused carpels and produce the ovvules. There are
three parts of carpel: (i) Ovary (ii) Styhle (iii) Stigma.
Fertilization: Pollen tube reaches the embryo after entering into the ovule through a pore called micropyle,
after that male nucleus fuse with egycell. This process in plant leads to the fertiliation Formation of Fruit:
Fruit is matured or ripened ovary developed after fertilization.
It developed from ovary. These are divided into three types.

45
 (i) Simple Fruits : Banana, Guava etc.
(ii) Aggregate fuits : Strawberry, custard
(iii)Composite fuits: Jack fruits, Mulberry etc.

Fruits and edible parts

Fruits Edible parts Fruits Edible parts
Magno Mid, Pericarp Grape Paricarp
Apple Thalamus Jack fruit Sepals, bract, seeds
Pear Thalamus Wheat Endosperm and embrya
Tomato Pertcrap and Perisperm Corinader Thalamus and seeds
Litchi Pulpy aerial Custard apple Pericrap
Coconut Endosperm Water chest nut Seed leaves
Guava Pericarp Lemon Juicy pore
Papaya Mid. Pericarp Chinese date Epicarp and Mesocarp
Ground nut Seed leaves and embryo Mulberry Bract, sepals and seeds
Wood apple Mesocarp and endocarp

Plant Tissue
(i) Meristematic Tissue: Growing regions of the plants are called meristems. Specific features of the meristem-
atic tissue : Round, oval or multi-sided.
Wall is thin and cytoplasm is homogenous.
Cell contains dense cytoplasm and a single large nucleus.
Lack of intercelular spaces between the cells.
Meristematic tissue can be divided into following parts : (a) Apical (b) Lateral (c) Intercalary
(a) Apical Meristems: Found in the root and stem apex. Initial growth takes place due to there.
(b) Lateral meristems: Due to the division of these tissues growth of roots and stems takes places.
(c) Intercalary meristem: Found at the base of inter-node. Its importance is for those plants where apex part
is are eaten by vegetarian animals.
(ii) Permanent Tissue : Those tissues which have attained a definition forms of various works and have lost their
capacity of division are combined to make permanent tissue.
There cells can be alive or dead. Can be divided into following parts:
(a) Simple Tissue : The permanent tissue which is mado up of similar type of cells. Example : Parenchyma,
Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma.
(b) Complex tissue: The permanent tissue which is made up of one or more types of cells is called complex
tissue. Example Xylem, Phloem.
Xylem: Usually called wood. This is conducting tissue.
Conduction of water and minerals. To provide mechanical consistency.
Pholem : To condcut the food
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46
 16. NUTRITION IN PLANT
Nutrition: The word Nutrition originages from the word nutrient and it is the substances which is obtained from
the environment or surroundings. The nutrients Substance obtained by the living beings (organisms) from the
environment is utilized in the form of source of energy of in biosynthesis among taxonomical factors, called
nutrition.
Types of Nutrition: The nutrition process on the basis of food prepartion among the living beings or orgnisms is
of two types:
(i) Autotrophic nutriton : In such type of nutrition living beings prepare their own food. Almost green plants,
blue-green algae, some bacteria and almost unicellular organisms take part in such type of nutrition called
autotrophic nutrtion.
(ii) Heterotropic nutrition : In such type of nutrition living beings do not prepare their own food and acquire their
food from another living beings called heterotrophic nutrition. These types o fnutritions occur in almost crea-
tures fungi and some unicellular creatrues etc.
Nutrition in plants and photosynthesis: Almost green plants are autrotrophic and they prepare or synthesize their
food by the process of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis and the Components involve in it: The process through which the food is prepared by the plant
from chlorophyll, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) in the presence of sunlight is called photosynthesis.
Thus the living cells of the plant by the help of chlorophyll and sunlight absorb CO2 from atmosphere and then in
the presence of water (H2O) carbohydrates is formed. The chemical reactions involve in the photosynthesis is:
sunlight
6CO 2  12H2O  C6 H12O6  6H 2O  6O 2
chlorophyll
Various components involved in photosynthesis:
(i) Chlorophyll: The metal magnesium is found in the chlorophyll of plant leave and in the nucleus of the chloro-
phyll one atom of the magensium exists. The chmical substance chloroplast is also called the nucleus of pho-
tosynthesis. Green colour of plant is due to the presence of Chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs the violet, blue
and red colour of light. The substances chlorophyll is the pigments which are found in the cell organelles of the
chloroplast. Thus the plant cell which has chlorophyll (almost found in the leaves of the plants) only takes part
in photosynthesis process. The leaves of the plants are called photosynthetic organs. The microorganisms like
algae and hydria are usually found nin water and the entire bodies of these microorganisms are photosynthetic.
The chloroplast is surrounded by continous double elastic and composite membranes and in the cells of higher
ptants; Chloroplast is in the form of series of layer wise structure called Grana. The internal layers of the
chloroplast touch and pass through the grana which is called stroma. Thus the process of photosynthesis occurs
between the part of grana and stroma in the chlorophyll.
(ii) Carbon dioxide (CO2): During the process of photosynthesis for the formation of glucoe (C6H12O6) CO2 is
utilized as raw material or basic component. The plants which are found on the land surfaces acquire CO2 from
atmosphere, while aquatic plants acquire CO2 from the water, which is dissolved in
it. When the intensity of sunlight is lesser (usually in the morningand evening) then CO2 relased due to the
respiratory activities of the plant cells and the required amount of CO2 for the photosynthesis becomes equal
and it is called compensation point.

47
(iii)Water (H2O): The substance water for the photosynthesis process used as raw material and the water is ab-
sorbed by the roots of the plant through the process of osmosis. The water is transported from the roots to
leaves by the vascular tissue xyiem and ultimately water is reached up to the photosynthesis cells. Thus through
the water disassociation hydrogen is obtained.
(iv)Sunlight: Usually the process of photosynthesis done in the presence of sunlight by the plants, but some
artificial source of light is also able to perform this process. Also the photosynthesis process is completed only
by the visible light and violet, blue and red colours are absorbed by the chlorophyll Photosynthatic activity for
the violet coloured light is minimum while for the red colouored light it is maximum.
 Photosynthesis process and its various phases: The process of photosynthesis is an oxiation reduction pro-
cess in which oxygen (O2) is formed by the oxidation of water (H2O), while sugar (glucose), starch etc are
formed by the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2). Usually there are two phases in which photosynthesis pro-
cess occurs:
(i) Photochemical reaction: This process (reaction) occurs in the grana of the chlorophyll and the reaction
involves is called Hill reaction. In this process water (H2O) disassociates and forms H and electron and for
this decomposition of water (H2O) energy is obtaind from light. Ultimately APT and NADPH are eman-
cipated in the form of energy.
(ii) Chemical dark reaction: This process (reaction) occurs in the stroma of the chlorophyll and for this
reaction energy is supplied by the photochemical reaction and that's why it is called dark reaction. In this
reaction the produced energy in the forms of APT and NADPH are utilisied in the synthesis of carbohy-
drates from CO2.
 The factors influencing the process of photosynthesis:

(i) Light: The process of photosynthesis only occurs for violet, blue and red light, while it doesn't occur for
ultraviolet, green, yelow and infrared light. For the low intesnity of light photosynthesis activity is maxi-
mum, but as the intensity of the light incrass photosynthesis activity decreases.
(ii) Temperature: As the process of photosyntehsis is the complex chemical reactoin of the various enzymes
and these enzymes only being normal to participate in the chemical reaction up to a moderate and opti-
mum temperature. Thus photosynthetic activity incrases from 0°C to 37°C but 37°C onwards such activ-
ity abruptly.
(iii) Carbon dioxide (CO2) : Up to a definite level on increasing the concentration of CO2, photosynthetic
activity increases, but after the certain limit, the incrases of its concentration doesn't affect the photosyn-
thetic activity.
(iv) Water (H2O): Due to the lack of water the photosynthetic activity decreases because of steep fall of the
rate of evaporation. In fact the pores of the plant leaves become partially close and utlimately the commu-
nication of CO2 is disrupted through the leaves.



48
 17. PLANT HORMONES

(i) Auxins : Discovered by Darwin in the year 1880. It controls the growth in the plants.
Main Functions are:
 Prevents the separation of leaves.
 Save the crops from falling.
(ii) Gibberellins: Discovered by japanese Scientist Kurosavefn 1926.
Main Functions are :
 Turns the dwarf plants into long one.
 Helps in breaking the dormancy of plants.
 Motivates the speed to be sprout.

49
(iii)Capital:
Main Functions are :
 Works in coordination with auxins.
 Helps in cell-division.
 Helps in making of RNA and Protein.
(iv)ABA (Abscisic Acid): Discovered by games and adicote.
Main Functions are :
 Keeps the seeds and bud in ctormant condition.
 This hormone is against the growth.
 Plays main role in separation of leaves.
 Delays in flowering of long, day plant.
(v) Ethylene : This is the only hormone which is found in gaseous form.
Main Functions are :
 Helps in ripening the fruits,.
 Increases the number of female flowers.
 Motivates the separation of leaves, flowers and fruits.
(vi)Florigens:
 It is formed ih leaves but helps in blooming of the flowers.
 It is alsocafled flowering hormones.
(vii) Traumatic:
 This is a type of dicarboxylic acid.
 It is formed in injured cells by which the injury of plants is healed.


50
18. PLANT DISEASES

51
 Viral disease in plants :
Plants Diseases Plants Diseases
Tomato Twisted leaf diseases Beet root Twisted Apex
Lemon Yellowing of veins Lady finger Yellow vein mosaic
Almond Streak pattern Sugarcane Grass shoot disease
Mustard Mosaic Papaya Mosaic
Seasamum Phyllody Banana Mosaic
 Other viral diseases:
 Mosaic disease of tobacco : In this diseases leaves get shricked and become small.
The chlorophyll of leaves get destroyed. The factor of this disease is tobacco mosaic virus (TMV).
Control: Affected plant shoule be burnt.
 Bunchy of banana : Caused of banana virus, In this disease plants become dwarf and all the leaves get
accumulated like a rose on the branch.
 Dacterial disease : Will be in potato, Also known as ring disease. Ring is formed on the xylem. Factor is
pseudomonas solonacearum bacteria In this disease conduction system of plant is affected.
 Black Arm of cotton: Factor is xanthomonas bacteria.
Symptoms: A water body (brown) is formed on the leaves.
 Bacterijal blight of rice: The disease is caused by xanthomonas oryzae bacteria. Yellow greenish spot is
seen on both side of leaves. Vascular bundles get blocked due to bacterial growth.
 Tundus disease of wehat: The factor of thisdisease are corinobacterium titrici bacteria and enzuinal Titriki
Nematode. Lower parts of the eaves are faded and turned.
 Other Disease in plants
Disease (Plants) Causal organisms (fungals)
Wart disease of potato Synchytrium endobioticum
Lab blight of potato Phytophythora infestans
Green ear disease of bajra Sclerospora gramicola
Rust of wheat Puccinia graminis tritici
Loose smut of wheat Ustilogo nuda trici
Tikka disease of groundnut Corcospora personata
Red rot of sugarcane Colltotrichun falcatum
Brown leaf spot of rice Helmin thosporium oryzea
Erogt disease of rye Cleviceps purpurea
Powdery mildew of wheat Erysiphe graminis tritici


52
 19. ECOLOGY

Study of inter relationship between living organisms and their environment.

(I) Biotic components : (i) Producer (ii) Consumer (iii) Decomposer
(i) Producer: These components make their own food. Eg. Green plants.
(ii) Consumer: Those components that consumes the food made by the plants. These are of three types
(a) Primary Consumers: That leaves on green plants of some parts of them.
(b) Secondary Consumers: That deponds on primary consumer: Fox, Wolf, Peacock etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers: Those organisms who depends on the secondary consumers: Tiger, Lion, Cheetah
etc.
(iii)Decomposers: Fungi & bacteria are main organisms of this category.
(II) Abiotic components: (i) Carbonic substance (ii) Non-carbonic substance (iii) Climatic factor. Eg. Water,
light, temperature, air, humidity, minerals etc.
(III) Food Chain: Transfer of energy from the producer through a series of organisms.
(IV) Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen fixation is a process in which free atmospheric nitrogen is converted by living
organisms into nitrogenous compound that can be used by plant.
(a) Ammonification: Formation of ammonia from organic compound like proteins and nucleic acid by
microorganisms.
(b) Nitrification: A process in which ammonia is converted into nitrates and nitrates by nitrobacteria.
(c) Denitrification: It is the process of conveerting fix nitrogen like nitrates, nitrites and ammonia into free
nitrogen by deritrifying bacteria eg. pseudonymouna.

53
(V) Important Facts:
 Largest Angiosperm Tree—Eucalyptus
 Longest tree in the world—Sequoia giganteum
 Smallest seed—Orchid
 Smallest flower—Wolfia
 Largest flower—Reflexia arnoldii
 Largest fruit—Lodoica
 Plant with largest leaf—Victoria Regia
 Smallest (in shape) Angiosperm plant—Lemhi
 The smallest cell—Mycoplasma gallisepticum
 Coffee giving plant—Coffea Arabica
(VI) Virus :
 During the test of mosaic disease on tobacco Russian scientist, Ivanovsky discovered the virus.
 Virus are connecting link between living and non-living.
Characteristics of virus:
 Became active inside a living cell.
 Caused diseases like bacteria and fungi.
 In man virus causes disease like mumps, chicken pox, hepatitis, polio, AIDS and Herpes.
(VII)Bacteria:
 Robert Koch discovered the bacteria of tuberculosis (TB).
 Louis Pasteur vaccine of Rabis and Pateurization of Milk.
 On the basis of shape bacteria are of following types:
(i) Bacillus : This is rod-like or cylinderical.
(ii) Round or coccus: These are round and the smallest bacteria.
(iii)Comma shaped or Vibrio: Like the ENG sign. eg. Vibrio, Cholerae etc.
(iv)Spirillum: Spring or screw shaped.



54
 Content
1. Light

2. Heat

3 Wave

4. Electric Current

5. Nuclear physics

6. Unit of Measurement

7. Motion

8. Work, Enrgy and Power

9. Gravitation

10. Pressure

11. Floatation

12. Surface Tension

13. Viscosity

14. Elasticity

15. Simple Harmonic Motion

16. Sound

17. Static Electricity

18. Magnetism

19. Electronics

20. Scientific Instruments

21. Lever

1
 Light
 Light is an electromagnetic radiation within a certain Refractive Index:
portion of electromagnetic spectrum. It lies between the  Light speed is less in a medium with the high refractive
infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet index.
(with shorter wavelengths).  If the refractive index of a medidum is  and light speed
 Its wavelength ranges from 3900 Å to 7800 Å or about is u and c in that medium and vacuum respectively then
4 × 10–7 to 7 × 10–7 metre. c

 It is invisible in itself but helps in visibility of matter. u
 Thus, the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to its
 It travels in a straight line. velocity in a specified medium is known as the refrac-
 It can travel through vacuum (sound waves cannot do tive index of that medium.
so). (a) Refractive index of water-1.33
 Light has dual nature: (b) Refractive index of glass-1.50
 It is represented by Greek letter- (  )
(a) Particle nature– behaves in the form of particles.
 Since the light speed is maximum in vacuum, so the value
of the refractive index of any medium is always more
than 1in relation to vacuum.
 Refractive index is also called optical density.
 Minimum the speed of light in a material, maximum is
its optical density.
Refraction of Light:

(b) Wave nature– behaves in the form of waves.

 Light rays travel in a straight line in a homogenous me-

dium.
 When light rays enter from on transparent medium to
Speed of light in different mediums another transparent medium it deviates from its original
path.
SI.No. Medium Speed of light in m/s  This phenomenon is called refraction.
1. Vaccum 3 × 108  The light rays passing in the first medium is called inci-
dent rays.
2. Water 2.25 × 108
 Light rays which enter into next medium is called re-
3. Glass 2 × 108 fractive rays.
4. Diamond 1.24 × 108  Incident point is the point at which a light ray enters in
an optical system.
 Above chart shows that light speed differs in different
 The angle of incidence is the angle between a ray inci-
mediums.
dent on a surface and the line perpendicular to the sur-
 Light speed is maximum in vacuum.
face at the point of incidence, called the normal.

2
 Angle of refraction is the angle between the normal  Speed of violet light is minimum and speed of red light
line and refractive ray on the surface. is maximum in the glass.
 By experiments it has been observed that when light ray  So the refractive index of glass is maximum for violet
enters from low-density medium to higher density me- light and minimum for red light and the violet light de-
dium it bends towards the normal line while entering viates most and red light deviates least.
from higher density medium to low-density medium it  Violet ray is with lowest wavelength and highest fre-
goes far from the normal line. quency while red ray is with highest wavelength and low-
Examples of Refractive Phenomenon: est frequency.
(i) An immersed rod in water seems small and bent at the Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection:
surface when it is observed from outside.
(ii) A coin within a pot with water seems above from its
original position.
(iii) Twinkling of stars.
Refraction of light in a Prism:
 Prism is a homogenous transparent medium surrounded
by plane surface at an acute angle.
 Generally it is made up of glass.
 In the above figure, light ray AB after falling on refrac-
tive surface PQ of the prism, refracted in BC direction
bending towards normal line EBF. Refracted ray BC on  Critical angle (c ) is the angle of incidence beyond
surface emerges out in the air in CD direction going away
which rays of light passing through a denser medium to
from normal line GCF. Thus, ABCD is the path of light
the surface of a less dense medium are no longer re-
in Prism.
fracted but totaly reflected.
Dispersion of Light:
 Its value depends upon the nature of both mediums and
color of rays.
 For critical angle light must pass from a denser medium
to rarer medium.
 For glass-air surface the value of the critical angle is
approximately 42° and for the water-air surface it is
48.6°.
 The complete reflection of light ray reaching an inter-
face with a less dense medium when the angle of inci-
dence exceeds the critical angle is known as total inter-
 White light of the sun is a mixture of seven (7) different nal reflection.
colors.  Mirage formation is a result of the refraction and the
 These are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange & total internal reflection of light in the air.
red (VIBGYOR). Reflection:
 The separation of visible light into its different colors is
known as dispersion.
 In spectrum violet color is at lower position and the red
color is at the upper position.
 It shows that violet ray dispersed maximum and disper-
sion of red ray is minimum.
 Speed of different colors of light are same in vacuum
and in the air but differs in matters.
 Thus the refractive index of any matter differs for dif-
ferent colors of light.

3
 When light falls on the surface it may be absorbed, trans-  Concave mirrors have inwards curved reflecting surface.
mitted or reflected.  Dentists use concave mirror for the examination of
 Reflection is when light bounces off an object. patient's teeth producing big images of teeth.
 Matters with polished and shining surface reflects moer  Concave mirror are used as a reflector, for obtaining a
light than the rough surface of the matter. sharp beam of light in torches, headlight of vehicles and
 Silver is the better reflector of light. searchlights.
Mirror :  Concave mirrors are also used for shaving to get clear
 A smooth well polished reflecting surface is called the image of face, etc.
Mirrors are of two types- Convex Mirror
(i) Plane Mirror
(ii) Spherical Mirror
Plane Mirror–
 A plane mirror is a thin, flat and smooth sheet of glass
with a shining layer of silver on one side.
 The mirror used to see the face is a plane mirror.
 Our face image formed in the plane mirror can not be
obtained on screen, it can only be observed in the mir-
ror.
 So, the image formed in a plane mirror is an example of
 Convex mirrors have outward curved refletive surface.
virtual image.
 It is used as rear-view side mirrors in vehicles.
 Such an image is also known as imaginary or unreal
Lens:
image.
 Lens is a homogenous medium surrounded by two
 The size of the image formed in the mirror is just equal
curved surfaces or one curved and another plane sur-
to the size of the object.
face.
 The image and objects are at the same distance from the
 Curved surface may be spherical, cylindrical or ellipti-
mirror at opposite sides.
cal, but these are mostly spherical.
 The image is a laterally inverted mirror image of the
 Lens is of two types-
object. If a person is reflected in a place mirror, the im-
age of his right hand appears to be the left hand of the (i) Convex Lens
image. (ii) Concave Lens.
Spherical Mirror– Convex Lens–
 A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the shape of a
piece cut out of a spherical surface.
These are of two types–
(i) Concavs Mirror
(ii) Convex Mirror
Concave Mirror

 Convex lens is thick in center but thin at corner.

 Convex lens is also known as a converging lens because
it converges the parallel light rays at one point. Its focal
length is positive. Objects appear closer and larger and
their images are real and inverted through a convex lens.
 Convex lens is used to correct far-sightedness/hyper-
metropia, an eye defect in which near objects are not
clearly visible but long-distance objects are clearly vis-
ible.

4
Concave Lens– Scattering :

 Concave lens is thin at the centre but thick at the corner.

 Convex lens is also known as a converging lens because
it converges the parallel light rays at one point. Its focal
length is positive. Objects appear closer and larger and
their images are real and inverted through a convex lens.
 Scattering is the phenomenon by which a beam of light
 Convex lens is used to correct far-sightedness/hyper-
is redirected in many different directions when it inter-
metropia, an eye defect in which near objects are not
acts with aprticle of matter.
clearly visible but long-distance objects are clearly vis-
ible.  Scattering occurs when a particle of light is fully ab-
sorbed and then emitted, while reflection is when a wave/
Concave Lens-
particle is simply reflected off the surface without inter-
 Concave lens is thin at the centre but thick at the corner.
acting.
 It is also known as a divergent lens because it diverges
 Light of shorter wavelength is scattered much more than
the parallel light rays. Its focal length is negative. Ob-
the light of longer wavelength.
jects appear smaller and farther through the concave lens
 Color of sky appears to blue due to the scattering of
and their images are virtual.
light.
 Concave lens is used to correct hear-sightedness/myo-
pia an eye defect in which far objects are not clearly
visible but near objects are clearly visible.

5
 Heat
Heat Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit Scale.
 Heat is that energy which transfers from one system to  A Temperature C is at the Celsius scale & F on Fahren-
another system as a result of their difference in tempera- C F  32
ture. heit scale then 
5 9
 Its SI unit is Joule. Temperature effects on matter:
 Generally, calorie is also used as a unit of heat.  By the increase in temperature solid state converts into
Temperature: liquid state and liquid state converts into a gaseous state
 Temperature is a thermal state of an object, which ex- while a decrease in temperature, gaseous form converts
presses the direction of flow of heat. into liquid form and liquid converts into a solid form.
 Heat always transfer from a substance of higher tem- (i) Melting:
perature to a substance of lower temperature.  A process in which solid converts into liquid by heating.
Measurement of temperature: The temperature at which solid matter melts and con-
 Thermometer is an apparatus used for measuring the verts into a liquid at atmospheric pressure is known as
temperature. its melting point. For example- ice melts at 0°C into
 To meausre temperature, following thermometers are in water. So, the melting point of ice is 0°C.
use-  Different solids have a different melting point. For ex-
(i) Celsius (Centigrade) Scale: ample-
The melting point of ice – 0°C
The melting point of wax – 63°C
The melting point of Iron – 15.35°C
 The melting point of any solid shows the extent of the
force of attraction between their particles (atoms or
molecules). The high melting point of solid shows that
it has a high force of attraction between particles.
(ii) Boiling:
 Process in which Liquid converts into vapours fastly
for heating is known as boiling.
 The temperature at which liquid boils and converts into
vapours very fastly at atmopheric pressure is termed as
 A scale of temperature in which 0°C represents the melt- boiling point.
ing point of ice and 100°C represents the boiling point  Different liquids have different boiling points.
of water. For example–
(ii) Kelvin Scale: Alcohol – 78ºC
 On Kelvin Scale, ice melting point is 273K while the Water – 100°C
boiling point of water is 373K. Mercury – 357°C
 It is clear from above that 0°C temperature on the Cel- (iii) Condensation:
sius scale is equal to 273K on the Kelvin scale.
 The condensation process is the change of physical con-
 So, temperature on Kelvin scale = temperature on Cel- dition of matter from gas to liquid and it is the contrast
sius scale + 273 phenomenon of vaporization.
K = C + 273 (iv) Freezing:
(iii) Fahrenheit Scale:  It is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid
 On this scale melting point of Ice is 32°F and boiling when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point
point of water is 212°F is mentioned. and this process is the contrast of melting.

6
 On cooling a liquid, the temperature at which it turns Evaporation:
into a solid is known as its freezing point.  The process in which liquid turns into vapours below its
 The freezing point of water is 0°C. boiling point is termed as evaporation. It may occur at
 The freezing point of the liquid and the melting point of room temperature.
solid is the same. For example - water freezes at 0°C  Wet clothes dry due to evaporation of water.
and ice melts at 0°C i.e. both points are same.  The pond water dries up by evaporation of water.
Latent Heat:  Temperature increase enhances the rate of evaporation.
 The heat required to turn a solid into a liquid or vapour  The rate of evaporation of any liquid is maximum at its
or a liquid into vapour, without change of temperature boiling point.
is known as latent heat.
 In case of low humidity in the air, the evaporation rate is
 Latent heat is of two types–
high and water evaporates very soon, while higher hu-
(i) Latent heat of melting. midity in the air, results into a low rate of evaporation.
(ii) Latent heat of vaporization. Cooling by Evaporation:
Latent Heat of Melting–  A liquid filled in the pot when evaporates, it receives
 Required energy converting for solid into liquid phase latent heat of evaporation and the pot becomes cool.
is called latent heat of melting. The value of latent heat  A good example of cooling by evaporation is cooling of
of ice is 3.34 × 105 Joule/kg. earthen pots.
 When water turns into vapour, it absorbs the latent heat.
 The earthen pitcher has many minute pores in its wall.
By experiments, it has been observed that burning from
The water diffuses out from the pores and evaporates
steam is more unendurable painful than burning from
continuously, The required heat for evaporation is taken
boiling water, although both are at the same tempera-
from the water itself, it leads to a lowering of tempera-
ture i.e. at 100ºC.
ture in the remaining amount of water.
 Steam has more latent heat in compare to boiling water.
 Synthetic clothes such as polyesters are unable to ab-
So when steam falls on the skin it forms water after con-
sorb water in excess quantity, so these are unable to pro-
densation, it releases 22.5 ×105 joule/kg heat more than
vide cooling to our body. Due to this reason, cotton
boiling water. Due to emitting more heat by steam than
clothes are given priority in the summer season.
boiling water, steam creates more unendurable pain.
 The fan increases the rate of evaporation os sweat so we
Sublimation:
feel the cooling.
 On heating when a solid changes directly into vapour
 In Desert Room Coller, the cooling effect is produced
and on cooling when vapour changes directly into solid
due to evaporation of water. It cools moare in hot and
then that phenomenon is known as sublimation. Some
dry days because in hot days, higher temperature in-
substances having this property are Ammonium chlo-
creases the rate of evaporation.
ride, Iodine, Camphor and Nephthalene, etc.

7
 Wave
Wave :  It originates only on the surface layer of liquids.
 Wave involves the transfer of energy without the trans-  Electromagnetic waves such as light are also transverse
fer of matter. In conclusion, a wave can be described as waves.
a disturbance that travels through a medium, transfer-
ring energy form one location (its source) to another lo-  In transverse wave, maximum displacement in upward
cation without transfer of matter. side from the equilibrium state is termed as crest while
 Waves are of two types: maximum displacement in the downward side is termed
1. Mechanical Waves. as trough. The crest is the top of the wave and trough is
2. Electromagnetic Waves. the bottom.
I. Mechanical Waves:  The distance between one wave crest to next wave creat
 Mechanical wave is a wave that is an oscillation of mat- or one trough to next trough is known as wavelength.
ter, and therefore transfers energy through a medium.  Wavelength is represented by Greek word '  '.
 While waves can move over long distances, the move-
ment of the medium of transmission - the material - is (ii) Longitudinal Waves:
limited.
 So, the oscillating material does not move far from its
initial equilibrium position.
 Mechanical waves transport energy which propagates
in the same direction as the wave.
 Mechanical waves can be produced only in media which
possess elasticity and inertia.
Types of mechanical waves -
 Longitudinal waves are waves in which the displace-
 During transmission of a mechanical wave through a
ment of the medium is in the same direction as, or the
medium, the medium particles start to vibrate. On the
basis of the direction of particle vibration, mechanical opposite direction to, the direction of propagation of the
waves are of two types- wave.
(i) Transverse waves  In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the di-
(ii) Longitudinal waves rection of the wave.
(i) Transverse Waves:  The places where the circles of spring are very near called
compression and the places where circles of spring are
far away are called rarefaction.
 The distance between two consecutive compressions of
rarefactions is called wavelength of longitudinal waves.
 Longitudinal waves are always mechanical waves.

 A transverse wave is a moving wave that consists of os- Time Period:

cillations occurring perpendicular (right angled) to the  In case of a wave propagating in a medium, time taken
direction of energy transfer (or the propagation of the by particle to complete one vibration is known as the
wave). time period of the wave. It is denoted by 'T'.
Examples –
 Increase in frequency of waves, results into a decrease
a. Vibration in stretched rope: When one end of the rope is
of time period.
bound with hook and another free end is vibrating up-
ward and downward, the produced vibration in rope Frequency :
particle is perpendicular to the wave direction.  During perpagation of the wave in the medium, frequency
b. Waves produced on the water surface. is the number of occurrences of repeating event per unit
 Transverse waves commonly occur in elastic solids. of time by particle.
 Transverse waves do not originate in gases.  In is represented by 'n'.

8
Relation between Frequency, Speed & Wavelength-  These waves are called electromagnetic waves.
If a vibrating particle is with  Examples of electromagnetic waves are X-rays, light,
Time period – T radio waves etc.
Frequency – n and  The speed of all electromagnetic waves are the same
Wavelength –  and all travel equal speed to the speed of light in a
vacuum.
then,
 The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic
Speed of wave (v) = n 
waves with frequencies ranging from below one hertz to
or speed = frequency × wavelength above 1025 hertz, corresponding to wavelengths from
1 thousands of kilometres (108m) to a fraction of the size
since Frequency = time period
of an atomic nucleus (10–14m).
  Electromagnetic waves with the shortest range of wave-
 v=
T length have higher energy while with longest wavelength
2. Electromagnetic Waves: range have less energy.
 Contrast to mechanical waves, some waves need no
medium for propagation.

Chart of Electromagnetic Waves

SI. No. Name of Wave Discoverer Wavelength range Applications
1. Gamma Rays Henry Becquerel 10–14 to 10–10 m It has maximum penetrating power. Its applica-
Paul Villard tion is in nuclear reaction and artificial radioac-
tivity. Gamma rays can kill living cells, they are
used to kill cancerous cells. This technique is
called Radiotherapy.
2. X-Rays Wilhelm Rontgen 10–10 to 3 × 10–8m Its application is in the field of medical and in
industries.
3. Ultraviolet Rays Johann Ritter 10–8 to 4 × 10–7m Hospitals use UV lamps to sterilise surgical
equipment and the air in operating theatres. Food
& drug companies also use UV lamps to steril-
ize their products. Suitable doses of ultraviolet
rays cause the body to produce Vitamin D.
4. Visible – 4 × 10–7m to It is the visible spectrum that is visible to the
Radiation (light) 7.8 × 10–7 m human eyes and is responsible for the sense of sight.
5. Infrared Rays William Herschel 7.8 × 10–7m to These waves are responsible for heating of any
10–3m object. These are used in night vision cameras
and in TV remote control.
6. Shortwave Heinrich Hertz 10–3 to 1m These are used for the transmission of radio &
Radio or television signals. The microwaves used in RADAR
Hertizan waves and microwave oven also use Radio waves. Many
(Microwaves) celestial objects, such as pulsars emit radio
waves.
7. Longwave Marconi 1 to 104 m Applied in the transmission of radio & televi-
sions Programmes.

9
 Electric Current
Electric Current : Voltage (Electric Potential):
 The rate of flow of electric charge in a conductor is  The work done to bring a unit positive charge from an
termed as electric current. position to any point in the electric field is termed as the
 The direction of the flow of positive charge is consid- voltage of that particular point.
ered the direction of flow of electric current.  Its SI Unit is Volt.
 Thus, the direction of flowof electric current is just op- Potential Difference:
posite to that the direction of flow of electrons.  The difference in electric potential between two points
 SI unit of electric current is Ampere. in an electric field; the work has to be done in transfer-
 I Ampere = 1 coulomb/second. ring unit positive charge from one point to other.
Types of Electric Current:  Its SI unit is also Volt.
 It is of two types-  If work W joule is done to flow q charge between two
(i) Direct current. points, then the potential difference between these points
(ii) Alternating current. is-

(i) Direct Current (DC)– work done

V
flow of charge
W joule
= q coulomb

W w
= jouble / coulomb  volt
q q

Resistance :
 Resistance is a physical quality of conductor which resits
 An electric current flowing in one direction only. the flow of electric current in the conductor.

 A battery is a suitable example of DC power supply.  Its unit is Ohm (  ).

(ii) Alternating Current (AC)–  It is represented by 'R'.
Ohm's Law:
 Ohm's Law states that the current through a conductor
between two points is directly proportional to the volt-
age across the two points.
 If V potential difference is applied at both ends of con-
ductor and flow of electric current is I then,
I  V or V  I

 V  RI
 An electric current that reverses its direction many times Where R is a constant, known as the resistance of con-
a second at regular intervals, typically used in power ductor.
supply. Factors Affecting the Resistance:
 Main advantage of AC than DC is that AC can be trans- (i) By experiments, it has been observed that resistance of
mitted to a long distance without much electric energy conductor (R) is directly proportional to its length.
loss. or R  L .................... (i)
Electromotive Force (emf): (ii) The resistance of conductor (R) is inversely proportional
 Electromotive force is the electrical intensity or pres- to its cross-sectional area (A).
sure developed by a source of electrical energy such as
1
a battery or generator. or R  ......................(ii)
A

10
 L  Electric Generator is a device which converts mechani-
R cal energy into electrical energy.
A
L  Its application depends upon electromagnetic induction.
R= p Transformer:
A
Where p is a proportional constant which is known as  It is a device based on electromagnetic induction.
Speciffic Resistance or resistivity.  It increases or decreases the voltage of alternating cur-
 Resistivity p of any conductor depends only upon the rent.
nature of matter.  Transformers are of two types:
 Its SI unit is Ohm-meter. (i) Step-up Transformer- it converts low voltage to high
Electric Power: voltage of alternating current.
 It is defined as the rate of consumption of electric en- (ii) Step-down Transformer- it converts the high voltage into
ergy in an electrical circuit. the low voltage of alternating current.
Electric Power = Electric current × Potential difference  Transformers are used for such electric devices which
 P = VI functions on voltage differing from main's voltage.
 The SI unit of eectric power is Watt. Electric Motor :
 An electric motor is a device that converts electrical
1joule 1coulomb 1 joule
1 watt = 1coulomb  1sec ond  1second energy into mechanical energy, usually by employing
electromagnetic phenomena.
consumed electrical energy  Electric motors are used in electric fans, washing ma-
Electric Power =
time chines, mixer, grinder, water pumps and many other de-
 Electric energy = Power × time vices.
 If we calculate electric power in watt and time in hour,  Electric motors can be powered by DC sources, such as
then the unit of electrical energy will be, watt-hour. from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by AC
 For commercial purposes-kilowatt-hour- a big unit of sources, such as power grid, inverters or electric gen-
electrical energy is used. erators.
 In other words- Dynamo:
 "I Unit electricity is the amount of electrical energy con-  A dynamo is an electrical generator that creates direct
sumed by a load of 1 kilowatt power rating in 1 hour". current using a commutator.
volt  Ampere  hour  It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
No. of units = through electromagnetic induction.
1000
watt  hour
=
1000
Electric Generator :

11
 Nuclear physics
Nuclear Fission : Nuclear Reactor or Atomic Pile:
 When bombardment of neutrons are done on an element's  A plant in which self-sustained controlled chain reac-
atom, lighter particles such as -particles, -particles, tion is maintained and at a fixed rate, energy is obtained.
protons etc. are emitted due to artificial disintegration  Such energy is utilized for several purposes such as to
of the atom's nucleus. produce electricity and for research works.
 Sometimes neutrons are absorbed by the nucleus result-  A modern reactor has the following main parts–
ing to form its own isotopes. (i) Fuel:
 In this process, energy is released in the form of gamma  It is the main part of the reactor.
photons.  The matter which undergoes for fission reaction.
 Nuclear fission is a process in which a heavy nucleus  For this purpose 92U235 or 94Pu239 is used.
after accepting a neutron breaks down in two lighter (ii) Moderator:
nucleus of comparable masses.
 It reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby turning
 In this process– them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a
a. some very fast-moving neutrons; nuclear chain reaction.
b. kinetic energy of broken segments; and  Light water or normal water (H2O), Heavy water (D2O),
c. a huge amount of energy in the form of gamma rays graphite of Beryllium oxide are used as a moderator.
are released. light water is the most commonly used moderator.
 The atom bomb and nuclear reactor's principle depends (iii) Coolant:
upon the process of nuclear fission.  A large amount of energy is released during fission which
 The main fact relating to nuclear fission is that huge results in an increase of the plant's temperature. To de-
amount of energy is released. This energy is known as crease the temperature of the plant, coolants such as air,
'Nuclear Energy'. water or carbon dioxide is flown through the reactor.

 During this process on fission of 1gram Uranium, 5 × (iv) Control Rods:

1023 MeV energy is released which is equal to the en-  These absorb the slow-moving neutrons.
ergy produced by exploding 20 tonne Trinitrotoluene  When these rods are pushed into the reactor, the fission
(TNT). rate slows down and when they are withdrawn from the
Atom Bomb: reactor, fission rate increases.

 Nuclear Bomb is a more suitable name for Atom Bomb.  For this purpose Cadmium or Boron rods are used.
Nuclear Fusion:
 It is such a device in which uncontrolled chain reaction
is maintained in the fissile matter by fast- moving neu-  When two or more light nucleus, moving with very high
trons. speed, mutually fused to form a heavy nucleus, this pro-
cess is termed as nuclear fusion.
 As a result of this process in a very short time, a huge
amount of energy is released.  The mass of the nucleus formed after fusion reaction is
less than that of the masses of original fusing nuclei.
 In atom bomb, two segments of uranium235 or Pluto-
The loss in mass in converted into energy.
nium239 are used.
 Forexample-when two deuterons (1H2-heavy hydrogen
 These segments mass is less than their critical mass and
nucleus) fused with each other, a trition (1H3- nucleus
are kept separately, Critical mass is the smallest amount
of tritium) is formed.
of fissile material needed for a sustained nuclear chain
reaction. The critical mass of a fissile material depends  Energy released by fusion of heavy hydrogen nuclei is
much more than the energy released by the fission of
upon its nuclear properties, its density, its shape, its en-
equal mass of uranium235.
richment, its purity, its temperature and its surroundings.
Hydrogen Bomb:
 The temperature range of 107°C and pressure equiva-
lent to lakhs of atmospheric pressure is produced on the  It is a nuclear fusion bomb.
explosion of the atom bomb.  It is based on the fusion of heavy hydrogen nuclei.

12
 Since the fusion takes place at very high temperature  North Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came
and high pressure, an atom bomb is used as ignitor with into compliance announced its withdrawal from the NPT
fusion bomb. in 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in vio-
 In the hydrogen bomb, the process of fusion is uncon- lation of core obligations.
trolled reaction whose application may be proved only  Four UN member states have never accepted the NPT,
destructive. three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear
 In fact, the source of the boundless energy of the sun is weapons : India, Israel, and Pakistan. In addition, South
the fusion of light nuclei. Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined.
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT):  The treaty defines nuclear-weapon states as those that
 The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weap- have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before
ons (commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty 1 January 1967; these are the United States, Russia, the
or NPT) is the centrepiece of global efforts to prevent United Kingdom, France, and China.
the spread of nuclear weapons, to promote cooperation Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty:
in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the  The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)
goal of nuclear disarmament and general and complete is a multilateral treaty that bans nuclear weapons test
disarmament. explosions and any other nuclear explosions, for both
 The NPT was opened for signature in 1968 and entered civilian and military purposes, in all environments.
into force on 5 March 1970. On 11 May 1995, the Treaty
 It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly
was extended indefinitely.
on 10 September 1996, but has not entered into force,
 189 UN member states as well as two observers, namely as eight specific nations have not ratified the treaty.
the Holy See and the State of Palestine, have become
 Of the 44 States included in Annex 2 (of the Treaty) req
parties to the NPT. However, one of these states (North
uired for entry into force of the CTBT, all have signed
Korea) submitted a notice of withdrawal.
with the exceptions of the Democratic People's Repub-
 NPT is the most widely adhered to treaty in the field of lic of Korea (DPRK-North Korea), India, and Pakistan.
nuclear non-proliferation, peaceful uses of nuclear en-
Five of the 44 Annex 2 States have signed but not rati-
ergy and nuclear disarmament.
fied the CTBT; they are China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, and
 The treaty defines nuclear-weapon states as those that the United States.
have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before
 The United States and China are the only remaining NPT
1 January 1967; these are the United States, Russia, the
Nuclear Weapon States that have not ratified the CTBT.
United Kingdom, France, and China.

13
 Unit of Measurement
 Two types of units -(1) Fundamental Unit; (2) Derived (i) CGS system: Centimeter-Gram-Second
Unit (ii) MKS system: Meter-Kilogram-Second
 System of Units -Unnits depend on choice .Each choice (iii) FPS system: Foot- Found-Second
of units leads to a new system (set) of units. There are (iv) SI Units: Systeme International which
various conventions, as follow: evolved from the MKS system:

In Units, there are seven fundamental units given in the following table:
S.No. Physical Quantity S.I. Unit Symbol
1. Length meter m
2. Mass kilogram kg
3. Time second s
4. Electric Current ampere A
5. Temperature kelvin K
6. Luminous Intensity candela Cd
7. Amount of substance mole mol

 Beside these seven fundamental units, two  Derived units: All the units which are defined/
supplementary units are also defined, viz. radan (rad) expressed in terms of fundamental units are called
for plane angle and steradian (sr) for solid angle. derived units. Some important derived units.

S.No. Physical Quantity cgs units SI unit Relation

1. Force dyne Newton 1 Newton =10’5 dyne
2. Work erg joule 1 joule = 10’7 erg

 Some practical units of length mass and time

Length Mass Time
1. Light year = distance travelled 1 qunital =10’2 kg 1 solar day =86400 sec.
by light in one year in vacuum. 1 metric ton = 103 kg 1 year = 3651/2 solar days
1 L. Y. = 9.46 x10’15 m 1 atomic mass unit (amu) 1 lunar month = 27.3 solar
or Dalton = 1.66 × 10-27 kg days.
2. 1 astronomical unit (A.U.) = 1 pound = 0.4537 kg 1 lunar month
11
1.5 x 10 m , = 27 .3 solar days.
Tropical year = It is the year
in which total solar eclipse occurs.
3. 1 parsec = 326 L.Y. = 3.06 × 106 1 Chandraslhm limit leap year = It is the year which
= 1.5 time the month of February is of 29
days.
4. 1 nautical mile or seainline the mass of sun
= 6020 ft., = 2.8 x 10’30 kg
5. micron = 1 m = 10-6m
6. 1 angustrom (A) = 10-15m

14
 Motion
 Vector Quantities: Physical quantities which have motion which describes basic rules about how the
magnitude and direction both and which obey triangle motions of physical objects change. Newton was able
law are called vector quantities. Example : to define the fundamental relationship between the
Displacement, velocity acceleration, force, momentum, acceleration of an object and the total forces acting upon
torgue etc. Electric current, though has a direction is it.
scalar quantity because it does not obey triangle law.  Newton’s first law of motion : Every body maintains
moment of inertia, pressure, refractive index, and stress
its initial state of rest or motion with uniform speed on
are tensor quantities.
a straight line unless an external force acts on it. It is
 Scalar Quantities: Physical quantities which have also called law of Galileo or law of lnertia
magnitude only and no direction are called scalar
 Inertia : Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of
quantities. Example : Mass, speed, volume, work , time
power, energy etc. which the body opposes change in its initial state of
rest or motion with uniform speed on a straight line.
 Distance : Distance is the length of actual path covered
Inertia is of two types (1) Inertia of rest (2) Inertia of
by a moving object in a given time interval it is a scalar
quantity. It is always positive. motion
Some examples of Inertia :
 Displacement : Shortest distance covered by a body in
a definite direction is calleddisplacement. It is vector (i) When a car or train starts suddenly, the passengers
quantiy. it may be positive, negative or zero. Both having bends backward.
the same unit (meter) (ii) When a running horse stops suddenly , the rider
 Speed : Distance travelled by the moving object in unit bends forward
time interval is Distance called speed i.e., speed= (iii) When a coat/blanket are beaten by a stick, the dust
particles are removed.
Distance
It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit meter/  Newton’s second law of motion : The rate of c hange
Time
second (m/s). in momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
 Velocity : Velocity of a moving object is defined as the applied force on the body and takes place in the direction
displacement of the object in unit time interval i.e. of force. if F = torce applied , a = acceleration produced
and m = mass of body then F = ma. Newton’s second
Displacement
velocity = It is a vector quantity and SI law gives the magnitude of force. Newton’s first law is
Time contained in the second law.
unit is meter/second.
 Newton’s Third Law of Motion : To every action, there
 Acceleration : Acceleration of an object is defined as
is an equal and opposite reaction.
the rate of change in velocity of the object i.e.
Change in velocity
 Examples of third law : (i) Recoil of a gum (ii) Motion
acceleration = It is a vector quantity of rocket (iii) Swimming (iv) While drawing water from
Time
and its SI unit is meter/second’2 (m/s’2) the well, if the string breaks up the man drawing water
falls back.
 It velocity decreases with time then acceleration is
negative and is called retardation.  Principle of conservation of linear momentum If no
external force acts on a system of bodies, the total linear
 Circular Motion : It an object describes a circular path momentum of the system of body’s remains constant.
(circle) its motion is called circular motion. It is object As a consequence, the total momentum of bodies before
moves with uniform speed, its motion is uniform circular
and after collision remains the same.
motion. Uniform circular motion is an accelerarted
motion because the direction of velocity changes  Impulse : When a large force acts on a body for very
continuously. small time, then force is called impulsive force. impulse
 Angular Velocity : The angle subtended by the line is defined as the product of force and time.
joining the object from the origin of circle in unit time Impulse = force x time change in momentum .
interval is called angular velocity. It is generally denoted  It is a vector quantity and its direction is the direction
 of force. Its SI unit is Newton per second (Ns)
 by  =  
t  Centripetal Force : When a body travels along a
 Newton’s laws of motion : Sir Isaac Newton , the father circular path, The external force required to maintain
of physics estabilishecd the laws of motion in his book the circular motion of the body is called centripetal
“principia” in the 1667. He developed the three law of force.

15
 It is body of mass m is moving on a circular path of It is a vector quantity. It is SI unit is Newton meter
radius R with jniform speed ?, then the required (Nm)
mv 2  Centre of Gravity : The centre of gravity of a body is
centripetal force, F =
R that point through which entire weight of body acts. The
 Centrifugal Force : In applying the Newton’s law of centre of gravity of a body does not change with the
motion, we know to consider some forces which can change in orientation of body in space. The weight of a
not be assigned to any object in the surrounding. These body acts through centre of gravity in ht edownward
force are called pseudo force on inertial force. direction. Hence a body can be brought to equilibrium
Centrifugal force is such a pseudo force. It is equal and by applying a force equal to its weight in the vertically
opposite of centripetal force. Centrifugal force should upward direction through centre of gravity.
not be confused as the reaction to centripetal force  Equilibrium : If the resultant of all the forces action
because forces of action and reaction act on different on a body is zero then the body is said to be in
bodirs. equilibrium. If a body is in equilibrium, it will be either
Cream separator, centifugal dryer work on the principle at rest or in uniform motion. If It is rest, the equilibrium
of centrifugal force. is called static, otherwise dynamic. Conditions for stable
Equilibrium : For stable equilibrium of abody, the
 Moment of force : The rotation al effect of a force on following two conditions should be fulfilled.
a body about an axis of rotation is described in terms of (i) The centre of gravity of the body should be at the
moment of force. Moment of a force about an axis of minimum height.
rotation is measured as the product of magnitude of force
(ii) The vertical line passingh through the centre of
and the perpendicular distance of direction of force from
gravity of the body should pass through the base of
the axis of rotation. i.e. Moment of force = Force x
the body.
moment am

16
 Work, Enrgy and Power
 Work : If a body gets displaced when a force acts on it, PE of a body in the gravitational field of earth is mgh.
work is said to he done. Work is measured by the product Where m = mass, g = acceleration due to gravity, h =
of force and displacement of the body along the direction height of the body from surface of the earth.
of force. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule. If  Kinetic Energy: Energy possess by a body due to its
a body gets displaced by S when a force F acts on it,
motion is called kinetic Energy of the body. If a body of
Then the work W = F S cos
mass m is moving with speed v, then kinetic energy of
When = angle between force and displacement
1
If both force and displacement are in the same direction, the body ismv2
then W = FS 2
 Energy : Capacity of doing work by a body is called its  Relation between Momentum and Kinetic Energy :
energy. Energy is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule. p2
K.E. = where p = momentum = mv Clearly when
 Mechanical energy : The capacity of doing work 2m
momentum is doubled, kinetic energy becomes four
developed in a body due to its position or configuration
is called its potential energy. times.

 Potential Energy : The capacity of doing work  Principle of Conservation of Energy : Energy can
developed in a body due to its position or configuration neither be created nor can be destroyed . Only energy
is called its potential energy. can be transformed from one form to another form.
Whenever energy is utilized in one form ,equal amount
Example : (i) Energy of stretched of compressed
of energy is produced in other form. Hence total energyu
spring
of the universe always remains the same. This is called
(ii) Energy of water collected at a height the principle of conservation of energy.
(iii) Energy of spring in a watch

 Some Equipment used to transform Energy

S.No. Equipment Energy Transformed
1. Dynamo Mechanical energy into electrical energy.
2. Candle Chemical energy into light and heat energy.
3. Microphone Sound energy into electrical energy.
4. Loud Speaker Electrical energy into sound energy.
5. Solar Cell Solar energy into electrical energy.
6. Tube light Electrical energy into light energy.
7. Electric bulb Electrical energy into light and heat energy.
8. Battery Chemical energy into electrical energy.
9. Electric motor Electrical energy into mechanical energy.
10. Sitar Mechnical energy into sound energy .

 Power : Rate of doing work is called power. If an agent Watt = joule/sec, 1kW = 103 watt , 1 MW = 106 watt
w Horse power is a practical unit of power. 1 H.P. = 746
does W work in time t, then power of agent = . SI watt.
t
unit of power is watt named as a respect to the scientist 1 watt second = 1 watt × 1 second = 1 joule.
James Watt. W, kW, MW & H.P. are the other units of 1 watt hour (Wh) =3600 joule
power whereas Ws, Wh, kwh are units of work and
1 kilowatt hour (kwh) = 3.6 x 10’6 joule.
energy.

17
 Gravitation
 Everybody attracts other body by a force called force (ii) If lift is going up with acceleration, the apparent
of gravitation. weight of a body is more than the true weight.
(iii) If lifts is going down with acceleration, the apparent
 Newton’s law of Gravitation : One of the most
weight of a body is less than the true weight.
powerful ideas in physics, Newton’s revelation of
gravity still stands centuries after it was formed. The (iv) If the cord of the lift is broken, it falls freely. In this
notion supposedly come to him after seeing an apple situated the weight of a body in the lift becomes
fall from a tree, whether this is true or not we will never zero. This is the situation of weightlessness.
know but he came to the conclusion that all objects are (vi) While going down, if the accleration of lift is more
attracted to each other through gravity which is affected than acceleration due to gravity, a body in the lift
by mass. goes in contact of the ceiling of
The strenght of the force is affected by the mass of the  Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion : A crux of this
objects involved, and both objects are attracted to each law is that the all planets move around the sun in
other the apple is pulled to wards the Earth but at the elliptical orbits, with the sun being at rest at one focus
same time the Earth is apulled towards the apple. It is of the orbit. Speed of planet increases when the planet
only because the Earth’s mass is so much greater that is maximum when it is at perigee and minimum when it
we do not notice the latter. is at apogee.
His ‘Inverse square law’ exeplains how the strenght of Clearly distant planets have larger period of revolution.
the gravity decreases by the square of the distance from The time period of Nearest planet Mercury is 88 days
the object. So if you were twice the distance from the where as time period of farthes planet Pluto is 247.7
Earth, gravity would be 4 times weaker. His theory years.
suddenly explained the motion of the planets and tides
 Satellite : Satellites are natural or artifical bodies
The force of gravitational attraction between two point revolving around a planet under its gravitational
bodies is directly proportional to the product of their attraction. moon is a natural satellite while INSAT- 1B
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the is an artififical satellite of earth.
distance between them. Consider two point bodies of
Orbital speed of a satellite :
masses m1 and m2 are placed at a distance r The force
(i) Orbital speed of a satellite is independent of its
m1m 2
of gravitational attraction between them, F = G 2 mass. Hence satellites of different masses revolving
r in the orbit of same radlus have same orbital speed.
Here G is constant called universal gravitational (ii) Orbital speed of a satelite depends upon the radius
constant. The value of G is 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2 of orbit (height of satellite from the surface of
 Gravity : The gravitational force of earth is called earth). Greater the radius of orbit, lesser will be
gravity i. e. gravity is the force by which earth pulls a the orbital speed.
body towards its centre. The acceleration produced in a The orbital speed of a satellite revolving near the surface
body due to force of gravity is called independent of of earth is 7.9 km./sec.
shape, size and mass of the body.
 Period of Revolution of a satellite : Time taken by a
Variation in g : satellite to complete one revolution in its orbit is called
(i) Value of g decreases with height or depth from its period of revoution. i.e. period of revolution =
earth’s surface.
circumference of orbit
(ii) g is maximum at poles.
orbitalspeed
(iii) g is minimum at equator.
(i) Period of revolution of a satellite depends upon
(iv) g decreases due to rotation of earth. the height of satellite from the surface of earth.
 g decreases if angular speed of earth increases and Greater the height more will be the period of
increases if angular speed of earth decreasesd. revolution.
 If angular speed of earth becomes 17 times its (ii) Period of revolution of a satellite is independent of
present value, a body on the equator becomes its mass. The period of revolution of satellite
weightless. revolving near the surface of earth is 1 hour 24
minute (84 minute)
Weight of a body in a lift
The period of revolution of Satellite revolving near the
(i) If lift is stationary or moving with unifrm speed
surface of earth is 1 hour 24 minute (84 minute)
(either upward or down ward) , the apparent weight
of a body is equal to its true weight.  Geo-Stationary Satellite : If a satellite revolves in
equatorial plane in the direction of earth's rotation i.e.
from west to east with a period of revoltuion equal to

18
 time period of rotation of earth one its own axis i.e. 24 Escape velocity is independent of the mass, shape and
hours, then the satellite will appear stationary relatives size of the body and its direction of projection. Escape
to earth. Such a satellite is called Geo-stationary velocity is also called second cosmic velocity.
satellite. Such a satellite revolves around the earth at a For earth, escape velocity = 11.2 km/s.
height of 36000 km. The orbit of Geo-stationary sateite For moon, escape velocity = 2.4 km/s.
is called parking orbit. Arthur C. Clarck was first to
pledict that a communication satellite can be stationed Orbital velocity of a satellite V0 = gR and
in the geosynchronous orbit. Escape velocity Ve = gR
 Escape velocity : Escape velocity is that minimum where R = Radius of earth i.e. Ve = gR i.e. escape
velocity with which a body should be projected from
the surface of each so as it goes out of gravitational velocity is 2 times the orbital velocity..
field of earth and never retum to earth. Therefore if the orbital velocity of a satellite is increased
to times (increased by 41%), the satellite will leave the
orbit and escape.

19
 Pressure
 Pressure is defined as force acting normally on unit area where d is the density of liquid. Regarding pressure in
of the surface. SI unit of pressure is N/m2 also called liquid, the following points are worth noting :
pascal (Pa). Pressure is a scalar quantity (i) In a static liquid at same horizontal level, pressure
F Normal force on the surface is same at all points.
 (ii) Pressure at a point in a static liquid has same value
A Area of the surface
in all directions.
 Atmospheric pressure : Atmospheric pressure is that (iii) Pressure at a point in a liquid is proportional to the
pressure which is exerted by a mercury column of 76 depth of the point from the free surface.
cm length at 0’C at 45' lattitude at the sea-level. It is
(iv) Pressure at a point in a liquid is proportional to the
equal to weight of 76 cm column of mercury of cross-
density of the liquid.
sectional area 1 cm2. Generally it is measured in bar. 1
bar = 105 N/m2 = 760 torr.  Pascal law for pressure of liquid.
One torr is the pressure exerted by a mercury column (i) If gravitational attraction is negligible, in
of 1 mm lenght. equilibrium condition, pressure is same at all points
Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude (height in a liquid.
from earth’s surface). This is why (ii) If an external pressure isapplied to an encosed fluid,
(i) It is difficult to cook on the mountain. it is transmitted undiminished to every direction,
Hydrolic lift, hydrolic press, Hydrolic brake work
(ii) The fountain pen of passenger leaks in aeroplane
on Pascal law.
at height.
 Effect of pressure on Melting point and Boiling Point
 Atmospheric pressure is measured by barometer. With
the help of barometer, weather forecast can be made. (i) The M.P. of substances which expands on fusion
Sudden fall in barometric reading is the indication of increases with the increase in pressure for example-
clear weather. wax.
(ii) The M.P. of substances which contracts on fusion
 Pressure in liquid : Force exerted on unit area of wall
decreases with the increase in temperature for
or base of the container by the molecular of liquid is
example-ice
the pressure of liquid. The pressure exerted by liquid at
depth h below the surface of liquid is given as p = hdg (iii) Boiling point of all the substances increases with
the increase in pressure.

20
 Floatation
 Buoyant Force : When a body is immersed partly or  If ice floating in water in a vessel melts,the level of
wholly in a liquid, a force acts on the body by the liquid water in the vessel does not change.
in the upward direction which is called buoyant force  Purity of milk is measured by lactometer.
or force of buoyancy or up thrust. It is equal to the weight
of liquid displaced by the body and acts at the centre of  Centre of Buoyancy : The centre of gravity of the liquid
gravity of displaced liquid. Its study was first made by displaced by a body is called centre of buoyancy.
Archimedes.  Meta Centre : When a flating body is slightly tilted
 Archimedes Principle : When a body is immersed from equilibrium position, the centre of buoyancy shifts.
partly or wholly in a liquid, there is an apparent loss in The point at which the vertical line passing through the
the weight of the body which is equal to the weight of new position of centre of buoyancy meets with the initial
liquid displaced by the body. line is called meta centre.
 Law of Floatation : A body floats in a liquid if Conditions for stable equilibrium of Floating body:
(i) Density of material of body is less than or equal to (i) The meta-centre must always be higher than the
the density of liquid. centre gravity of the body.
(ii) If density of material of body is equal to denstiy of (ii) The line joining the centre of gravity of the body
liquid, the body floats fully submerged in liquid in and centre of flotation should be vertical.
neutral equilibrium.  Density : Density is defined as mass per unit volume.
(iii) When body floats in neutral equilibrium, the weight Its SI unit is kg/m3
of the body is equal to the weight of displaced mass
liquid. The centre of gravity of the body and centre Densitgy =
volume
of gravity of the displaced liquid should be in one
vertical line. density of material
Relative density = density of water at 4C
1
 When ice floats in water, it’s the part remain outside Since relative density is a ratio, it is unit less. Relative
10
the water. density is measured by Hydrometer. The density of sea
water is more than that of normal water. This explains
why it is easier to swim in sea water.

21
 Surface Tension
 Surface tension is the property of a liquid by virtue of which wets the wall of tube .rises in the tube and the
which it has the tendency to have the area of its free liquid which does not wet the wall of tube descends in
surface minimum as if it were under tension like a the tube. For example, when a glass capillary tube is
stretched elastic membrane. Surface tension of a liquid dipped in water, water rises in the tube and shape of
is measured by the normal force acting per unit lenght water meniscus is concave,similarly when a glass
on either side of an imaginary line drawn on the free capillary tube is dipped in mercury, mercury descends
surface tension, T = F/I in the tube and shape of mercury meniscus is convex.
 Work done in increasing the surface are on a liquid by IIIustrations of capillarity
unity under isothermal condition is equal to surface (i) A piece of blotting paper soaks ink because the
tension of liquid. According to this definitions, unit of pores of the blotting paper serve as capillary tubes.
surface tension is joule/meter. (ii) The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to capillary
action of threads in the wick.
 Surface tension of a liquid decreases with the increase
of temperature and becomes zero at critical temperature. (iii) The root hairs of plants draw water from the soil
through capillary action.
 Application of surface tension : If a clean and dry (iv) To prevent loss of water due to capillary action,
needle is very slowly kept on the surface of water, it the soil is loosened and split into pieces by the
floats due to surface tension. The additional of detergent farmers.
or soap decrease the surface tension of water and thus
(v) If a capillary tube is dipped in water in an artificial
uncreases the cleaning ability. Bubbles of soap solution
satellite, water rises up to other end of tube because
are big because addition of soap decreases the surface
of its zero apparent weight, how long the tube may
tension of water. when kerosene oil is sprinkled on water,
be.
its surface tension decreases. As a result the larva of
mosquitoes floating on the surface of water die due to (vi) Action of towel in soaking up water from the body
sinking. Warm soup is tasty because at high temperature is due to ca;illary action of cotton in the towel.
its surface tension is low and consequently the soup (vii)Melted wax, in a candle rises up to wick by capillary
spreads on all parts of the tongue. action.
 Capillarity : If a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid,  Cohesive Force : The forceof attraction between the
liquid ascends or descends in the capillary tube. This molecules of same substance is called cohesive force.
phenomenon is called capillarity. Cohesive force is maximum in solids. This is why solids
have a fixed shape. Cohesive force is negligible in case
 Capilary tube : A tube having very narrow (fine) and
of gases.
uniform bore is called a capillary tube. The height by
which liquid ascends or descends in a capillary tube  Adhesive Force : Force of attraction between the
depends upon the radius of the tube. The capillarity molecules of different substances is called adhesive
depends on the naute of liquid and solid both. The liquid force. Due to adhesive force, one body sticks to other.

Viscosity
 The force which opposes the relative motion between  Viscosity of a fluid is measured by its coefficient of
different layers of liquid or gases is called viscous force. viscosity. Its SI unit is decapoise (kg/ms) or pascal
Viscosity is the property of liquids and gases both. second. It is generally denoted by n.
 In liquid Viscosity is by virtue of the relative motion  Bernoulli’s Theorem : According to Bernoulli’s
between its different layers. In other words viscosity of theorem, in case of streamtine flow of incompressible
a liquid is due to cohesive force between its molecules. and non viscous fluid ( Ideal fluid) through a tube, total
The viscosity of a gas is due to diffusion of its moelcules energy (sum of pressure energy, potential energy and
from one layer to other layer. Viscosity of gases is much kinetic energy) per unit volume of fluid is same at all
less than that of liquids. There is no viscosity in solids. points. Venturimeter, a device used to measure rate of
Viscosity of an ideal fluid is zero. flow of fluid, words on Bemoulli’s theorem.
 With rise in temperature, viscosity of liquids decreases
and that for gases increases.

22
 Elasticity
 Elasticity is the property of material of a body by virtue  Strain : The relative change in dimension or shape of a
of which the body acquires its original shape and size body which is subjected to stress is called strain . It is
after the removal of deforming force. measured by ratio of change in length to the original
 Elastic Limit : Elastic limit is the maximum value of length (longitudinal strain), change in volume to original
volume (volume strain )
deforming force up to which a material shows elastic
property and above which the maximum value of  Hooke’s law : Under elastic limit, stress is proportional
deforming force up to which a material shows elastic to strain
property and above which the material looses its elastic stress
property. i.e. stress strain or, = E (constant)
strain
 Stress : The restoing force per unit area set up inside E is called elastic constant or modulus of elasticity. Its
the body subjected to deforming force is called stress. value is different for different material. Its SI unit is
Nm’2 also called pascal.

Simple Harmonic Motion

 Periodic Motion : Any motion which repeats itself after SI unit is Hertz. If n = frequency, T time period, then
regular interval of time is called periodic or harmonic nT = 1
motion. Motions of hands of a clock, motion of earth  Simple Pendulum : If a point mass is suspended from
around the sun, motion of the needle of a sewing a fixed support with the help od a mass less and
machine are the examples of periodic motion. inextensible string, the arrangement is called simple
 Oscillatory Motion : If a particles repeats its motion pendulum. The above is an ideal definition. Practically
after a regular time interval about a fixed point, motion a simple pendulum is made by suspending a small ball
is said to be oscillatory or vibratory. i.e. oscillatory (called bob) from a fixed support with the help of a
motion is a constrained periodic motion between light string.
precisely fixed limits Example : Motion of piston in an  If the bob of a simple pendulum is slightly displaced
automobile engine, motion of balacne wheel of a watch from its mean position and then released, it starts
is the examples of oscillatory motion. oscillating in simple harmonic motion. Time period of
 Time period : Tiem taken in one complete oscillation 1
is called time period Or, Time after which motion is oscillation of a simple pendulum is given as T = 2
g
repeated is called time period. where 1 is the effective lenght of the pendulum and g is
 Frequency : Frequency is the no. of oscillations the acceleration due to gravity.
completed by oscillating body in unit time interval . Its

23
 Sound
 Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves. these wavfes. But certain creatures like dog. cat
bat, mosquito can detect these waves. But not only
 According to their frequency range, longigudinal detect but also produce ultrasonic Ultrasonic waves
mechanical waves are divided into the following can be produced by Galton’s whistle or Hartman’s
categories: generator or by the high frequency vibrations of a
1. Audible of Sound Waves : The longitudinal quartz crystal under an alternating electric field 9
mechanical waves which lie in the frequency range Piezo - electric effect0 or by the vibrations of a
20 Hz to 20000 Hz are called audible or sound ferromagnetic rod under an alternating magnetic
waves. These waves are sensitive to human ear. field ( Magnetostriction)
These are generated by the vibrating bodies such
 Applications of Ultrasonic Waves :
as tuning fork, vocal cords etc.
1. For sending signals.
2. Infrasonic Waves : The logitudinal mechanical
waves having frequencies less than 20 Hz are called 2. For measuring the depth of sea.
Infrasonic. These waves are produced by sources 3. For cleaning cloths, aeroplanes and machinery parts
o bigger size such as earth quakes, volcanic of clocks.
eruptions. ocean waves and by elephants and 4. For removing lamp- shoot from the chimney of
whales. factories.
3. Ultrasonic Waves : The longitudunal mechanical 5. In Ultrasonography.
waves having frequencies greate than 20000 Hz are
 Speed of Sound : Speed of sound is different in different
called ultrasonic waves. Human ear can not detect
mediums. In a medium, the speed of sound basically
these waves. But certain creatures like dog. cat, bat
depends upon elasticity and density of medium. Speed
mosquito can detect these waves. But not detect
of sound is maximum in solids and minimum in gases.
Speed of sound in different mediums.
Medium Speed of sound Medium (In m/s) Speed of sound (In m/s)
Air (0’c) 332 Sea water 1535
Air (20’c) 343
Hydrogen 1269 Mercury 1450
Carbondioxide 260 Glass 5640
Steam (at 100’c) 405 Aluminium 6420
Helium 965 Copper 3560
Water (20’c) 1482 Iron 5130
Alcohol 1213 Granite 6000

 When sound enters from one medium to other medium, (i) Intensity : Intensity of sound at any point in space
its speed and wavelenght change but frequency remains is defined as amount of energy passing normally per
unchanged. unit area held around that point per unit time . SI Unit
 In a medium, the speed of sound is independent of of Intensity is watt/m2.
frequency. Effect of pressure on speed of sound The Intensity of sound at a point is :
speed of sound is independent of pressure i.e. speed  inversely proportional to the square of the distance
remains unchanged by the increase or decrease of of point from the soource.
pressure.  directly proportional to square of amplitude of
 Effect of Temprature on speed of sound : The speed of vibration, square of frequency and density of the
sound increases with the increase of temperature of the medium.
mediu. The speed of sound in air increases by 0.61 m/s  Due to intensity, a sound appears loud or faint ot the
when the temperature is increased by 1’c ear. Actually, the sensation of a sound perceived in ear
 Effect of humidity on speed of sound : The speed of in measured by another term called loudness which
sound is more in humid air than in dry air because the depends up intensity of sound and sensitiveness of the
density of humid air is less than the density of dry air. ear. Unit of loudness is bel. A practical unit of loudness
 Characteristics of Sound : Sounds have the following is decible (dB) which of equal to 1/10th of bel. Another
three charateristics. unit of loudness is phon.

24
 (ii) Pitch : Pitch is that charcteristic of sound which phase, intensity of sound at that point is minimum. Such
distinguishes a sharp 9or shrill) sound from a grave type of interference is called destructive interference.
( dull or flat) sound. Pitch depends upon frequency.  Diffraction of sound : Wavelenght of sound is of the
Higher the frequency, higher will be pich and
order of 1m. If an obstacle of that range appears in the
shriller will be the sound. Lower the frequency,
path of sound, sound deviates at the edge of obstacle
lower will be the pitch and grave will be the sound.
and propagates forward. This phenomenon is called
(iii) Quality : Quality is that characteristic of sound diffraction of sound.
which enables us to distinguish between sounds
produced by two sources having the same intensity  Doppler’s Effect : If there is a relative motion between
and pitch. The quality depends upon number, source of sound and observer, the apparent frequency
frequency and relative intensities of overtones. of sound heard by the observer is different from the
actual frquency of sound emitted by the source. This
 Echo : The sound waves received after being reflected phenomenon is called Doppler’s effect. When the
from a high tower or mountains is called echo. distance between the source and observer decreases,
 The hear echo, the minimum distance between the the apparent frequency increases and vice- versa.
observer and reflector should be 17m (16.6m)  Mach Number : It is defined as the ratio of speed of
 Persistence of ear (eaffect of sound on ear ) is 1/10 sec. sound source to the speed of sound in the same medium
under the same condition of temperature and pressure.
 Due to refraction, sound is heard at longer distances in
nights than in day. 9 (i) If Mach number > 1, body is called supersonic.
(ii) If mach number > 5, body is called hypersonic.
 Resonance : If the frequency of imposed periodic force
(iii) If mach number < 1, the body ( source ) is said to
is equal to the natural frequency of body the body
be moving with subsonic speed.
oscillates with a very large amplitude. This phenomenon
is called resonance.  Shock waves : A body moving with supersonic speed
in air leaves behind it a conical region of disturbance
 Interference of sound : The modification or
which spreads continuously,. Such a disturbance is
redistribution of energy at a point due to superposition
called shock wave. This wave carries huge energy and
of two (or, more) sound waves of same frequency is
may even make cracks in window panes or even damage
called interference of sound.
a building.
If the two waves meet at a point in same phase, intensity
of sound is maximum at the point. Such type of  Bow Waves: When a motor boat in a sea travels faster
interference is called constructive interference. than sound, then wave just like shock waves are
Similarly, if the two waves meet at a point in opposite produced on the surface of water. These waves are called
bow waves.

25
 Static Electricity
 When two bodiesare rubbed together, they acquire the  Electric Field : Region in space around a charge or
property of attracting light objects like small bits of charged body where the charge has its electrical effect
paper, dust particles etc. The bodies which acquire this is called electric field of the charge.
property are said to be electrified or charged with  Electric Field Intensity : Electric field intensity at a
electricity. point in an electric field is the force experienced by a
 Charge : Charge is the basic property associated with unit positive charge placed at that point.
matter due 10 which it produces and experiences  Electric Field Intensity : Electric field intensity at a
electrical and magnetic effects. point in an electric field is the force experinced by a
 Benjamin Frankline named the two types of charges as unit positve charge placed at that point.
positive and negative.  Electric Field of hollow conductor : Electric field
intensity inside a charged hollow conductor is zero.
 Similar charges repel each other and opposite charges
Charge given to such a conductor ( or conductor of any
attract each other.
shape) remains on its surface only. This explains why a
 Charging of bodies takes places due to transfer of hollow conductor acts as an electrostatic shield. It is
electrons from one body to other body. for this reason that it is safe to sit in a car or bus during
 A list of materials has been given below. The list is such lightning.
that any of the material in the list will be positively  Electric Potential : Electric potential at a point in an
charged when rubbed with any other material coming electric field is the work done in bringing a unit positive
later in the list. The other material will naturally be charge from infinity to that point. SI unit of electric
negatively charged. potential is volt. It is a scalar quanitity.
1. Fur 2. Flannel 3. Shellac  Electric Capacity : Electric capacity of a conductor is
4. Sealing Wax 5. Glass 6. Paper defined as the charge required to increase the potential
7. Silk 8. Human body 9. Wood of the conductor by unit. If potential of a conductor is
increased by V when a charge Q is given to it, capacity
10. Metals 11. Indain Rubber 12. Resm
of the conductor is Q/V Its SI unit is farad.(F)
13. Amber 14. Sulphur 15. Ebonite
 Electrochemical Cell : Electrochemical cell is a device
16. Gutta Percha, which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
 Surface density of charge : Surface density of charge  Cells are basically of two types : (i) Primary cell
is defined as the amount of charge per unit area on the (ii) Secondary cell
surface of conductor.
(i) Primary Cell : In primary cell electrical energy is
 The surface density of charge at a point on the surfce obtained from the irreversible chemical reaction
of conductor depends upon the shape of conductor taking inside the cell. After complete discharge,
and presence of other conductors or insulators near primary cell becomes unserrviceable. Examples :
the given conductor. Voltatic Cell, Leclanche cell. Daniel cell, Dry cell
 The surface density of charge at any part of the etc.
conductor is inversely proportional to the radius of (ii) Secondary Cell : A secondary cell is that which
curvature of the surface of that part. This is why has to be charged at first from an external electric
surface density of charge in maximum at the pointed source and then can be used to draw current. Such
parts of the conductor. cell are reachargeable.
 Conductor : Conductors are those materials which  Production of electricity by chemical reaction was first
allow electricity (charge) to pass through themselves. discoverec by Allexandro de volta ( voltaic cell is named
Examples : (a) Metals like silver, iron , copper (b) Earth after him ) in 1794. In voltaic cell zinc rod is used as
( especially the moist part) acts like a huge conductor. cathode and copper rod is used as anode. These rods
are placed in sulphuric acid kept in a glass vessel.
 Silver is the best conductor.
 In a Leclanche cell, carbon rod acts as anode and zinc
 Insulator or Dielectric : Insulators are those materials
rod acts as cathode. These rods are placed in amonium
which do not allow electricity to flow through chloride kept in a glass vessel.
themselves. Examples : Wood, paper, mica, glass,
 The emf of Leclanche cell is 1.5 volt .
ebonite.
 Leclanche cell is used for intermittent works. i.e. works
 Coulomb’s law According to Coulmb’s law, the force in which continuous electrical energy is not required
of attraction or repulsion between two point charges at like electric bell.
rest is directly proportional to the product of the
 In a dry cell, mixture of MnO2, NH4Cl and carbon is
magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional kept in a zinc vessel. A carbon rod is placecd in the
to the square of the distance between them. This force mixture which acts as anode. The zinc vessel itself acts
acts on the line joining the two charges. as cathode. The emf fo dry cell is 1.5 volt.

26
 Magnetism
 Magnetism is the property displayed by magnets and  Magnetic Substance : On the basis of magnetic
produced by the movement of electric charges. which behaviour, substances can be divided into three
results in objects being attracted or pushed away. categories.
 Magnet is a piece of iron or other materials that can (i) Diamagnetic substance: Diamagnetic substances
attract iron containing objects and that points north and are such substances which when placed in a
south when suspended. magnetic field, acquire feeble magnetism opposite
 A magnet is characteristised by following two properties: to the direction of magnetic field. Examples :
Bismuth, Zinc, Cooper, Silver, Gold , Diamodn,
(i) Attractive property : A magnet attracts magnetic
water, Mercury, Water etc.
substances like iron, cobalt, nickel and some of their
(ii) Paramagnetic Substance : Paramagnetic substances
alloys like magnetite (Fe303)
are such substances whic when placed in a magnetic
(ii) Directive property : When a magnet is freely field, acquire feeble magnetism in the direction of
suspended , it aligns itself in the geographical north field. Examples: A luminium, Platinum, Magnese,
south direction. Sodium, Oxygen etc.
 A magnet may be (i) Natural (ii) Artificial (iii) Ferromagnetic substance : Ferromagnetic
 Natural magnet is oxide of iron. But due to irregular susbstances are those substance. which when placed
shape, weak magnetism and high brittleness, natural in a magnetic field, are strongly magrietised in the
magnets find no use in the laboratory. direction of field. Examples : Iron, Cobalt, Nickel
 The magnets made by artificial methods are called etc.
artificial magnets or man made magents. They may be  Domain: Atoms of ferromagnetic substance have a
of different types like bar magnet, horse shoe magnet. permanent dipole moment i.e. they behave like a very
Robinson’s ball ended magnet, magnetic needle, small magnet. The atoms forms a large no. Of effective
electromagnet etc. regions called domain in which 1018 to 1021 atoms
have their dipole moment aligned in the same direction.
 The two points near the two ends of a magnet where the
The magnetism in ferromagnetic substance, when placed
attracting capacity is maximum are called magnetic
in a magnetic field, is developed due to these domain
poles. When a magnet is freely suspended, its one pole
by (1) the displacements of boundaries of the domains
always directs towards the north The poles is called (2) the rotation of the domains.
north pole. The other pole is calles south pole.
 Curie Temperature : As temperature increase, the
 The imaginary line loining the two poles of a magnet is magnetic property of ferromagnetic substance decreases
called magnetic axis of the magnet. and above a certain temperature the substanced changes
 Similar poles repel each other and dissimilar poles into paramagnetic substance. This temperature is called
attract each other. Curie temperature.
 When a magnetic substance is placed rear a magnet,it  Permanent magnets are made of steel, cobalt steel,
gets magnetised due to induction. ticonal, alcomax and alnico.
 Magnetic Field: Region in space around a magnet  Electromagnets, cores of transformers, telephone
where the magnet has its magnetic effect is called disphragms, armatures of dynamos and motor’s are
magnetic field of the magnet. made of soft iron, mu-metal and stalloy.
 Intensity of magnetic fieldc or magnetic flux density:  Terrestrial Magnetism : Our earth behaves as a
Magnetic flux density of a point in a magnetic field in powerful magnet whose south pole is near the
the force experinced by a norht pole of unit strentht of geographical north pole and whose north pole is near
unit strenght placed at that point Its SI unit is newton/ the geographical south pole. the magnetic field of earth
ampere-meter or weber/meter2 or tesla (T) of a place is described in the terms of following three
elements.
 Magnetic lines of force : The magnetic lines of force
(i) Declination : The acute angle between magnetic
are imaginary curves which represent a magnetic field
meridian and geographical meridian at a place is called
graphically. The tangent drawn at any point on the
the angle of declination at that place.
magnetic lines of force gives the direction of magnetic
(ii) Dip or Inclination : Dip is the angle which the
fiels at that point.
resultant earth’s magnetic field at a place makes with
 Properties of magnetic lines of force : the horizontal. At poles and equator, dip is 90 and 0
(i) Magnetic lines of force are closed curves. Outside respectively.
the magnet they are from norht to south pole and (iii) Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field
inside the magnet they are from south to north pole. : At a place it is defined as the component of earths
(ii) Two lines of force near intersect each other. magnetic field along the horzontal in the magnetic
(iii) If the lines of force are crowded, the field is strong. meridian.
(vi) If the liens of force are parallel and equidistant the Its valve is different at different places.
field is uniform. (approximately 0.4 gauss or 0.4 x 10’4 tesla)

27
 Electronics
 Electronics : Electronics is the branch of physics and holes. Semi- conductors are usded in electronics
technology concerned with the behaviour and movement industry.
of electrons. Types of Semi-Conductor :
 Diode Valve : Designed by J. A. Fleming in 1904, diode (i) Intrinsic Semi - Conductor : A semi conductor in
valve consists of two electrodes placeed inside an an extremeley pure form is known as intrinsic semi
evacuated glass envelop. One electrode is callecd conductor.
cathode which is made up of tungsten on which there is (ii) Extrinsic, Semi- Conductor : If a measured and
a thin layer of barium oxide. When heated, cathode emits small amount of chemical impurity is added to
electrons. These electrons flow towards the other intrinsic semi conductor, it is called extrinsic semi-
electrode called anode or plate, which is at positive conductor or deped semi conductor. As a result of
potential. As a result an electric current is established doping, there is large increase in its conductivity.
in the circuit.
 Extrinisic semi conductor are of two types:
 The electrons emitted from the cathode are collected in
(a) N type semi conductor : An extrionic semi
the evaluated space around it. This collection of
conductor in which electrons are majority charge
electrons is called space charge which is obviously
carrier 4 is called N type semi conductor. Such a
negative.
semi conductor is made by doping a pure semi
 Diode valve acts a rectifier. Rectifier is a device which conductor with pentavalent impurity like Arsenic,
converts alternating voltage (curent) into direct voltage Antimony & Phosphours.
( curent).
(b) P type semi conductor : A An extrinsic semi
 Triode Valve : Designed by Lee de Forest in 1907, conductor in which holes are the majority charge
triode valve is a modified form of usual diode. It consists carrier is called a p type semi conductor. Such a
of a usual anode-cathode pair and one more electrode semi, conductor is made by doping a pure semi
called control grid. conductor with trivalent impurity like Gallium,
 Triode valve can be used as amplifier, oscillator, Indium, Boron and Aluminium.
transmitter and detector.  Doping : Adding of chemical impurity to a pure semi
 Semi - conductor : Semi conductor are those materials conductor is called doping. The amount and type of
whose electrical conductivity, at room tem-perature, lies impurity is closely controlled.
in between thta of insulator and comductor. Germenium  Donor : Pentavalent impurities are called donor.
and Silcon are two important semiconductor In a crystal
 Acceptor : Trivalent impurities are called acceptor.
lattices of simi- conductor, some of the electrous become
free from bond formation. At the sites of these dlectrons  The electical conductivity of a semi conductivity of a
a deficiency of electron exis which acts as a irtual semi conductor increases with the increase in
positive charge. These virtual positive charges are called temperature.

28
 Scientific Instruments
Instrument Use
Altimeter Measures altitudes used in aircraft
Ammeter Measures strength of electric current
Anemometer Measures force and velocity of wind and directions.
Audiometer Measures intensity of sound
Barograph Continuous recording of atmospheric pressure
Barometez. Measures atmospheric pressure.
Binoculars To view distant objects
Bolorneter To measure heat radiation
Callipers Measure inner and outer diameters of bodies
Calorimeter Measures quantities of heal
Cardiogram (ECG) Traces movements of the heart, recorded on a Cardiograph
Cathetoxneter Determines heights, measurement of levels, etc, in scientific experment
Chronometer Cetermines longitude of a vessel at sea.
Colorimeter Compares intensity of colours
Commutator To change / reverse the direction of electric current; Also used to convert AC into DC
Cryometer A type of thermometer used to measure very low temperatures, usually close to 0’C
Cyclotron A charged particle accelerator which can accelerator charged particles to high energies
Dilatometer Measures changes in volume of substances
Dyanamo To convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
Dynamometer Measures electrical power
Electornecephalograph (EEC) Records and interprets the electrical waves of the brain ( brain waves)
Electrometer Measures very small but potential difference in electric currents
Electromicroscope To obtain a magnifying view of very small objects Capable of magnifying up to 20, 000 times
Endoscope To examine internal parts of the body
Fathometer Measures depth of the ocean
Fluxmeter Measures magnetic flux
Galvanometer Measures electric current
Hydrometer Measures the relative density of liquids
Hygrometer Measures level of humidity
Hydrophone Measures sound under water
Hygroscope Shows the changes in atmospheric humidity
Hyprosometere To determine boiling point of liquids
Kymograph Graphically records physiological movement. (e.g. blood pressure/heart-beat)
Lactometer Measures the relative density of milk to determine purity
Machmeter Determines the speed of an aircraft in terms of the speed of sound
Magnetometer Compares magnetic movements and fields
Manometer Measures distances / angles
Microscope To obtain a magnified view of small objects
Nephetometer measures the scattering of light by particles suspended in a liquid
Ohmmeter To measure electrical resistance in ohms
Ondometer Measures the frequency of electromagnetic waves, especially in the radio- frequency band
Periscope To view objects above seal level ( used in submarines )
Photometer Compares the luminous intensity of the source of light
Polygraph Instrument that simultaneously records changes in physiological processes such as heartbeat,
blood-pressure and respiration; used as a lie detector
Pyknometer Determines the density and coefficient of expansion of liquids
Pyrheliometer Measures components of solar radiation
Pyrometer Measures very high temperature
Quadrant Measures altitudes and angles in navigation and astronomy
Radar To detect the direction and range of an approaching aeroplane by means of radiowaves,
(Radio, Angle, Detection and Range)
Radio Micrometer Measures heat radiation
Refractometer Measures refractive indices
Salinomjeter Determines salinity of solutions

29
 Lever
Introduction Here, it is a first-class lever.
In our daily life, we see many objects around us such as a In this, we can see that we have to apply an effort (force)
see-saw in the park, spoons in the kitchen, scissors, bottle against gravity.
openers, joints in the human body. Like, in a garage, a screw jack is fixed at the bottom and as
What is Lever? we start rotating the jack, the car moves upwards, here we
The lever is a rigid bar that allows a heavier or a steadfast applied little force, and the car applied that force to move
object to lie on the fixed point with a smaller force. upward.
Three different types of levers exist, depending on where the Second-Class Lever
input force, fulcrum, and load are. Did you notice that when you try to tear the paper into equal
 A first-class lever has the fulcrum (fixed point) between parts manually, it takes much time?
the input force and load. If you use scissors, then the time would be saved, though the
 A second-class lever has the load between the fulcrum effort applied was less, the work got done in speed.
(pivot) and the input force. Which means the speed is increased here to get the job done
earlier.
 A third-class lever is a lever that has the input force in
the middle of the fixed point and the load. Third-Class Lever
On this page, we shall learn the following things: You might've been to villages, where people
 What are simple machines? depending upon the well as a water resource, they apply their
effort upward in pulling out the water from the well via the
 Fulcrum, Lever, Effort, Load bucket attached to the string, but it is easy to use a pulley,
 First-class, second-class and third-class lever then the effort would've been downwards (towards the grav-
 Mechanical advantage (MA) ity). Hence the effort applied would be less.
 Examples (Real-life) Classification of Levers based on MA
What are Simple Machines? S.No. Types of Lever Mechanical Attribute
The word machine has come from the Greek word which 1. First-classlever Greater than 1 Force multiplier
means "to help make things easier."Energy remains conserved 2. Second- Less than 1 Speed multiplier
because machines can't do more work than the energy we put
class lever Equal to 1 Change in
in. The lever is nothing, but a rod and
3. Third- direction of
The thing we encounter in day-to-day life having a rod-like
function is "Lever." Lever has a fixed point through which it class lever the effort
is easy to rotate it about that point. Such as a bottle opener, It can work as a force multiplier, speed multiplier and in
scissors, pliers, stapler, nut-Cracker; etc. changing the direction of Effort As well (Depending on the
Let’s Talk About Basic Definitions: value of MA)
1. Load (L): A resistive force that is to be overcome by a Let’s Understand:
machine is called the Load. S.I. The unit is Newton (N). This is a first-class lever, it has Fulcrum (pivot) in the middle,
2. Effort (E): An external force applied to a simple ma- Load at one end, and effort on the other.
chine to overcome a load is called Effort. S.I. The unit is Examples of the First-class lever
Newton (N). 1. See - Saw
3. Fulcrum (Pivot, F): The point on which something turns Here, in this case:
or is supported. The Fulcrum (pivot) is between the Load and the Effort
4. Mechanical advantage (MA): The ratio of Load (L) to such that
overcome the magnitude of Effort (E). Length of Load Arm (La) = Length of Effort Arm (Ea).]
Where MA is nothing but the ratio of the Effort arm to the MA (Mechanical advantage) = Ea / La
Load arm, which we would be discussing in the class of Le- As Ea = La
vers. MA = 1
MA = Effort Arm (E)/Load Arm (L) Which means the change in direction.
Effort Arm (E) = The distance between the effort (force) 2. Pliers
and the Fulcrum (pivot)
Here, Ea > La, as you can see in the image above that
Load Arm (L) = The distance between the Load and the the Effort Arm is greater than the Load Arm.
Fulcrum (pivot)
As we know, MA = Ea/ La,
Types of Levers
Here, Ea > La, MA > 1
First-Class Lever
Therefore, it works as a Force Multiplier.

30
3. Scissors FRICTION FORCE-Frictional force is the force generated
In the above image of scissors, we can see that the Length by two surfaces that contact and slide against each other.
Arm > Effort Arm: TYPES OF FRICTION
As, MA = Ea / La There are four types of friction and they are classified as
And, Ea < La follows:
So, MA < 1  Static friction
Here, it works as a Speed Multiplier
 Sliding friction
 Example of a second-class lever
In the above image, La > Ea.  Rolling friction
So, MA < 1, therefore works as a  Fluid friction
Speed Multiplier. STATIC FRICTION
 Example of a third-class lever The friction experienced when individuals try to move a
Here, La > Ea stationary object on a surface, without actually triggering
MA = Ea / La any relative motion between the body and the surface on
As, Ea < La, implies that MA < 1 which it is on.
Change in Direction It can be explained as the force of friction which precisely
Velocity ratio:= Distance traveled by effort (m) / Distance balances the applied force for the duration of the stationary
traveled by Load (m) state of the body.
Work Input:= Effort (E)* distance traveled by an Effort (n) The static frictional force is self-regulating, i.e. static friction
Efficiency (p):= Work output / work Input will at all times be equivalent and opposite to the force
applied.R is the reaction force because of the weight W. The
= Mechanical advantage / Velocity ratio
external force is F, and fr is the friction. F = -fr when no
= M.A. / V.R.
motion takes place.
Summary:
We call levers simple machines because they have only two
parts - Fulcrum and the Handle, where the handle or bar of
the lever is called the “Arm,” and Fulcrum is the point on
which the lever rotates.
Lever and its Type
The lever can be defined as a machine that is quite simple in
its arrangement and is composed of a rigid rod or a beam
that is put on a fixed hinge which is called the fulcrum. This,
the fulcrum is the point where the lever is placed and this
either turns or supports it. This is then used to transfer a force
to a load which is advantageous mechanically. The lever is a
structure that can rotate in itself at a point. There are 3 types Limiting Friction:
of this structure, namely that-class lever, second class and It is the highest value of static friction which comes into
third-class lever. They are classified according to the ful- play when an object is just about to slide over the surface of
crum, the force and the load. a different object. For an exerted external force greater than
The main use of levers is mechanical advantage which is the limiting friction, the body begins to move.
defined as the quantity a special machine multiplies a force Once the motion has started, static friction cannot be
applied. This can be calculated or found out by considering considered. A new type of friction termed as kinetic
the location of load, effect and fulcrum which in turn gives friction comes into play.
the type of lever and the amount of mechanical advantage
SLIDING FRICTION
the machine has. When the effort is in a longer distance from
the fulcrum then the load becomes easier to move. It is equal Sliding friction can be understood as the resistance created
to the ratio of the effort of the load and the distance from the by any two objects while sliding over each other. Since it
effort of fulcrum to the load of the fulcrum’s distance. If the can also be defined as the force required to keep one object
distance of effort to the fulcrum is larger than the load of the sliding over another, it is also known as kinetic friction. It
fulcrum’s distance then there is a mechanical advantage in acts in the direction opposite to the direction of application
the lever. Thus, the ratio of the two distances will be greater of force and resists the real relative sliding motion between
than one which means that when there is a long distance from the two contact surfaces. For example, consider there is a
fulcrum to the effort and a short distance from the fulcrum to table that you wish to move. A weak force will not set the
the load then a small effort will move a heavy or large load. table into motion. As you increase the force applied, the
FRICTION-Friction is defined as the resistance offered by table begins moving. The resistance created will be equal
the surfaces that are in contact when they move past each to the force applied but will operate in the opposite
other. direction.

31
 moving on a circular path, that has the same magnitude and
dimensions as the force that keeps the particle on its circular
path (the centripetal force) but points in the opposite
direction.
Centripetal force
A centripetal force (from Latin centrum, “center”
and petere, “to seek”) is a force that makes a body follow a
curved path. Its direction is always orthogonal to the motion
of the body and towards the fixed point of the
ROLLING FRICTION
instantaneous center of curvature of the path. Isaac
Rolling friction occurs when a wheel, ball, or cylinder Newton described it as “a force by which bodies are drawn
rolls freely over a surface, as in ball and roller bearings. or impelled, or in any way tend, towards a point as to a
The main source of friction in rolling appears to be centre”. In Newtonian mechanics, gravity provides the
dissipation of energy involved in deformation of the centripetal force causing astronomical orbits.
objects.
Gravitation
NOTE:
Each body in this universe attracts other bodies towards itself
Static Friction>Sliding friction>Rolling friction with a force known as Gravitational Force. Thus,
ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF gravitation is a study of the interaction between two masses.
FRICTION Out of the two masses, the heavier one is called source
Advantages of friction are below: mass, and the lighter one is called test mass.
Gravitational force is a central force which depends only on
 Automobile brakes employ friction just to stop the
the position of the test mass from the source mass and always
vehicle. acts along the line joining the centres of the two masses.
 It assists us in walking on the earth. Newton’s Law of Gravitation
 Friction causes asteroids or stones to disintegrate According to Newton’s law of gravitation, “Every particle
throughout the atmosphere prior to actually approaching in the universe attracts every other particle with a force whose
the entire planet (Earth). magnitude is,
Disadvantages of friction are below: Directly proportional to the product of their masses, i.e., F
(M M ) . . . . (1)
 Friction generates excessive heat, resulting in energy   1 2
Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
waste.
their centre, i.e., (F  1/r2) . . . . (2)
 A sum of investment is spent on avoiding friction as On combining equations (1) and (2) we get,
well as the mileage that it causes by adopting procedures
F  M1M2/r2
such as lubricating.
F = G × [M1M2]/r2 . . . . (7)
 Because friction works in the reverse orientation of
Or, f(r) = GM1M2/r 2 [f(r)is a variable, Non-contact, and
movement, it decreases the movement of shifting. conservative force]
Coefficient of friction As f(r) varies inversely as a square of ‘r’ it is also known as
coefficient of friction, ratio of the frictional force resisting inverse square law force. The proportionality constant (G)
the motion of two surfaces in contact to the normal force in the above equation is known as the gravitational constant.
pressing the two surfaces together. It is usually symbolized The dimension formula of G is [M-1L3T-2]. Also, the value
by the Greek letter mu (ì). Mathematically, ì = F/N, of the gravitational constant,
where F is the frictional force and N is the normal
In SI units: 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2 kg-2,
force. Because both F and N are measured in units of force
-8 2 -2
(such as newtons or pounds), the coefficient of friction is In CGS units: 6.67×10 dyne cm g
dimensionless. What is G and g?
Centrifugal force The G and g are distinct entities in physics. Below is the
centrifugal force, a fictitious force, peculiar to a particle table of the difference between G and g.
Symbol Definition Nature of Value Unit
Acceleration g The acceleration experienced Changes from place to place. m/s2
due to gravity by a body under free fall due
to the gravitational force of the Acceleration due to gravity of the
massive body earth is 9.8 m/s2
Universal G The force of attraction between Constant at any point in this universe. Nm2/kg2
Gravitational two objects with unit mass
Constant separated by a unit distance G = 6.67×10-11 Nm2/kg2
at any part of this universe.

32
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MASS AND WEIGHT are the same. If you change your location with respect to
For the most part, when comparing mass and weight on gravity, mass will remain unchanged, but weight will not.
Earth—without moving!—the values for mass and weight For example, your body’s mass is a set value, but your weight
is different on the Moon compared with on Earth.
Mass (M) Weight (W)
Mass is a property of matter. The mass of Weight depends on the effect of gravity. Weight increases or decreases
an object is the same everywhere. with higher or lower gravity.
Mass can never be zero. Weight can be zero if no gravity acts upon an object, as in space.
Mass does not change according to location. Weight varies according to location.
Mass is a scalar quantity. It has magnitude. Weight is a vector quantity. It has magnitude and is directed toward the
center of the Earth or other gravity well.
Mass may be measured using an ordinary Weight is measured using a spring balance.
balance.
Mass usually is measured in grams and Weight often is measured in newtons, a unit of force.
kilograms.



33
 Content
1. Chemistry 2

2. Physical and Chemical Changes, Solution 11

3. Atomic Structure 13

4. Concept of Atomic, Molecular & Equivalent Masses 17

5. Oxidation and Reduction 19

6. Acid, Base and Salt 22

7. Chemistry of Non-Metals Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen 24

8. Carbon and Their Different Forms 28

9. Air and Water 30

10. Valency 33

11. Organic Chemistry 36

12. Periodic Classification of Elements 39

13. Metals, Minerals, Ores : Properties, Uses 44

14. Food Preservation, Nutrition, Medicine, etc. 45

15. Detergent and Soap 47

16. The Fertilizers 48

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 Chemistry
 What is Chemistry?  Particles in a :
Chemistry is brach of science that systematically studies  Gas is well separated with no regular arrangement.
the composition, properties, and acitivity of organic and  Liquid are close together with no regular
inorganic substances and various elementary forms of arrangement.
matter. Simply we can say that it is a scientific study of  Solid are tightly packed, usually in a regular Pattern.
matter, its properties, and interactions with other matter
 Particles in a :
and with energy.
 Gas vibrates and moves freely at high speeds.
 MATTER : Anything in the universe which occupies
occupies space and has mass is called matter. It can be  Liquid vibrate, move about, and slide past each
changed from one form to another or into energy but other.
can never be completely destroyed.  Solid vibrate (jiggle) but generally do not move
 Physical forms of matter : (1) Solid (2) Liquid & (3) from place to place.
Gases  Liquids and solids are often referred to as
Gases, liquids and solids are all made up of atoms, condensed phases because the particles are very
molecules, and/or lons, but the behaviors of these close together. the following table summarizes
particles differ due to intermolecular space and force properties of gases, liquids, and solids

Some characteristics of Gases, Liquids and Solids

Gas Liquid Solid

Assumes the shape and volume of its Assumes the shape of the part of the Retains a fixed volume and shape rigid
container particle can move freely container which it occupies particle particles are locked Not easily
compressible Flows easily . can move/slide Not easily compressible Does not flow easily.
compressible Flows easily .

 Behavior of Gases : (b) Melting point of such substances decreases

(i) Boyles’s law : when and gas is expanded or with increase in pressure whose volume
compressed at constant temperature, its volume (V) decreases on melting eg. ice, melting iron etc.
& Pressure (P) are inversely proportional to each (ii) Freezing point : the temperature at which a liquid
other ( of a give mass of gas) P1 V1 = P2 V2 constant. freezes at a certain pressure known as freezing
(ii) Charle’s law : when any gas is expand or point. Generally melting and freezing point of the
compressed at constant pressure, the volume (V) substance is equal. eg. M.P. & F.P. of ice is o’C
(of the given mass of a gas) is directly proportional (iii) Evaporation : The process of change from liquid
to the absoult temperature i.e. V QT at constant state to gaseous ( vapor) is called evaporation /
temperature. vaporization.
V1 V2 Evaporation depends on :

T1 T2 (a) Lower the boiling point higher the rate of
(iii) Avogadro’s law : Under the similar conditions of evaporation.
temperature and pressure equal volume of all gases (b) Higher the tempeature higher the rate of
contain the equal number of molecules (n1 = n2) evaporation.
V1 V2 (c) Greater the surface area greater the rate of

n1 n 2 evaporation
 Noble gases : They are called noble gases because of (iv) Boiling point : The temperature at which a liquid
their chemical internet Ex. Helium, neon, argon, krypton, changes into gas or vapor is known as boiling point.
xenon and radon. These are colourless and orderless. Boiling point increases with increase in pressure
 Concept of Change Instate of Matter : and decreases with decrease in pressure.
(i) Melting point : The temperature at which a solid  Chemical forms of matter : (i) Elements
changes into liquid known as melting point. (ii) Compounds (iii) Mixtures
Effect of pressure on melting point : (i) Elements : It is the simplest form of a pure
(a) Melting point of such substances increases with substance that neither be broken into nor built from
increase in pressure whose volume increases simpler substances by anyphysical or chemical
on melting eg. Wax. copper. method.

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 Element, symbols and atomic numbers
Element Symbol Atomic No. Name Symbol Atomic No.

Hydrogen H 1 Iron (Ferum) Fe 26

Helium He 2 Bobalt Co 27
Lithium Li 3 Nickel Ni 28
Beryllium Be 4 Copper Cu 29
Boron B 5 Zinc Zn 30
Carbon C 6 Germenium Ge 32
Nitrogen N 7 Bromine Br 35
Oxygen O 8 Krypton Kr 36
Fluorine F 9 Zirconium Zr 40
Neon Ne 10 Silver Ag 47
Sodium (Natrium) Na 11 Tin Sn 50
Magnesium Mg 12 Antimony Sb 51
Aluminium Al 13 Iodine I 53
Silicon Si 14 Barium Ba 56
Phosphorous P 15 Gold Au 79
Sulphur S 16 Mercury Hg 80
Chlorine Cl 17 Lead Pb 82
Argon Ar 18 Bismuth Bi 83
Potassium K 19 Radium Ra 88
Calcium Ca 20 Thorium Th 90
Titanium Ti 22 Uranium U 92
Vanndium V 23 Plutonium Pu 94
Chromium Cr 24 Curium Cm 96

 Types of Metals : (A) Metals (B) Non-metals (C)  opaque as a thin sheet (can’t see through
Metalloids metals)
(A) Metals : These are good conductor of electricity  metals are sonouous or make a bell- like sound
(max. in silver) and heat, gernerally in solid form when struck
at room temperature ( Exception: Mercury, which  Metallurgy : The process of extraction a metal in a
exist in liquid form at room temperature) have luster
pure state on a large scale from its one by physical or
Ex. Copper, silver, gold etc.
chemical means is called metallurgy.
Physical properties of Metal
 Ores : Those minearals from which the metals are
 Iustrous (shiny)
extracted commercially and econocically and with
 good conductors of heat and electricity minimum efforty are called ores of the metal.
 high melting point All ores of the metals are minerals but all minerals are
 high density ( heavy for their size) not ones.
 malleable (can be hammered)  Gangue: the earthy and other insoluble impurities
 ductile (can be drawn into wires) associated with the minerals are known as gangue.
 usually solid at room temperature (an exception
is mercury)
Some important ores of metals
Names of the elements Ores Chemical Formulae

Aluminum (Al) (a) Bauxite Al2O32HZO

(b) Corundum Al2O3
(c) Kryolite Na3AIF6
Iron (Fe) (a) Hematite Fe2O3
(b) Magnetite Fe3O4
(c) Iron Pyrite FeS2
(d) Siderite FeCO3

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 Names of the elements Ores Chemical Formulae

Copper (Cu) (a) Copper Pyrite CuFeS2

(b) Copper Glance Cu2S
(c) Malachite 2CuCO3 Cu(OH)2
Zinc (Zn) (a) Zinc Blende ZnS
(b) Calamine ZnCO3
Sodium (Na) (a) Rock Salt NaCl
(b) Solium Carbonate Na2CO3
Potassium (k) (a) Karnalite KCl MgCl6 HzO
(b) Salt Petre KNO3
Lead (Pb) (a) Galena PbS
(b) Anglesite pbCl2
Tin (Sn) (a) Tin Pyrites Cu2 FeSnS4
(b) Cassiterite SnO2
Silver (Ag) (a) Silver Glance Ag2S
Gold (Au) (a) Calve rite AuTe2
(b) Sybarite AgAuTe2
Mercury (Hg) (a) Cinnabar HgS
(b) Calomel Hg2Cl 2
Magnesium (Mg) (a) Dolomite MgCo3 CaCO3
(b) Karnalite KCl MgCl2 6H2O
Calcium (Ca) (a) Lime Stone CaCO3
(b) Dolomite MgCO3 CaCO3
Phosphorous (P) (a) Phosphorite Ca3(PO4)2
(b) Floreopetite 3 Ca3 (PO4) CaFe2

 Alloys : An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals (or a metal and non-metal) mixed in a definite
propotion in theier molten state.
Some Important Alloys
Name Composition use
Brass Cu (60 to 80%), Zn (40 to 20%) For making household utensils
Bronze Cu (75 to 90%), Sn (25 to 10%) For making coins, idols, utencils
German Silver Cu (60%), Zn (25%), Ni (15%) For amking utencils
Magnelium Mg (5%), Al (95%) For making aircraft frame
Rolled Gold Cu (90%), Ni (10%) For making cheap ornaments
Monel metal Cu (70%), Ni (30%) For making alkali resistant containers
Bell metal Cu (80%), Sn (20%) For making bells
Gun metal Cu (85%), Zn (10%), Sn (5%) Used for engineering purposes
Solder Sn (50-75%), Pb (50-25%) Soldering of metals
Duralium Al (95%), tu (4%), Mg (0.5,Mn (0.5%) In aircraft manufacturing
Steel Fe (98%), C (2%) For making nails, screws, bridges
Stainless Stell Fe (82%) Cr, Ni (18%) For making cooking utensils, knives
 Explosives :  Radon is the heaviest gas.
(i) Dynamite : It was discovered by Alfred Noble.  Silver is the best conductor of electricity.
(ii) Tri-Nitro-Toluene (TNT)  To avoid melting of ice gelatine is used.
(iii) Tri-Nitro Benzene (TNB)  When dry ice heated it is directly converted into
 Some Important Facts : gas.
 Diamond has mximum refractive index and due to  Acetyline is used for light production.
total internal reflection.  Cardium rod is used in nuclear reactor to slow down
 Polonium has the maximum number of isotopes. the speed of neutron.

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  In tube light there is the vapour of mercury and  non-ductile solids
argon.  brittle solids
 Zeolite is used to remove hardness of water.  may be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature
 Silver iodide is used in artificial rain.  transparent as a thin sheet
 Nichrome write is used in electrical heater.  Some important Non Metal :
 Iron phritey is known as fools gold. (i) Hydrogen : It is the lightest gas. It has three
 Water: isotopes
 It is colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid. Of Protium : 1H1 deuterium -1H2- Tritium - 1H3
the total global water, the oceans and inland saline (ii) Nitrogen : 78% by volume in atmosphere. Liquid
waterbodies hold 97.3% and the fresh water nitrogen is used for refrigeration.
amounts to only 2.7% Waterconstitute about 65% Ammonia is the compounds of nitrogen which is
of our body and is an essential element for its prepared by Haber's process.
growth.
(iii) Phosphorous : An important consfituent of animal
 The density of ice is less than that of water and and plants. It is presentin bones and DNA.
hence ice floats over water.
(C) Metalloids : Those elements which pass both metallic
 Water has maximum density (1g) at 4°C. and non-metallic properties are known as metalloid. eg.
 M.P is 273.2 K and B.P. is 373.2 K. Antimony, Silicon, Boron, Arsenic etc.
 Heavy Water : Chemically heavy water is deuterium  Periodic Classification of Elements:
oxide (D20). It wa discovery by Urey in 1932. It has  Mandleey's periodic law (1869) : The physical
been finding use in nuclear reactors as a moderator and chemical properties of the elements are the
because it slows the fast moving neutrons. periodic function of their atomic masses.
 Properties of water : The freezing point, boiling point,  In modern periodic table : Given by Moseley.
heat of fusion and heat of vaporisation of water are According to this physical and chemical properties
higher as compared to the hydrides of the other members of the elements are the periodic function of their
of same group of oxygen. atomic number. Horizontal lines are called period.
(B) Non-metals : They have the property opposite to the Vertical lines are called period. Vertical lines are
metals. They are found is solid, liquid and gaseous form. called groups. There are 7 Pcriods and 18 groups
Ex. Carbon, oxygen etc. There are 24 non-metals. Gases and four blocks, S, P, d and f.
-11, Solid-12, Liquid-1 Si and Ge is semi conductor  Period properties : Size increases in group and
(Generally these are bad conductor of electricity and decreases in periods due to effective nuclear charge.
heat)
(ii) Compounds : A pure substance which contains more
Non-metal Physical Properties : than one kind of element or atom in fixed proportion by
 not lustorous (dull appearance) weight eg. NaCI (Sodium chloride), S0 2 (sulphur
 Poor conductor of heat and electricity dioxide) etc. The properties of a compound are
completely different from those of its consituents.

Common and Chemical names of some compounds

Common Name Chemical Chemical Formula
Dry Ice Solid Carbondioxide CO2
Slaked lime Calcium Hydroxide Ca (OH)2
Bleaching Power Calcium Oxychioride CaOCl2
Nausadar Ammonium Chloride NH4CL
Caustic Soda Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Rock Salt Sodium Chloride NaCl
Caustic Potash Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Potash Alum Potassium Aluminium Sulphate K2SO4Al2(SO4) 24H2O
Epsom Magnesium Sulphate MgSO47H2O
Quick Lime Calcium Oxide CaO
Plaster of Paris Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4)1/2 H2O
Gypsum Calcium Sulphate CaSO4 2H2O
Green Vitriol Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4 7H2O
Mohr's Salt Ammonium Ferrous Suplphate FeSO4 (NH4)2 SO4 6H2O
Blue Vitriol Copper Sulphate CuSO4 5H2O
White Vitriol Zinc Sulphate ZnSO4 7H2O

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 Common Name Chemical Chemical Formula
Marsh Gas Methane CH4
Vinegar Acetic Acid CH3OOH
Potash Ash Potassium Carbonate K2CO3
Hypo Sodium Thiosulphate Na2S2O3 5H2O
Baking Powder Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3
Magnesia Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3 10H2O
Chalk (Marble) Magnesium Oxide MgO
Lunar Caustic Silver Nitrale AgNO3
Laughing Gas Nitrous Oxide N2O
Chloroform Tricholorop Methane CHCl3
Vermelium Mercuric Suphide Hgs
Borax Borax Na2B4O710H2O
Alcohol Ethyl Alcohol C2H2OH
Sugar Sucrose C12H22O11
Heavy water Deuterium Oxide D2O
Globar's Salt Sodium Slphate Na2SO4 10H2O
T.N.T. Tri Nitrotoluene C6H2CH3(NO2)3
Calomel Mercurous Chloride HgCl
Sand Silicon Oxide SiO2

 Types of Compounds: (iii) Atomic weight or mass : Average mass of an atom

(i) Organic : Obtained from living sources proteins. of the element ×12
(ii) Inorganic : Obtained from Wt of one atom of C12.
 Mixtures : A material containing two or more elements The atomic mass of an element is number of times
or compounds in any proportion is a mixture. its atom is heavier the 1/12th of the mass of carbon
atom. The unit used to measure is called atomic
It can be separted ipto its constituents. Ex. Air, Milk,
mass unit (amu). eg. Hydrogen = 1, Carbon = 12
Paints, Cements etc.
(iv) Molecular mass : The relative molecular mass is
The properties of a mixture are the properties of its
the number which represents how many times a
constituents. molecule of that substance is heavier than 1/12th of
A mixture with definite boiling point is known as an atom of C.
azeotropic mixture. (v) Mole : A mole is the substance which contain the
Types of Mixtures : (i) Homogeneous (uniform same number of units (molecules atoms or ions) as
composition) (ii) Heterogeneous (Non-uniform the number of atoms in 12g of C 12 isotope.
composition) (vi) Constituentsof an atom :
 Separation of Mixtures: (a) Electron : It was discovered J.J. Thomson.
(i) Sublimation : Certain solid substances which when These are negatively charged (–1)
heated direcjfiy change into vapour without passing Mass = 9.1 × 10–31 kg. Charge = – (1.6 ×10–19
through the intermediate liquid state, eg. Iodine + coulomb)
sand, Camphor + sand. (b) Proton : Discovered by Goldstein Positively
(ii) Crystallization : It is based on the differences in charge (+1)
solubility of the two components in a solvent eg. Mass = 1.6726 × 1024 g. Charge = + (1.6 × 10–
Potassium Nitrate + Sodium chloride. 19
C.).
(iii) Distillation : The Process of converting a liquid (c) Neutron : Discovered by Chadwick. No charge.
into its vapour by heating and the subsequent Mass = 1.6749 × 49–24 g.
condensation of the vapour back into the orginal (vii)Nucleus : A positively charged centre on which
liquid is called distillation. eg. Iodine + Chloroform. whole mass of an atom is centered is known as
 Atomic structure : nucleus.
(i) Atom : Structural and functional unit of the (viii) Atomic number : The number of proton or
substance is known as an atom. Atom is the smallest electron present in an atom of the element is known
part of the element that takes part in a chemical as atomic number.
reaction. It does not exist in Free State, eg Na, K. (ix) Atomic mass : Numberof proton and neutron
(ii) Molecule : A molecule is the smallest part of the i present in the nucleus of an atom is known as atomic
independently. roass of mass number.

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 (x) Isotopes : Atoms of the elements having same (ii) Covalent bond
atomic number but different mass number. Conditions : Smaller the size higher the covalency.
(xi) Isobars : Same atomic mass but differs is atomic Electronegative element + electomegative element.
number. Formed by the mutual sharing of electron.
(xii)Isotones : Atoms of different element having same (iii) Cordinate bond : Dadve or semi polar bond. This
number of neutrons. is a specia type or bond in which a pair of electron
(xiii) Aufbau Principle : It states that orbital of lowest is donated by one atom only called Cordinate bond.
energy is filled first, before the filling of orbitals  Oxidation and Reduction : Addition of oxygen or
having higher energy starts. So, the order of relative electron is called oxidation. (Removal of H or
energy. electropositive element).
1S, 2S, 3S, 2P, 4S, 3P, 5S, 4P, 3d, 6S, 5P, 4d, 7s, Removal of electron is known as reduction (Addition
6p, 5d, 4f, 7p, 6d, 5f of electropositive element). eg. Removal of hydrogen
It follows (n + 1) rule atom is oxidation while addition of hydrogen atom is
 Chemical Bonding : The force that holds any two atoms reduction
to form a new entity is called a chemical bond. There H2 = Cl2  2HCl (Cl2 is reduced to HCl); H2S + Cl2 
are three types of bond : (i) Electrovalent bond (ii) 2HCl + S (H2S is oxidized to S)
covalent bond (iii) Coordinate bond. Addition of oxygen atom is oxidation while removal of
(i) Electrovalent bond wxygen atom is reduction
Coditions : Nonmetal, this bond formed by the C + O2  CO2 (C is oxidized to CO2); CuO + H2 Cu +
complete transfer of the eectron. H2O (CuO is reduced to Cu)
eg. Na + Cl  Na+, Cl, NaCl

 Reaction and Their Results :

Reaction Result
If a lighted paper is intoduced in a jar of carbon dioxide? The flame will be extinguished because carbon dioxide
does not help in buming.
If flame water is kept in air? If tums milky due to carbondioxide in the air.
Blue litmus is put into a soluction of acid? It tums red
Red litmus is put into a solution of base/alkali why? It tums blue
Why does a candle blow off when coverd? Because it does not gen oxygen which helps in buming.
Why is phosphouors kept in water? Because with air it catches fire and in water is is insoluble.
Suger gets charred on heating, why? When sugar is heated above 200° C decomposes into
carbon and water and therefore gets charred.
Why does the mass of an iron increase on rusting. Because rust is hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3 3H2O) which
adds to its mass.
Why is Salt mixed with ice when making ice cream? Salt causes reduction of temperature and helps to freeze
the creamand freezing temperature is lowered from 0° to
5°C
Why does milk curdle? Lactose (milk sugar) content of milk undergoes
fermentation and changes into lactic acid which on reading
with lactose forms curd.
Why does milk tum sour ? The microbes read with milk and grow. They tum lactose
into lactic acid which is sour in taste
Why doesn't thard water lather soap profusely? Hard water contains sulphates and chlorides of
magnesium and calcium which from an insoluble
compound with soap. Therefore soap does not lather with
hard water.
Why does sea water boil at a higher temperature than Sea water contains impurities which raises the boiling
fresh water? point of water.
Why is it dangerous to hove charcoal fire When charcoal burns its produces carbon monoxide which
buming in a closed room? is suffocating
Why is dangerous to sleep under trees at right Plants respire at night and give out carbon dioxide which
reduces the Oxygen content of air required for breathing
Why does ENO's salt effervesce on addition of water? On adding Water carbon dioxide produced which when
refeased into water causes effervescence

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 Acids and Bases : (iii) Salt: When acid reacts whith alkali salts and water are
(i) Acid : Sour in taste. Turns blue limus paper into formed.
red. Contains replicable hydrogen. Gives H + ion NaOH + HCI  NaCI + H2O
in aqueous solution. Proton donor. Lone pair of  Carbon and Its compounds : Carbon is a non-metal.
electron acceptor Its atomic number is 6 and mass number 12.
Use of acid :  Allotrophy : The substance which have same chemical
Citric acid : Lemons or oranges (citrus fruits) properties, but difierent physical properties are called
allotropes and this property is called allotrophy. eg.
Lactic acid : Sour milk Allotrophies of carbon-graphite, diamond-charcol.
Tatric acid : Grapes (i) Diamond: It is the purest form of carbon. It is the
(ii) Bases : The compound which gives salt and water hardest natural substance known to man. It has high
with acid known as bases. Bitter in taste. Turns red melting point and density. It is transparent.
litmus to blue. Water soluble bases are called Alkali (ii) Graphite: Grayish black opaque substance, soft
eg. NaOH, KOH, Ca (OH)2 and slippery to touch and has metallic lusture.
All alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies  Hydrocarbons: Compounds made up of hydrogen and
beacuse all bases are not soluble in water. carbon atoms are called hydrocarbon. The natural
 Strong bases : NaOH, KOH, Ca (OH)2 sources of hydrocarbons are:
 Weak bses : NH4OH, Mg (OH)2 (i) Saturated hydrocarbons : The hydrocarbons in
which carbon atoms are sigly bonded are called
 Hard & Soft Water : Water which produces lather with
saturated hydrocarbons, eg. Methane (CH4)
soap solution readily is called soft water. eg. Rain-water,
deminerlised, water. (ii) Unsaturated hyrocarbons : The hydrocarbons in
which carbon atoms are either doubly or triply
 Cause of hardnessof water : The hardness of water is bonded are called unsaturated hydrocarbons eg.
due to pressince of the bicarbonates, chlordes and propane C3H6.
sulphates of calcium and magnesium (Ca++ and Mt++)
 Aromatic hydrocarbon: These are homocyclic
Types of Hardness of water : compound which contain at least one benzene ring in
(a) Temporary hardness : This type of hardness in which carbon atom are lined to one another by alternate
water is due to the presence of bicarbonates of single and double bonds, eg Benzene (C6 H6)
calcium and magnesium. It can be removed by  Natural sources hydrocarbon is petroleum obtained
boiling. from sedimentary rocks.
(b) Permanent hardness : This type of hardness is  Polymers : Natural occuring polymers: Protein, nucleic
due to presence of bicarbonates of calcium and acid, cellulouse, starch etc
magnesium, it can be removed by boiling but some  Plastics : Plastics are cross linked pof^^fsand are very
chloride and suophates of calcium and magnesium tough. Lac is a natural plastic. Chemically plastic can
are also present with it which can not be removed be of two types:
by boiling. (i) Thermoplastic : It becomes soft on heating and
 Softening of water : The process of removal of hard on colling. Ex. Polystrene, polythene, PVC
hardness from water is called softening of water. etc.
(i) Water is treated with a calculated amount of Use : Acid bottles, celis levers'etc.
washing soda (Na 2CO 3) which converts the (ii) Thermosetting plastics : It becomes soft on
chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium heating and can be moluded as per size. Ex Bakelite,
into their respective carbonates. Glyptal, Terryene etc.
(ii) Iron exchange method : This method can be  Rubber
classified into two parts: Natural urbber : Isomer of isoprene and thermoplastic
 Inorganic cations exchanges. This method is also known Synthetic rubber : Neoprene and Thiokol (synthetic
as "Permutit Method". These are complex inorganic salts urbber)
like hydrated sodium-aluminium silicate" (Na2AI2Si208.  Fibres : A linked chain solid whose length is 100 or
xH2O) which have interesting property of exchanging 1000 times or more than its breadth called fibres. eg.
cations such as calcium and magnesium ions hard water Nylon-6.
whith sodium salt ions. These complex salts are known  Cement :
as "Zeolites." Organic ion exchanges: These are (a) Protland Cement: The approximate composition
complex organic molecules having giant hydrogen frame of Protland cement is:
work attached to acidic or basic groups. These are called (i) Calcium oxide — 62% (ii) Sillica — 22%, (iii)
ion exchange, resins. These are superior to zeolites Alumina — 7.5% (iv) Magnesia — 2.5% & (v)
because they can remove all types of cations as well as Ferric oxide — 2.5%
anjons present in water. The resulting water is kno^n as The above compounds are provided by the two raw
deionised water of remineralised water. materials: (i) Lime stone (ii) clay

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 In cement almost entire amount of lime is Present in 6. Quartz-glass : It is obtanined from pure silica. It
combined state as cal, silicates and cal. aluminates. has a low coefficent of expansioin and does not
 Cement containing excess amount of lime cracks during break evealvhienpiuged in water while red hot.
setting while cement containing less amount of lime is 7. Ground galss : It is prepared by grinding ordinary
weak in strenth. Setting of cement is an exothermic sand (soft) glass by emery ant turpentine oil.
process. 8. Relinforced glass : It has a network wires
 A small amount of gypsum is added to slow down the embendded in and does not shatter easily.
setting of cement, 9. Safety-glass : It is also known as shatter proof
 Cement with excess of silica shows slow setting and glass. It is prepared by placing a layer of transparent
that having an excess of alumina shows quick setting. plastid glass (usually a sheet of vinyl acetate resin)
 Cement containing no iron is white but hard to bum. between two layers of glass by means of a suitable
 Concrete : It is a mixture of cement, sand, gravel (small adhesive. This glass does not break easily under
pieces of stones) and approximate amount of water. ordinary impact. It used in making wind screen of
When the cement concrete is filled in and around a wire- automobiles, areoplanes, tranis etc.
netting or skeleton of iron and allowed to set the  Dyes : Coloured substances used for coluring textiles,
resulting structure is known as "Reinforced-conolete" foodstuffs, silk, wool, etc. are called dyes. But all
 Glass : Ordinary glass is solid mixture of silica (SiO2), coloured substances are not dyes. For a substance of
sodium silicate and (Na2SiO3) and calcium (CaSiO3). act as a dye, it must fulfill the following requirements:
Glass is a super colled liquid hence; it has no definite (i) It mist have a suitable attractive colour, ie, it should
crystal sturcture and melting point.Thus, ordinary glass absorb light in the visible region.
may be represented as Na2O, CaO, 6SiO2 Hence we can
(ii) It must be able to fix itself to the fabrics by either
s'ay'that glass is a mixture, not a compound.
physical or chemical bonding:
Colouring substance Colour of glass
1. Cobalt oxide Drak blue (iii) It must be fast to light; iy must not be affected either
by water, dilute acids or alkalies.
2. Sodium cromate or Ferous oxide Green colour
Differen classes of dyes are discussed below.
3. Silenium oxide Orange red
(i) Nitro dyes : These are polynitro derivatives of
4. Ferric salt or Sodium urate Yellow colour
pheno where nitro group acts as a chromophore and
5. Gold chloride or Pruple of Red as Ruby hydroxyl group as auxochrome. These are less
Causius important industrially because the coloure are not
6. Cuprous chloride and Cds Dork red fast.
7. Cupric salt Peacock blue (ii) Azo dyes : These are an important class of dyes
 Annealing of Glass : The processof slowly cooling of and are characterised by the presence of Azo group
glass in annealing kiln is called Annealing of glass. (–N = N—) as the chromophore. The groups like,
 Types of Glass : Glass is of following types. NH2, NR2, or –OH etc, present in the molecule
1. Soft-glass : It is soda-lime silicate glass (Na2O. containing one or more azo groups act as the
CaO. 6SiO2). It melts at low temperature It is used auxochromes.
in manufacturing of bottles, test tubes and glass of (iii) Triphenylmethane dyes : These dyes contain the
windows etc. parauinoid molety as chromophore and –OH, –NH2
2. Hard-glass : It is potash lime silicate (K2O.OaO. or – NR2 as auxochrome. These dyes are not fast to
6SiO2). It metals at high temperature in comparison light and washing and hence are-mainly used for
to soft glass and is used in mannufacturing of flask, colouring paper or typewriter ribmalchite green
etc. which is used of dyeing wool and silk-directly and
3. Fint-glass: It is lead-potash silicate (K2O.PbO. cotton after mordantin with tannin.
6SiO2) and is used in manufacturing of prism and (iv) Direct dyes : These include dyes which can be
lens of optical instruments. directly applied to the fabric when the latter, is
4. Crookes-glass : It is special type of optical glass dipped in a hot aqueous solution of the dye. Wool
containg ciu circum oxide which cut off ultra violet and silk are dyed by direct dyes. The polar groups
rays harmful to eyes and used in manufacturing of of the fabric (proteinic structure) unit with the polar
lens of spectales. groups of the dye and thus the dye is chemically
5. Pyrexs-glass : It a mixtule of sodium aluminum fired upon the fibre. Example, of direct dyes are
borosilicates (Na 2 O. AI 2 O 3[B 2(Si O) 3]). Its Mautius yellow, Naptho yellow S, Congo red, etc
coefficient of expansion is very low and hence it (v) Mordant dyes : Those dyes which arefj^^fct^l
can withstand sudden temp, changes. It has high fibre with the heplp of a modrant are known as
percentage of silica, about 80%. It is used in mordant dyes. Various mordants dpending upon the
manufacture of high quality equipments in nature of the dye are used. For acidic dyes, basic
laboratory because it does it does not melt mordants (like tannic acid) of iron, aluminium and
at very high temperature. chromium) are used, while for basic dyes, acidic

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mordants (like tannic acid) are used. Here the fabric (vi) Vat dyes : These are water insoluble dyes and are
is first dipped into a solution of mordant and then introduced into the fibre in its (soluble) reduced
into the dey solution. The colour poroduced form, also know as leuco form (colourless). The
depends on the nature of the mordants used. Using parent dye is regenerated by oxidant with air or a
alizarin as mordant dye and aluminium, chromium suitable chemical. These are called vat dyes because
and iron as mordants, red, brownish-red tories reductin operatio (using sodium hydrosuiphite) was
black-violet colours, respectively are produced. formely carried out in wooden vats. Indigi is a vat
dye and is used for dyeing cotton.



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 Physical and Chemical Changes, Solution
 Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and Comparison chart of Physical and Chemical changes
exhibits rest mass or inertia. Basis for Physical Chemical
 The three commonly occurring states of matter include Comparison Change Change
solid, liquid and gas. Meaning Physical change Chemical Change
 In our daily life, we encounter many changes in our sur- refers to a change is a process in
roundings, though we do not notice them, such as sour- in which the which the substance
ing of milk, rusting of iron, stretching of a rubber band, molecules are transforms into a
bread becoming toast, melting of wax, etc. rearranged but new substance,
Physical Changes their internal having different
 Physical changes, are the changes that change the physi- composition chemical
cal traits of the substance, without making any change remains same. composition.
in their internal structure. Nature Reversible Irreversible
 In physical changes no chemical bonds are broken or Original Matter Can be Cannot be
formed. recovered recovered
 Some examples of physical changes are : Involves Change in Physical Change in Physical
(i) Melting of wax properties of the and chemical
substance, i.e. properties and
(ii) Melting of ice
shape, size, composition of
(iii) Freezing of water
colour etc. the substance.
(iv) Vaporization of water
Product No new product New product is
(v) Dissolving sugar in water
Formation is formed. formed.
(vi) Chopping in wood
Energy Very little energy Absorption and
(vii) Crumpling of paper (or no energy) evolution of
 Physical change is a reversible process. is either absorbed energy take place,
Chemical Changes or evolved. during reaction.
 A chemical change is defined as the process in which
the atoms of one or more substances are rearranged or Solution
combine to form a new substance.  In chemistry, a solution is a special type of homoge-
 When a substance undergoes a chemical change, the neous mixture composed of two or more substances.
chemical properties of the substance changes and it is  Other characteristics of the solutions are -
transformed into a different substance with different (i) The particles of solute in a solution cannot be seen by
chemical composition. the naked eye.
(ii) A solution does not allow beams of light to scatter.
 Energy change is one of the characteristics of a chemi-
(iii) A solution is stable.
cal change, because of the formation of a new product.
(iv) From a solution, the solute cannot be separated by fil-
 Once the chemical change takes place, it cannot be re- tration.
versed.
Solvent:
 Some examples of chemical changes are as follows.  Solvents are molecules that have the ability to dissolve
(i) Adding vinegar to baking soda other molecules, known as solutes.
(ii) Bleaching a stain  A solvent can be solid, liquid or gas.
(iii) Fermenting of grapes The molecules of the solvent work to put the solute
molecules apart.
(iv) Burning of magnesium wire and paper
Types of Solution:
(v) Nail rusting
1. Gaseous Solution:
(vi) Sour of milk  If the solvent is gas, only gases are dissolved under a
(vii) Cooking of food given set of conditions.

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 Example of a gaseous solution is air (Oxygen and other Solubility :
gases dissolved in Nitrogen).  Amount of a substance (called the solute) that dissolves
2. Liquid Solution: in a unit volume of a liquid substance (called the sol-
 If the solvent is a liquid, then almost all gases, liquids vent) to form a saturated solution under specified con-
and solids can be dissolved. ditions of temperature and pressure.
 Examples of liquid solutions are as follows-  Solubility is expressed usually as moles of solute per
(i) Gas in liquid - Oxygen in water. 100 grams of solvent.
(ii) Liquid in liquid - Alchoholic beverages are basi- Osmosis :
cally solutions of ethanol in water.  Movement of solvent (such as water) througha semiper-
(iii) Solid in liquid - Sucrose in water; Sodium chloride meable memebrane into a solution of higher solute con-
in water. centration that tends to equalize the concentration of
Dilute Solution: solute on the two sides of the membrane.
 A dilute slution in chemistry is a solution that can accept Semipermeable Membrane:
more slute, until it becomes saturated, or in which thereis  A semipermeable membrane is any biological orsynthetic
a relatively small amount of solute dissolved in the so- membrane that allows certain moleculesor ions to pass
lution. through while restricting others.
Concentrated Solution:  A semipermeable membrane has spaces between the solid
 The concentrated solution is a solution that contains a portions of its structure that enables certain substances
large amount of solute relative to the amount that could or molecules to pass through but are designed to restrict
dissolve. others that are of larger size.
Saturated solution:
 A saturated solution is a solution that can not dissolve
any more of the substance that's been mixed into it.



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 Atomic Structure
Dalton's Atomic Theory  Cathode rays are also deflected from their path in mag-
 Dalton's atomic theory was the first complete attempt to netic field.
describe all matter in terms of atoms and their proper-  Cathode rays posses heating effect. When these strike a
ties. thin metal foil, it gets heated up.
 Dalton based his theory on the law of conservation of  The cathode rays penetrate sheets of aluminum ad other
mass and the law of contant composition. metals.
 The first part of his theory states that all matter is made  The cathode rays effect the photographic plates.
of atoms, which are indivisible.  The cathode rays produce X-rays when they strike met-
 The second part of the theory says all atoms of a given als with high m.pt. like tugsten, etc.
element are identical in mass and properties.  The cathode rays upon striking glass or certain other
 The third part says compounds are combinations of two material cause them to glow.
or more different types of atoms.  J.J. Thomson determined the ratio of the charge (e–) of
 The fourth part of the theory states that a chemical reac- the electron to its mass (m) by measuring the deflection
tion is a rearrangement of atoms. under the simultaneous influence of electric and mag-
 Parts of the theory had to be modified based on the dis- netic fields.
covery of subatomic particles and isotopes.  The value of e/m was found to 1.76 × 108 C/g for elec-
 Dalton put forward this theory about atom in 1808. trons.
Drawbacks of Dalton Atomic Theory  The charge of the electron was measured by R.A.
 It does not explain why atoms of different elements dif- Millikan.
fers in their mass, valencies etc. Proton (1P1 or 1H1)
 It does not explain the existence of isotopes and iso-  The existence of positively charged particles in an atom
bars. was shown by E. Goldstein in 1886.
 It does not explain the reason for difference in atoms of  The magnitude of charge on proton is 1.6 × 10–19 c.
different elements.  Mass of proton = 1.673 × 10–24g.
 Discovery of electron, proton and neutron discarded the  When a high voltage is supplied across the electrodes a
individual nature of atom proposed by Dalton. new kind of rays emerges from the hole in the cathode
Electron (1e0) opposite to the anode. These rays are anode rays.
 Electron was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897. Properties of Anode Rays
 Magnitude of charge on electron = 16 × 10–19C.  The anode rays travel in a straight line and cast shadow.
 Mass of electron = 9.108 × 10–28 g.  The anode rays are deflected by the magnetic and elec-
 When an electric discharge at high voltage is passed tric field and bent in the opposite direction of cathode
through a gas at low pressure a stream of rays is emitted rays.
from the cathode surface. These are called as cathode  The anode rays can also rotate the wheel placed in their
rays. path and also have heating effect.
Properties of Cathode Rays  The charge to mass ratio (e/m) for these rays is their
 Cathode rays always travel in straight line. Whenever erably smaller than electrons and is equal to 0.58 × 104
an object is placed in the path of cathode rays, it casts a C/g and this ratio e/m for positive rays depends upon
shadow o the walls opposite to the cathode. the nature of the gas taken in the tube.
 Cathode rays consists of material particles ad produce  The removal of electrons from neutral atoms or mol-
mechanical effects. ecules of gas results in the formation of positively
 The beam of cathode rays are deflected towards the posi- charged ions. These positively charged ions move to-
tive charged plate, hence the particles in the cathode rays wards perforated cathode and constitute beam of posi-
carry negative charge. tive rays.

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Neutron (0n1)  Isotopes have identical chemical properties but differ in
 The neutrons were discovered by james Chadwick. physical properties.
 e.g., 1H1 (Protium), 1H2 (Deuterium) and 1H3 (Tritium),
 These particle are neutral having charge zero. 16 17 18
8O , 8O and 8O ,
 Their mass is same as that of a hydrogen arom.
Isobars
so, its mass = 1.675 × 10–27 kg.
 Isobars are atoms with same mass number but different
Atomic Number and Mass Number atomic numbers.
 The concept of atomic number was given by Moseley.  Isobars are the atoms of different elements and they pos-
He also observed that when a beam of high speed elec- ses different physical and chemical properties.
trons if bombarded on a metal, X-rays are emitted. e.g., 1H3 and 2He3, 18Ar40 40 40, 130,
19K and 20Ca 52Te
130 and 134.
 Atomic number = number of protons in the nucleus – 56Ba 54 Xe
number of electrons. Isotones
 The sum of number of protons and neutrons present in  Isotones are the atoms of different elements possessing
the nucleus is called mass number and is a whole num- the same number of neutrons and have different mass
ber. number e.g., 1H3 and 2He4, 15P31 and 16S32, 19K19 and
40
 Mass number (A) 20Ca .
Structure of Atom
= number of protons + number of neutrons
Atoms are made up of three-types of smaller particles
= number of electrons + number of neutrons
called subatomic particles. They are electrons, protons and
= Atomic number + number of neutrons neutrons.
Different Atomic Species The existence of electrons in an atom was shown by J.J.
Isotopes Thomson, that of protons by E. Goldstein , and of neutrons
by James Chadwick. The electron is a. negatively charged
 Isotopes were discovered by F. Soddy. particle and the proton is a positively charged particle found
 Isotopes have the same atomic number but differ in their in the atoms of all elements. The neutron, a neutral particle,
mass numbers. is present in the atoms of all elements except hydrogen.
Subatomic particle Relative Mass Relative Charge Location in the Atom
Electron 1/184 u –1 Outside the nucleus
Proton 1u +1 In the nucleus
Neutron 1u 0 In the nucleus

Thomson's model of the Atom  The number of protons and electrons in an atom is equal.
According to Thomson's Model, an atom consists of a Therefore, the atom is electrically neutral.
sphere of positive charge with negatively charged electrons  A major part of the atom is empty space.
embedded in it (just like seeds in a watermelon). These posi- Bohr's model of the atom
tive and negative charges_ are equal in magnitude. There-
(Modern Atomic Theory)
fore, the atom is electrically neutral.
The modern concept of the atom, given by Neils Bohr, can
Rutherford's model of the atom
be described as :
Rutherford's Nuclear Model of the atom can be described
 An atom is-made up of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
as:
Electrons have negative charge, protons have positive
 An atom consists of a positively charged, dense, and charge, and neutrons have no charge. The atom is- elec-
very small region called the nucleus. Almost the entire trically neutral as the number of electrons is equal to the
mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, which number of protons.
contains all the protons and the neutrons.
 The protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus of
 The electrons revolve round the nucleus in circular paths, the atom. The nucleus is positively charged due to the
called orbits, at very high speed. presence of protons.
 The electrostatic forces of attraction between the posi-  The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths
tively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons called energy levels or shells. The energy levels are
hold the atom together.

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 counted from the centre outwards and are represented Note that Cr24 and Cu29 do not obey this law
either by the numbers 1,2,3,4, 5 and 6 or by the letters Cr24 = 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
K, L, M, N, O and P. Cu29 = 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
 There is a maximum number of electrons which each Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
energy level can hold. For example, K, the innermost
 According to this rule, "Pairing of electrons in sub-shell
shell, can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, L shell can
starts after all the available atomic orbitals or the sub-
hold 8 electrons, M shell can hold 18 electrons and N
shell are single filled (half filled)".
shell can hold 32 electrons.
 Each shell is associated with a certain amount of energy.
Pauli's Exclusion Principle
The shell nearest to the nucleus has minimum energy  It states that, "No two electrons can have the same value
and the shell farthest from the nucleus has maximum of all the four quantum numbers.
energy. Quantum Numbers
 As long as an electron keeps revolving in a particular Principal Quantum Number (n) (Bohr)
shell, there is no change in its energy. The change in  It determines the size and energy of electron.
energy of an electron takes place when it moves from  It is denoted by n, when n = 1, 2, 3, ........  (only posi-
one shell to another. tive integers.)
Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom  The various shells are designated as K, L, M, .... respec-
Wave nature of material objects:- tively.
 In 1924 de-Broglie suggested that electrons behave as  Maximum numbers of electrons in any orbit is 2n2, where
both particle and wave. n is principle quantum number.
According to de-Broglie, the wavelength '' associated Azimuthal Quantum Number (I)
with a particle of mass m, moving with velocity v is given (Sommerfield)
h  Also known as angular momentum quantum number or
by  
mv secondary quantum number.
This is called de-Broglie equation.  It determines the shape of electron orbit and is denoted
Uncertainty principle by l.
Heisenberg in 1927, pointed out that it is not possible to  It has the values from zero to (n - 1).
measure at the same time both the position and momentum  'l is equal to 0, 1, 2, 3 for s, p, d and f orbital's respec-
(or velocity) of a microscopic particle, with absolute accu- tively.
racy. Mathematically, Magnetic Quantum Number(m) : (Lande)
h  It determines direction of orientation of electrons in sub
 x  p 
4 orbit.
 It has all values from – l through zero to + l. With total
Here
of 2l + 1 values.
x = uncertainty in position
 It explains splitting of spectral lines under the influence
p = uncertainty in momentum of magnetic field (Zeeman effect).
Electronic Configuration of Elements
Spin Quantum Number (s) :
The arrangement of electrops in different shells of an atom is
(Uhlenbech and Goldshmidt)
known as electronic configuration of the element. Following
rules are used to write the electronic configuratio. It determines, direction of spinning of electron about its own
axis.
Aufbau's Principle
1 1
According to this principle, "Sub-shells are filled with elec-  It has two values – and + depending upon the spin
2 2
trons in the increasing order of their energies." i.e., sub-shell
of electron.
of lower energy will be filled first with electrons.
 e.g., Let us consider 5th electron of an atom
The order of increasing energies is summed as 1s, 2s,2p,
3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 6p, 7s, 5f, 1 1
 n = 2, l = 1 (p-orbit), m = –1, s = – or +
6d, 7p. 2 2

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 Information Capsule Gamma Rays (-rays)
 Exactly half-filled sub-shells have lesser energy and thus  -rays are electromagnetic radiations of very high fre-
quencies even more than X-rays. Thus, the g-rays have
assume more stability than any other arrangement. Thus, no charge ad no mass.
p1 is more stable arrangement than p2, p4 or p5.  They are not deflected from their path in electric or
 Species having same number of electrons are known as magnetic field.
isoelectronic for, e.g., NH3 or H3O+ are isoelectronic.  They produce minimum ionization in gases.
Radioactivity  They posses maximum penetration power.
Radioactivity may be defined as spotaneous emission of suit- Information Capsule
able particle and electromagnetic radiations by ustable nu-  Isotopes have same number of protons but different num-
ber of eutrons.
clei.
 Isotones have same number of neutrons.
 It was discovered by Prof. Henry Becquerel in 1896.
 Radioactivity does not change with temperature, pres-
Alpha Rays ( – rays) sure etc.
 They are deflected towards negative plate in electric 0.693
 t1/2 = ( = decay constant).
field. 
 Each particle carry two units positive charge and four 1
 Average life = = 1.44 × t1/2.
unit mass that is doubley ionized helium atom. 
 Nuclear fusion is the source of sun's energy.
 They produce maximum ionization in gases because of
 The principle of atom bomb is based on nuclear fission
maximum kinetic energy. and that of hydrogen bomb is based on uclear fusion.
 Their penetration power is very small because of large  -particle is the strogest reducing agent.
mass.  Cu and Cr are exceptions to Aufbau's principle.
Beta Rays ( – rays)  Energy of an electron in nth orbit.

 They are deflected towards positive plate in electric field. 13.6 Z 2

(En) = ev/atom
n2
-particles carries one unit negative charge and negli-
0.53n2
gible mass that is electron.  Radius of nth orbit (rn) = Å.
Z
 They produce lesser ionization in gases than -particles.
2.18 108 Z
Emission of one -particle from unstable nucleus results  Velocity of electron in nth orbit = cm/sec
n
the in increase in number of protons by one unit. Z = atomic number.



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 Concept of Atomic, Molecular
& Equivalent Masses
Atomic Mass grams is called gram equivalent, e.g., in the compounds like
The average relative mass of an atom of an element as com- 1
H2O, NH3, CH4 one mole of hydrogen combine with mole
pared to the mass of an atom of carbon (C12) taken as 12. In 2
other words atomic mass is a number which expresses as to 1 1
of O, mole of N and mole of C respectively. Hence
how many times an atom of the element is heavier than 1/ 3 4
12th of the mass of carbon atom. Therefore, 1
Equivalent mass of O = × 16 = 8.0
mass of an atom 2
1 1
Atomic mass = mass of carbon atom (C12 ) Equivalent mass of N = × 14 = 4.67
12 3
Average Atomic Mass 1
Equivalent mass of C = × 12 = 3
4
It has been found that majority of the elements occur as sev-
eral isotopes. Isotopes are the different atoms of the same
Relation Between Atomic weight,
element possessing different atomic masses but same atomic Equivalent Weight and Valency
number. The atomic mass of each isotope is determined sepa-
atomic weight
rately and then combined according to the ratio of their pro- Equivalent weight =
valency
portion of occurrence, this is know as average atomic mass,
e.g., Boron occurs in nature in the form two isotopes B10, For Acids
B11 with atomic mass 10 and 11 in the ratio of 1 : 4 respec- molecular weight of acid
E=
tively. basicity of acid (Mole of H  furnished)
10 1  11 4 98
Therefore, average atomic mass of boron = e.g., equivalent mass of H2SO4 is  49
4 1 2
10  44 54 For Bases
=   10.8
5 5 molecular weight of acid base
Gram Atomic Mass =
acidity of base (Mole of OH  furnished)
 The atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is 74
the gram atomic mass or it is also called gram atom, For Ca (OH)2, E = = 37
2
e.g., the atomic mass of oxygen is 16 u, therefore gram For Salts
atomic mass of oxygen is 16 g. molecular weight of salt
Molecular Mass E = moles of H equivalents to total
 Molecular mass of a compound is defined as the weight number of cation or anios
of a molecules of the compound relative to a carbon For Oxides
atom the atomic weight of which is supposed to be equal
molecular weight of oxide
to 12. E = moles of element  valency of elemet
 Molecular mass of H2SO4 = 2 × atomic mass of hydro-
 In a redox reaction equivalent mass depends upon the
gen + atomic mass of sulphur + 4 × atomic mass of oxy-
number of electrons takings part in the reaction.
gen = 2 × 1 + 32 + 4 × i6 = 98
molecular weight of slat
Gram Molecular Mass E= n factor
Molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is
 where, n factor is the total change in oxidation number
called gram molecular it is also known as gram mol-
of element in molecule.
ecule, e.g., molecular mass of N2 is 4 ad it gram mo-
lecular mass is 14 g. Mole

Equivalent Mass  A mole is the amount of substance that contains as many

particles as are present in 12g of carbon -12 isotope.
An equivalent mass of a substance is defined as the amount
'Mole' may also be defined as 'the amount of a substace
of it which combines with 1 mole of hydrogen atoms or re-
places the same number of hydrogen atoms in a chemical in grams which contains 6.023 × 1023 units of that sub-
stance.
reaction. The equivalent mass of a substance expressed in

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 6.023 × 1023 particles of a substance weight equal to the  Molarity : It is the number of moles of solute present in
molecular weight of that substance in grams, therefore, IL of the solution.
1 mole is the gram molecular weight of a substance.
molar of solute
weight of substance in grams  Molarity, M =
Number of mole = volume of solution (L)
gram molecular weight
number of unitary particle  Molarity equation : M1 V1 = M2 V2, where M1 ad V1
= Avogadro 's number are the molarity and volume of solution of one reactant
and M2 and V2 are the molarity and volume of the secod
volume in litres at NTP
= reactant.
22.4 L
 Normality : It is the number of gram equivalents of sol-
Gram Molar Volume ute dissolved per litre of the solution.
The volume occupied by 1 mole of a substance is called the
gram molar volume of the substance. The gram molar vol- gram equivalents of solute
Normality = volume of solution (L)
ume of perfect gas is 22.4 L at STP or NTP.
1 22.4  Normality equation, N1V1 = N2V2
volume of mole of H2 = = 5.6L
4 4 Where N1 and V1 are the normality and volume of solu-
Vapour Desity tion of one reactant and N2 and V2 are the normality and
Vapur density of a gas is the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of the second reactant.
volume of the gas to the mass of equal volume of hydrogen, Information Plus
measured under some conditions of temperature and pres-
sure. M
 Equivalent wt. of CO2, SO2 and SO3 is equal to .
2
mass of gas
Vapour density = volume of gas
mol.wt.
Molecular weight = 2 × vapour desity  Equivalent wt. of acidic salt = no.of replacable11atoms
vapour density
Atomic weight = 2 ×  Mol. wt = 2 × vapour desity
atomicity
wt.
 Strength of a solution : It is generally expressed in terms  Mole = mol.wt
of molarity and normality.
 Atomic wt. × specific heat = 6.4 (approx)



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 Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation  Decrease in valency or oxidation number of an element
 It is the process of addition of oxygen or some other is reduction, e.g.,
electronegative element or removal of hydrogen or some +2 0

other electropositive element by a substance is called as Zn + CuSO 4  ZnSO 4 + Cu 

oxidation. Reduction
For eg. 2Fe + O2  Fe2O3 (oxidation of iron)
Oxidising Agents
Cu + 2Ag+  Cu2+ + 2Ag
 Also, the process of removal of one or more electron by  The substance which is reduced in a chemical reaction
an atom or molecule is known as oxidation. is known as oxidizing agent or oxidant. Thus, oxidant is
an electron acceptor.
For eg. Fe2+  Fe3+ + e–
2I–  I2 + 2e– 0 +2
Zn + Cu S O 4  ZnSO 4 + Cu 
+2 0

 Increase in the valency or oxidation number of an ele- Reduction

ment is known as oxidation. Oxidation
FeCl2  FeCl3  As in above reaction Zn and CuSO4, Cu2+ is oxidising
Reducing Agents agent.
 The substance which is oxidised in a chemical reaction  F2 is the strongest oxidizing agent.
is known as reducing agent or reductant. Thus, reduc-  Some oxides like MgO, CuO, CO2 and CrO3 are oxi-
tant is a electron loser. dants.
 All metals and few non-metals like Zn, Na, Fe, Al, Mg,  Some molecule made up of most electronegative ele-
K, C, H2, S etc., are reductants. ment, e.g., O2, O3, CI2, Br2, I2, H2O2 etc, are oxidants.
 Hydracids of electronegative elements e.g., HCl, HBr,  All the positively charged species behave like oxidising
HI, H2S etc. are reductant. agents,
 Compounds containing element in its lower oxidation  Oxidising agents are Lewis acids.
state are also reductant, e.g., Cu2Cl2, Hg2Cl2, SnCl2, Redox Reactions
FeCl2, CO,Cu2O, Na2S2O3, K1 etc.
 A chemical reaction in which a change in valency of
 All the negatively charged species behave like reducing
elements takes place called redox reaction. In these
agents.
reactios both oxidation and reduction process takes place
 Reducing agents are Lewis bases. simultaneously. One substance is oxidised and other sub-
H2O2, O3, HNO3, NaNO2, SO2, Na2S2O3 etc. act as an stance is reduced in these reactions.
oxidizing as well as reducing agents. Consider the following reaction:
Reduction
0 0
The process of adding hydrogen or any other electropositive 2 N a  C l 2  2Na  Cl  (s)  Heat
element (or radical) or removal of oxygen or any other
 In this reaction, the valency of sodium increases from
electronetgative element (or radical) by a substance, is known
zero to +1, hence it is oxidised. The valency of chlorine
as reduction, e.g.,
decreases from 0 to- 1. Hence, it is reduced.
H2S + Cl2  2HCl + S (reduction of Cl2)
 Thus the combination of metallic sodium with chlorine
2FeCl3 + Fe  3FeCl2 (reduction of FeCl3) to form an ionic solid is a redox reaction.
CuO + H2  Cu + H2O (reduction of CuO)  The formation of an ionic solid from its elements is al-
FeCl2 + H2S  FeCl2 + S (reduction of FeCl3) ways a redox reaction.
 The process of adding one or more electrons by an atom, 0 2 2 0
ion or molecule is known as reduction, e.g., Z n(s)  C uSO 4 (aq)  Z nSO 4 (aq)  C u(s)
Hg2+ + e–  Hg+  Oxidation and reduction take place together and in
l2 + 2e–  2l– equivalent amounts.
Cl + e–  Cl–  All the metal displacement reactions are redox reactions.

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Types of Redox Reactions For eg. Fe2O3 + 6HCl  2FeCl3 + 3H2O
Redox reactios are matched sets : If one species is oxidized In this equation, Fe and H as well as O and Cl trade
in a reaction, another must be reduced, Keep this in mind as places.
we look at the five main types of redox reactions: combina- Combustion
tion, decomposition, displacement, combustion, and dispro-
Combustion reactions always involve oxygen and an organic
portion.
fuel. In the following image, we see methane combusting to
Combination release energy.
 Combination reactions "combine" elements to form a
chemical compound. As usual, oxidation and reduction
occur together.
General equation : A + B  AB
For eg. 2H2 + O2  2H2O
 The sum of oxidation states in the reactants is equal to
that in the products : 0 + 0  (2)(+1) + (–2)
 In this equation, both H2 and O2 are the molecular forms
of their respective elements and therefore their oxida-
 Combustion reaction of methane : This is an example of
tion states are O. The product is H2O: the oxidation state
a combustion reaction, a redox process. Methane (CH4),
is –2 for oxygen and +1 for hydrogen.
reacts with oxygen (O2) to form carbon dioxide (CO2)
Decompositions and two water molecules (2H2O).
 Decomposition reactions are the reverse of combination  The general equation of a combustion reaction is :
reactions, meaning they are the breakdown of a chemi-
cal compound into its component elements.  y y
C x H y   x   O2  xCO 2  H 2O
General equation : AB  A + B  4  2
For eg. 2H2O  2H2 + O2 Disproportioation
Calculation : (2)(+1) + (–2) = 0  0 + 0  In some redox reactions, substaces can be both oxidized
 In this equation, the water is "decomposed" into hydro- and reduced. These are known as disproportion reac-
gen and oxygen, both of which are neutral. Similar to tions. One real-life example of such a process is the re-
the previous example, H2O has a total oxidation state of action of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, when it is poured
O, with each H taking on a + 1 state and the O a – 2; thus over a wound. At first, this might look like a simple de-
decomposition oxidizes oxygen from –2 to 0 and re- composition reaction, because hydrogen peroxide breaks
duces hydrogen from +1 to 0. down to produce oxygen and water.
Displacement
2H 2 O2 (aq)  2H 2 O(1)  O 2 (g)
 Displacement reactions, also known as replacement re-
actions, involve compounds and the "replacing" of ele-  The key to this reaction lies in the oxidation states of
ments. They occur as single and double replacement re- oxygen, however. Notice that oxygen is present in the
actions. reactant and both products. In H2O2, oxygen has an oxi-
dation state of –1. In H2O, its oxidation state is –2 and it
 General equation (single displacement) :
has been reduced. In O2 however, its oxidation state is
A + BC  AB + CA
O, and is has been oxidized. Oxygen has been both oxi-
 A single replacement reaction "replaces" an element in dized and reduced in the reaction, making this a dispro-
the reactants with another element in the products. portionation reaction. The general form for this reaction
For eg. Cl2 + 2NaBr  2NaCl + Br2 is as follows :
Calculation : 0 + [(+1) + (–1) = 0] [(+1) + (–1) = 0] + 0 2A  A' + A"
 In this equation, Cl is reduced and replaces Br, while Br Oxidation Number
is oxidized.
 Oxidation number is the number of electrons that an atom
General equation (double displacement) : or element has lost or gained in going from the free ele-
AB + CD  AD + CD ment in its natural state to its new state in that particular
 A double replacement reaction is similar ot a single re- compound. Thus oxidation number gives the effective
placement reaction, but involves "replacing" two ele- charge associated with an element (it may be positive or
ments in the reactants with two in the products. negative).

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 Calculation of Oxidation Number Electrochemistry
 The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 in all its com- Electrode
pounds but in metallic hydride the oxidation state of It is a metal conducting plate (anode or cathode) that emits
hydrogen is -1. (NaH, CaH2). or collects electrons in a cell.
 The common oxidation state of oxygen is -2. Electrode Potential
 Oxidation number of oxygen in peroxides is -1 and in The potential of an electrode with respect to its solution is
OF2 is +2. called the electrode potential. It is measure of its tendency to
 The common oxidation state of halogen (Cl, F, etc.) is-l. lose or gain electrons, when in contact with a solution of its
 The common oxidation state of alkali metal (e.g., Li, own ions.
Na, K, etc.) is + 1. Electrochemical Series
 The oxidation number of alkaline earth metals (e.g., Be,  The tendency of an electrode to gain electrons or to get
Mg, Ca, Ba,...) is + 2. reduced is called its reduction potential while the ten-
 Oxidation number of elements in its elementary state is dency of an electrode to lose electrons or to got oxidised
taken to be zero. e.g., N2, Cl2, O2, H2, Br2 etc. has oxi- is called its oxidation potetial.
dation number zero.  The arragement of elements in order of increasing re-
 Oxidation number of an ion is the same as its charge, duction potential values is known as electrochemical
e.g., oxidation number of Na+, Ba2+, Al3+, Cl– is +1, +2, series or activity series.
+3, -1, respectively.  Substances which have lower reduction potetials are
 The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in the stronger reducig agents.
formula of compound is always zero.  Only those metals can liberate hydrogen from the acid
Some Examples which have negative values of reduction potentials.
(a) Oxidation number (ON) of S in H2SO4. Corrosion
Let oxidation number of S be x.  It is a process of deterioration of a metal as a result of its
Now, oxidation number of hydrogen is + 1, oxygen reactions with air or water surrouding it.
is –2  Corrosion of iron is called rusting. Rust is hydrated iron
 2 × 1 + x + (–2) × 4 = 0 (III) oxide (brown colour flaky substance Fe2O3. × H2O).
(H2)(S)(O4 )  Similarly in presence of moist air copper acquires a green
 2+x–8=0 coating of basic copper carbonate, silver acquires a black
x=+6 coating of silver sulphide and aluminium acquires a dull
coatig of aluminium oxide (a protective layer).
(b) Oxidation number of Mn inn KMnO4 (Potassium
permanganate).  The rustig of iron can be prevented by painting. oiling
greasing, galvainzing (coathing of iron with zinc) and
Let oxidation number of Mn be x.
chrome plating etc.
Now, oxidation number of K is +1 and O is –2
Information Plus
 + 1 + x + (–2) × 4 = 0
 Reducing agents are oxidised and oxidising aents are
x+1–8=0
reduced in a chemical reaction.
x=+7
 Increase in oxidation number is oxidation.
(c) Oxidation number of Fe in [Fe(H2O)5NO]SO4
 Oxidation number of pure metal is zero.
Let oxidation number of Fe be x
 Oxidation number of metal in metal carbonyl is zero.
Oxidation number of H2O = 0, NO = + 1,
 Element with lesser reduction potential act as anode.
SO4 = – 2
 Oxidation take place at anode.
[Fe(H2O)5 NO]SO4
1
 x + 0 × 5 + (+ 1) – 2 = 0  Reducing poer  reduction potential
x+1–2=0
x=+1



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 Acid, Base and Salt
Acid : conc-HNO3). It has capacity to disolve platinumand gold.
 The acid name comes from Latin acidus which means It is also known as Royal water. It is primarily used to
sour and refers to the sharp odour and sour taste of many produce chloroaurie acid for refining the highest quality
acids. of gold. It is also used in laboratories to clean glassware
 According to Arrhenius, acid is a compound that can of organic compounds and metal particles.
release a proton or hydrogen ion H+ in water. (v) Carbonic acid is one of the most common acid additives
 According to Bronsted - Lowry concept, acid is de- that is widely used in soft drinks such as Coca-cola.
fined as any hydrogen containing material which can (vi) Certain acids are used as drugs. Acetylsalicylic acid
donate a proton to other substances. (Aspirin) is used asa pain-killer and for bringing down
Properties of Acids: fever.
(i) Acids in solution have a pH below 7.0. Role of acids in human body:
(ii) Taste is sour.  Acids play important roles in the human body.
(iii) Releases hydrogen ion (H+) in water. (i) The hydrochloric acid present in the stomach helps in
(iv) Turns blue litmus paper into the red. the digestion.
(v) Chemical or substances having the property of an acid (ii) Amino acids are the structural unit of protein. For the
are said to be acidic. synthesis of protein, amino acids are required. Protein
Classification of acids: is very essential for the growth and repair of body cells.
 Acids are divided into two main classes : (iii) Fatty acids are also required for growth and repair of
I. Strong acids : These are very corrosive and can cause body tissue.
severe skin burns. Examples are hydrochloric acid (iv) Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are essential for all
(HCL), sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). known forms of life. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
II. Weak acids : These are mildly corrosive and normally RNA (ribonucleic acid) are responsible for transmitting
do not affect the skin. Examples are citric acid, acetic of traits to offsprings through genes and protein synthe-
acid, tartaric acid etc. sis respectively.
Sources of Some Natural Acids (v) Carbonic acid is essential for the maintenance of pH
S.N. Name of Acid Source equilibrium in the body.
1. Tartaric Acid Grapes, Tamarined, Citrus, Base:
Banaans  According to Arrhenius, a base is a compound that dis-
2. Acetic acid Vinegar sociates in water to form hydroxide OH– ion.
(Ethanoic acid)  According to Bronsted-Lowry concept, base is any sub-
3. Citric acid Lemon, Orangeand commonly stance that can accept a proton from any other substance.
in all citrus fruits Properties of Bases:
4. Oxalic acid Tomato, Spinach, Broccoli (i) Bases have a bitter taste.
5. Lactic acid Curd (ii) Bases feel slippery.
6. Malic acid Apple (iii) Bases are the conductor of electricity when dissolved in
7. Ascorbic acid Amla, Guava, Papaya, Orange water, because they consist of charged particles in solu-
(Vitamin C) tion.
8. Formic acid Stings of ants and Stinging (iv) A soluble base is called an alkali if it contains and re-
Nettle (a plant) leases OH– ions quantitatively.
Uses of Acids: (v) Bases in solution have a pH above 7.0.
(i) Tartaric acid, lactic acid, acetic acid and malic acid are (vi) A lkali turns red litmus into the blue.
edible acids. Some bases are as follows:
(ii) Oxalic acid is used to remove the rust on clothes. (a) Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2–Limewater
(iii) Conc-Nitric acid is used in the preparation of explosive (b) Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH–to clean glass windows.
substances and for purification of silver and gold. (c) Sodium hydroxide NaOH–used to prepare soap.
(iv) Aqua regia is a mixture of three-part of conc-hydrochlo- (d) Potassium hydroxide KOH–used to prepare soap.
ric acid and one part of conc-nitric acid (3conc-HCI : 1 (e) Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH) 2 – Its aqueous

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 suspensionis known as milk of magnesia, a common Natural Indicator - Litmus (a natural dye) :
antacid. It is used to remove the acidity of the stomach  Litmus is a water-soluble mixture of different dyes ex-
and also as a laxative. tracted from lichens. It is often absorbed onto filter pa-
PH Scale : per to produce one of the oldest forms of pH indicator,
 In chemistry, pH is a longarithmic scale used to specify used to test materials for acidity and basicity.
the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of an aqueous solu-  It is available in the form of red and blue litmus paper.
tion. It approximates the negative of the base 10 loga-  Acids turn blue litmus into red while alkali solutions
rithm of the molar concentration, measured in units of turn red litmus into blue.
moles per litre, of hydrogen ions in a solution.  Shoe flower turns the acidic solution into magenta while
 A pH value is a number from 1 to 14 with 7 as the middle the basic solution is turned into green.
(neutral) point. Values below 7 indicate acidity which Acid-Base Indicators
increases as the number decreases while values above 7 S. Name of Change with Change with
indicate alkanity which increases as the number in- No. Indicator acid base
creases. 1. Blue litmus Red No change
 pH stands for potential of hydrogen.
2. Red litmus No change Blue
 Pure water is neutral. its pH value is 7.
3. Turmeric Turns into red Turns into red
Chemical Indicator :
 Any substance that gives a visible sign, usually by a 4. Methyl orange Turns into red Turns into yellow
colour change, of the presence or absence of any sub- 5. Phenolpthale in No change Turns into pink
stance such as an acid or an alkali in a solution. (Colourless)
 Turmeric, litmus and shoe flowers (Gurhal) petals are
natural chemical indicators.



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 Chemistry of Non-Metals
Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen
Hydrogen 2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O  2NaAlO2 + 3H2(g)
 Hydrogen is the first element in the Periodic Table and Sn + 2NaOH + H2O  Na2SnO3 + 2H2
is the lightest element known. It exists as a diatomic Zn + 2NaOH  Na2ZnO2 + H (g)
molecule H2 (dihydrogen). It was discovered by Henry (iv) By the action of water of metals : Very active met-
Cavendish. He prepared the gas by treating iron with als like Na, K and Ca react at room temperature:
dil. H2SO4.
 Its atomic number is 1 and it has the electronic configu- 2Na  2H 2 O  2NaOH  H 2 
ration 1s1. It resembles both alkali metals and halogens. (Cold)
It is the most abundant element in the universe. Jupiter (so, sodium is kept under kerosene oil)
and Saturn planets consists mainly of hydrogen. It con- Less reactive metal like Zn, Mg, Al etc., can react
stitute about 0.9% by weight of earth crust. with water only upon heating.
 Hydrogen has three isotope with mass numbers 1, 2 and Heat
3 and these are called protium, deuterium and tritium Mg  H 2 O   MgO  H 2 
respectively.
2Al  6H 2 O  2Al(OH)3  3H 2 
Name Symbol Atomic Mass Nature
(v) Laboratory preparation of dihydrogen
number number
Hydrogen 1H1 or H 1 1 Non- Zn + H2SO4  ZnSO4 + H2 
of Protium (vi) Bosch process (Manufacture method) : Dihydrogen
Deuterium 1H2 or D 1 2 Non- is prepared by passing steam over red hot coke at
radioactive 1270K.
Tritum 3
1H or T 1 3 Radioactive C + H 2O 1270K CO + H 2
(Red hot) Steam
Water gas
Preparation of Dihydrogen (H2)
1270K
H 2 + CO + H2O Fe O CO + 2H2
+ Cr O 2
(i) By the electrolysis of water : Dihydrogen of high 2 3 2 3

purity is prepared by the electrolysis of water in the Water gas Steam (catalyst)
presence of a small amount of acid or base. (During (vii)Lane's process : Hydrogen is prepared by passing
electrolysis dihydrogen is collected at cathode). e.g. the alternate currents of steam and water gas over
Electrolysis red hot iron. The method consists of two stages :
2H 2 O(I)    2H 2 (g)  O2 (g)
(H )  Oxidation state : Super heated steam is passed
(ii) By the action of acids on metal : Those metals which over iron filings heated to about 1025 – 1075
are placed above the hydrogen in the electrochemi- K.
cal series or have positive value of standard oxida- 2 Fe + 4H 2O 1025 – 1075 K Fe3O 4 + 4H 2 + 161kj
tion potential  Eoxid  liberate hydrogen gas from Iron Steam Magnetic
filings oxide of iron
acids. e.g.,
 Reduction stage : When the whole iron has
Zn been oxidised then steam is stopped and stream
Granulated + H SO (dil.)  ZnSO (aq) + H (g)  of water gas is passed to reduce Fe3O4.
2 4 4 2
zinc
Fe3O4 + 4CO  3Fe + 4CO2
Fe + 2HCl(aq)  FeCl2 + H2  Fe3O4 + 4H2  3Fe + 4H2O

Knowledge Update Physical Properties

The reactivity of metals decreases as follow :  It is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas.
K > Ca > Na > Mg > Al > Mn > Zn > Cr > Fe > Co > Ni  It is slightly soluble in water because its molecules are
> Pb > H > Cu > Ag > Au non-polar.
Metals above hydrogen in reactivity series can displace  It is the lightest substance known.
hydrogen from dilute acids.  Its melting point is 13.8 K and boiling point is 20.4 K.
(iii) By the action of alkali on metals : Metals like Zn,  It is highly combustible.
Mg, Sn etc. liberates hydrogen on reaction with al-  It can be liquefied at very low temperature and high pres-
kalies. e.g., sure.

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 Chemical Properties Hydrides
1. Dihydrogen is quite stable due its high bond disso- These are the binary compounds of hydrogen with other ele-
ciation energy thus is not ments.
2000K
Types of Hydrides
H 2  H  H
(i) Ionic or saline hydrides : These are formed by alkali
2. Dihydrogen is neutral to litmus paper. metal, alkaline earth metals (except Be and Mg) and some
3. Action with metals : It combines with metals like lanthanides.
Na, K, Ca etc., to give corresponding hydrides which (ii) Covalent or molecular hydrids : These are formed by p-
are ionic in nature. block elements (except noble gases) and by Be and Mg.
 (iii) Matallic or interstitial hydrides : These are formed by
2 Na + H2   2NaH transition metals and inner-trasition metals.

Ca + H2   CaH2 (iv) Polymeric hydrides and complex hydrides : These are
formed by elements having electro negativity in the range
4. Reaction with non-metals : The reactivity of halo-
1.4 to 2.0 like Al, Si etc.
gen towards dihydrogen decreases as
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > l2
Information Plus
 A molecule of dihydrogen contains two atoms, the nu-
Dark
H2 + F2   2HF clei of both the atom in each molecule are spinning.
Diffusedsunlight  Molecules of hydrogen in which spins of both the nuclei
H2 + Cl2   2HCl are in same directions are called ortho hydrogen.
673K
H2 + Br2   2HBr  Molecules in which both the nuclei spin in the opposite
directions are called para hydrogen.
673K
H2 + l2   2Hl  At 0°K para hydrogen are more stable that is 100% para
673K
hydrogen.
H2 + S   H2S
 At room temperature, the ratio of ortho to para hydro-
5. Reaction with metal oxides : Dihydrogen acts as gen is 3 : 1.
a strong reducing agent and thus it reduces metal  They are similar in chemical properties, but posses dif-
oxides to metal. ferent boiling point, thermal conductivities and specific

CuO + H2  heat.
 Cu + H2O
 Adsorption or occlusion is the phenomenon by which

ZnO + H2   Zn + H2O certain substace collect large volumes of gases on their
surface. Hydrogen is adsorbed by metals like Au (gold),
PbO + H2   Pb + H2O Pt, etc.
6. Reaction with unsaturated hydrocarbons : Chemical Properties
Dihydrogen reacts with unsaturated hydrocarbons 1. The dioxygen is quite stable in nature as its bond disso-
to give saturated hydrocarbons. ciation energy is very high.
Nior Pt or Pd
H 2 C  CH 2  H 2   H3C  CH3 2. Chemical reactions of dioxygen are exothermic.
Ethylene 473K Ethane 3. Action with litmus : It is neutral and has no effect on
blue or red litmus.
H 2C = CH + 2H2 Ni or Pt or PdH C – CH
473 K 3 3
Acetylene Ethane
4. Dioxygen is supporter of combustion but itself is not
combustible.
The reaction is used in the hydrogenation of oils.
5. Reaction with metals : Almost all the metal burn in
Ni Fat
Vegetable oil + H 2 473 oxygen or air to form oxides which are basic in nature.
K
Liquid (Solid) 2Mg + O2  2MgO
The vegetable ghee such as Dalda, Rath etc, are 4Fe +3O2  2Fe2O3
prepared by this process. 6. Reaction with non-metals : Non-metals also burn in
Uses of Dihydrogen oxygen gives acidic oxides which are soluble in water.
 It is used in the manufacture of synthetic petrol. 
S  O 2   SO2 
 It is used as a rocket fuel in the form of liquid hydrogen. 
2H 2  O 2   2H 2 O 
 It is used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils.
7. Reaction with compounds : Dioxygen is an oxidising
 It is used as a reducing agent in the laboratory and in-
agent and it oxidises many compounds under specific
dustry.
conditions.
 It is used in the preparation of compound like ammonia. 700K
4HCl  O 2  2Cl2  2H 2 O
 (Haber's process), water gas, and fertilizer such as urea, CuCl 2

ammonium sulphate etc. (Reaction with HCl – Deacon's process)

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 (ii) Polyoxides : They contain more oxygen than permitted
4NH3 + 5O2 1073K
pt 4NO + 6H 2O
Nitric
by the normal oxidation number of element, e.g., BaO2,
oxide KO2, PbO2, MnO2, etc.
(Ostwald process for manufacture of NO) (iii) Suboxides : They contain less oxygen that expected from
the normal oxidation number of element, e.g., N2O, CO
723K
2SO 2  O 2 
pt or V O

 2SO 3 etc.
2 5
(iv) Mixed Oxides : These oxides are made up of two sim-
(Contact process for manufacture of H2SO4)
pler oxides, e.g., Pb3O4, Fe3O4 etc.
8. Reaction with hydrocarbons : Saturated as well as un-
saturated hydrocarbons burn in excess of air or oxygen
Information Plus
to give CO2 and H2O. This is highly exothermic reac- Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen thus it is an ele-
tion. ment.
Ozone is dark blue in colour.
CH 4  2O2  CO2  2H 2 O; H  890kj mol 1
Methane
Ozone is prepared in the laboratory by Siemen's ozoniser
and Brodie's ozoniser.
C 6 H12 O6  6O2  6CO 2  6H 2 O Ozone is used for disifecting water for drinking purposes
Glucose
because of its germicidal properties.
Uses of Oxygen Ozone is used for bleaching fabrics, oils, starch, ivory
 It is used in the oxy-hydrogen or oxy-acetlene torches etc.
which are used for welding and cutting of metals. Ozone is heavier than air and slightly soluble in water.
 Liquid oxygen is used as a rocket fuel. Ozone is diamagnetic.
 It is used as an oxidizing agent and bleaching agent. Nitrogen
 Oxygen-18 isotope is used as a tracer in the study of  Nitrogen belongs to group VA (or 15) of the Periodic
reaction mechanism. Table. Its atomic number is 7 and electronic configura-
 A mixture of carbon dust and liquid oxygen is used as tion is 7N14 = 1s2s22p3. It is a diatomic molecule with a
explosive for coal mining. triple bond (N  N).
 It is used for artificial respiration in case of surgery.  Nitrogen was discovered by D. Rutherford in 1772,
Oxides  Nitrogen occurs in the atmosphere to the extent of 78%
by volume. In combined state it is present in many com-
 The binary compounds of oxygen with other-elements pounds such as potassium nitrate (KNO3) and many
are known as oxides. ammonium compounds.
They are classified on the basis of their chemical prop-  It is an essential constituent of plants, animals (as plant
erties and their oxygen content. and animal protein) and soil (in the form of nitrites, ni-
Classification on the Basis of Their Chemical Properties trates and ammonium compounds).
(i) Acidic oxides : Those oxides which dissolve in Preparation of Nitrogen (N2)
water giving oxy-acids and neutralize alkali are
(i) Laboratory preparation : In laboratory nitrogen is pre-
called acidic oxides. Generally non-metals form
pared by heating an aqueous solution of ammonium chlo-
acidic oxides. They turn blue litmus red, e.g., B2O3,
ride and sodium itrite.
SiO2, CO2, 2O3, P2O5, I2O5 etc.
(ii) Basic oxides : These oxides dissolve in water to NH 4 Cl(aq)  NaNO 2 (aq)  N 2  2H 2 O(l)  NaCl
give alkali. They are metallic oxides. They neutral- (ii) By thermal deconposition of ammoium dichromate
ize acids ad turn red litmus blue e.g., K2O, CaO, Heat
(NH 4 )2 Cr2 O7   Cr2 O3  N 2  4H 2 O
BaO, BaO2 etc.
(iii) From ammonia
(iii) Neural oxides : Those oxides have no action on
litmus. They produce neither base nor acid with wa- 1. Nitrogen can be prepared from ammonia by pass-
ter. e.g., CO, N2O, NO etc. ing over red hot copper in the presence of No.
cu
(iv) Amphoteric oxides : These oxides behave like ac- 4NH3  6NO   6H 2 O  5N 2
ids and also as bases depending upo conditions. e.g., 2. By action of ammonia with cupric oxide or bleach-
ZnO, Al2O3, SnO, SnO2, As2O3 etc. ing power.
Classification on the Basis of Their Oxygen Content Heat
2NH 3  3CuO   3Cu  N 2  3H 2 O
(i) Normal oxides : These oxides contain as much oxygen
as needed according to the oxidation number of the ele- Heat
2NH 3  3CaOCl 2 
 3CaCl2  N 2  3H 2 O
ment, e.g., H2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2 etc. Bleachig
powder

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(iv) Commercial preparation : Commercially dinitrogen  Liquid nitrogen is used as refrigerant to preserve bio-
is prepared by the fractional distillation of liquid air. logical specimens and freezing foodstuffs and also in
When the liquid air is allowed to boil, dinitrogen with cryosurgery.
lesser boiling point gets distilled leaving behind  It is used in providing atmosphere i iron and steel indus-
dioxygen. The dinitrogen obtained from air contains tries.
traces of oxygen and some other gases as impurities.  It is used in gas filled thermometers used for measuring
Physical Properties high temperatures.
 Dinitrogen is colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. Nitric Acid
 It is non-toxic gas.  Nirtic acid (HNO3) is manufactured by Ostwald pro-
 It is slightly lighter than air and the vapour density is 14. cess.
 Its melting point is 63.2K and boiling point is 77K.  Anhydrous nitric acid is colourless fuming liquid with a
pungent smell.
 It is slightly soluble in water.
 Nitric acid usually acquires yellow colour due to its de-
Chemical Properties composition into NO2 by sunlight.
1. Dinitrogen is chemically unreactive at ordinary tempera-  Nitric acid is very strong oxidizing agent and nitrating
tures. Then N–N bond in nitrogen molecule is a triple agent.
bond (N  N).  Nitric acid is used in manufacture of TNT, nitro glycer-
2. The low reactivity of nitrogen is due to its very small ine picric acid etc.
molecular size and high bond dissociation energy. Information Plus
3. Action with litmus : Dinitrogen is neutral towards lit-  The non leguminous plants like Ginkgo also fix atmo-
mus. spheric nitrogen.
4. It form nitrides on heating strongly with a number of  Ammonia is used in the manufacture of nitric acid, so-
active metals. dium carbonate and rayon.
6Li + N2  2Li3N  Nitrogen forms a large number of oxides in different
3Mg + N2  Mg3N2 oxidation states.
2Al + N2  2AIN  The formation of these oxides verifies the law of mul-
5. Dinitrogen combines with dioxygen and dihydrogen tiple proportions.
 Nitrogen and oxygen react together to form oxides of
FeMO
N 2  3H 2 
750K,pressure
 2NH 3 (Haber 's process) nitrogen during lighting in the clouds in the rainy sea-
Ammonia
son.
6. Dinitrogen combines with certain compounds on strong  Hydrogen is most abundant element in universe.
heating with calcium carbide. Tritium is radioactive.
CaC 2  N 2 
1300K
CaCN 2 C
 Hydrogen is adsorbed by Au, Pt, Pd etc.
Calciumcyanamide  Oxygen is absorbed by alkaline pyrogallol solution.
Nitrolim(usedasfertilzer)
 Chemical reactions of oxygen are exothermic.
7. Reaction with alumina in the presence of carbon  Oxides of metal are basic and that of non-metals are
2100K
acidic.
Al 2 O3  N 2  3C 
 2AIN  3CO
Aluminium Aluminium  Nitrogen is chemically uncreative due to it small size
oxide nitride and high bond dissociation energy.
 Metals like Li, Mg etc. burn in N2 to form nitrides.
Uses of Dinitrogen
 Decon's process is used to produce Cl2.
 Dinitrogen is used in the manufacture of compounds like
 Contact process is used to manufacture H2SO4.
ammonia, nitric acid, calcium cyanamide etc.
 Haber's process is used to produce NH3.



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 Carbon and Their Different Forms
The element carbon is a non-metal. Earth's crust contains A sharp, diamond edged kinfe [called keratome] is used
only 0.02% carbon in the form of minerals (like coat, petro- by eye-surgeons to remove cataract from the eye. Diamonds
leum carbonates, etc.). The atmosphere has only 0.03% of can be made artificially by subjecting pure carbon to very
carbon dioxide gas. All living things. (plants and animals) high pressure and temperature. Diamonds are used for mak-
made up of compounds of carbon are called organic com- ing jewellery. There are 'no free electrons' in diamond. There-
pounds. fore, it does not conduct electricity. Graphite consists of sheets
The atomic number of carbon is 6 (electronic configu- (or layers) of carbon atoms, due to which it is a compara-
ration : 2, 4). Carbon is tetravalent, i.e., its valency is 4. It tively soft substance. It cotains 'free electrons' because of
forms covalent bonds by sharing of electrons. Carbon. has which it conducts electricity. Therefore, graphite is used for
the unique property of self combination (known as catena- making electrodes in dry cells. The carbon brushes of elec-
tion) to form long chains, which gives rise to an extremely
tric motors are also made of graphite. Powdered graphite is
large number of carbon compounds (organic compounds).
used as a lubricant for machine parts especially those which
Allotropes of Carbon operate at very high temperatures. Mixed with clay, graphite
Allotropes are the various physical forms in which an ele- is used for making the cores of pencils, called pencil leads.
ment can exist. 'In the free state, carbon occurs in nature The tiles on the nose cone of space shuttle contain graphite
mainly in two forms: Diamond (a colourless. trannsparent because it does not melt easily.
substance) and Graphite (a grayish-black opaque substance). The third allotrope of carbon, Buckminsterfullerrene
Aonther naturally occurring form of carbon, called
(also called fullerene), contains clusters of 60 carbon atoms
Buckminsterfullerene, has been recently discovered.
joined together to form spherical molecules. Its formula. is,
These three are called allotropes of carbon. C60.It is a football shaped molecule with 60 carbon atoms
Diamond and graphite have entirely different physical arranged as 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons which are inter-
properties. Example : Diamond is extremely hard whereas locked. It has been named after the American architect,
graphite is soft; diamond is a nonconductor of electricity Buckminster Fuller, because its structure resembles the frame-
whereas graphite is a good conductor of electricity. Their
work of dome-shaped halls designed by Fuller.
chemical properties are the same. Example : Both form car-
Buckminsterfullerence is a dark solid, which is neither very
bon dioxide on burning in oxygen. The difference in their
hard nor soft. It burns in oxygen to produce only carbon di-
physical properties arises because of the different arrange-
oxide. It is a much smaller molecule compared to diamond
ments of carbon 'atoms in them. The compact and rigid struc-
ture of diamond makes it a very hard substance, due to which and graphite, which are giant molecules. The figure below
it is used for making rock borers for drilling oil wells, and shows the structure of all the above allotropes of carbon.
for making glass cutters.

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 Allotropes of Carbon
Some amorphous allotropic forms of carbon are:
1. Coke is a greyish-black hard solid obtained by destruc-
tive distillation of coal during manufacture of oil gas.
2. Charcoal is of four types:
a. Wood charcoal obtained by strong heating of wood
in a limited supply of air.
b. Animal Charcoal obtained by heating of bones in
the absence of air.
3. Sugar charcoal is obtained by the action of sulphuric
acid on cane sugar.
Carbon Nano Tubes
4. Activated charcoal is prepared by heating charcoal at
Graphene : Graphene is a substance made of pure carbon,
1273K in a current of super heated steam. It is highly
with atoms arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern similar
porous and is an excellent adsorbent.
to graphite, but in a one-atom thick sheet as shown in the
5. Carbon black (or lamp black) is the soot obtained when adjoining figure. Graphene is the basic structural element of
natural gas, kerosene, petroleum, etc., are burnt in a lim- some carbon allotropes including graphite, charcoal, carbon
ited supply of air. It contains 98-99% carbon. Apart from nanotubes and fullerenes. The Nobel Prize in Physics for 2010
the above, two new forms of carbon recently discovered was awarded to Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov at
are as follows : University of Manchester for "ground breaking experiments
 Carbon Nano Tubes : A Carbon Nanotube is a regarding the two-dimensional materia grapheme". Since it
tubeshaped material, made of carbon, having a diameter is practically transparent and a good conductor, graphene is
measuring on the nanometer scale, The graphite layer suitable for producing transparent touch screens, light pan-
appears somewhat like a rolled-up chicken wire with a els and may be even solar cells. Whe mixed into plastics,
continuous unbroken hexagonal mesh and carbon mol- graphene can turn them into conductors of electricity while
ecules at the apexes of the hexagons as shown in the making them more heat resistant and mechanically robust.
adjoining figure. They have a long, hollow structure with This resilience can be utilised in new super strong materials,
the walls formed by one-atom-thick sheets of carbon which are also thin, elastic and lightweight. In the future,
called graphene. These cylindrical carbon molecules satellites, airplanes, and cars could be manufactured out of
have unusual properties : which, are valuable for the new composite materials.
nanotechnology, electronics, optics and' other fields of
materials science and technology. in particular, owing
to their extraordinary thermal conductivity and mechani-
cal and electrical properties, carbon nanotubes find ap-
plications as additives to various structural materials.

Graphene



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 Air and Water
Air (vi) Droplets : Small particles of water or any other liq-
 Air is a mixture of gases. It is invisible, colourless and uid suspended in air in turbulent condition.
tasteless.  Particulate pollutants causes allergic reactions, reduces
 The region of earth where air is present around it is visibility by producing haze in the atmosphere. Smoke
known as atmosphere. blacken the buildings and our clothes.
(i) Troposphere [up to about 10km from surface of earth] Smog
(ii) Stratosphere [from 10km up to about 60 km]  Smog is a combination of smoke particle with tiny drop-
(iii) mesosphere [from 60km to 80 km] lets of fog containing poisonous gases.
 Most of the atmospheric air is present in troposphere. smoke + fog  smog
 The density of air is highest near the sea.  Smog produces diseases like bronchitis, asthma, irrita-
 Ozone layer is present in the strantosphere region of the tion in eyes, nose and throat, also it has an adverse ef-
atmosphere and consists of ozone gas. fect on the growth and development of plats. Smog re-
duces visibility to a very low level.
Composition of Air
Air Pollution
 The various components of air are
 The pollution of air may be caused by the natural pro-
Nitrogen : 78.84%
cess or by human activities.
Oxygen : 20.946%
Air pollution due to natural process : The dust raised from
Argon : 0.934% ground during strong winds and storms, smoke from fire and
Carbon dioxide : 0.033% fog, the decomposition of plant and animal remains and the
 Beside small quantities of gases like hydrogen, helium, pollen grains also contribute to air pollution.
neon, krypton, xenon, methane and nitrous oxide are also Air pollution due to human activities : Man burns fuels
present in air. which produces smoke, and industries released harmful gases
 In 1775 Lavoisier performed experiments of the com- like oxides of C, S and N in the atmosphere.
position of air.  The two main acidic gases which damage the historical
Properties of Air monuments are sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
It exerts pressure.  Air pollution cases acid rain, which contains small
It has measurable mass. amount of acids in it formed from the gases like sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides present in polluted air. It
It takes up space.
causes damage to living and non-living things.
It has temperature.
 The ozone layer protects the earth from high energy ul-
Oxygen in air is very essential of life in the process of traviolet radiations. When the harmful chemicals like
respiration. It is very helpful in combustion. chlorofluorocarbons are released into the air it reacts
Nitrogen and oxygen combine to form nitric oxide (NO) with ozone, destroying the ozone layer.
during lightening. Water
Particulate Matter in the Atmosphere  Water is made up of two elements hydrogen and oxy-
Particulates are the finely divided solid or liquid par- gen. A molecule of water contain two hydrogen atoms
ticles suspended in air, e.g., dust, fumes, mist, fly-ash. and one oxygen atom. The chemical formula of water is
Some particulates are H2O.
(i) Aerosol : Fine particles of solids and liquids, e.g.,  Water exists in all the three physical states, solid, liquid
smoke and fog. and gaseous.
(ii) Fly-ash : Small ash particles of the fuel like coal  Water occurs in nature in the free state as well as in the
carried and into the air by gases. combined state as a part of several salts and minerals.
(iii) Fog : Minute water particles suspended in air near  Water occurs in the oceans, lakes, rivers, springs and
the surface of earth. It occurs during the winter sea- wells.
son.  Water occurs in the tissues of plants and animals.
(iv) Fumes : Minute solid particles formed by the con-  The water which combines chemically with the mol-
densation of vapours during sublimation, distilla- ecules of a salt change the process of preparation of its
tion etc. crystals and becomes a part of it is called water of
(v) Mist : Suspension of liquid particles in the air, which crystallisation. e.g., CaSO4.5H2O
arise from chemical reactions.

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 Rain water, well water, river water, sea water are sources Heavy Water
of water.
 Chemically heavy water is deuterium oxide (D2O). It
Role of Water in Plants was discovered by Urey in 1932. It is colourless,
 Water helps in the germination of seeds and growth of odourless and tasteless liquid.
plants.  It is used in nuclear reactor as moderator becuase it slow
 Water helps in the preparation of food and also helps i down the fast moving neutrons.
the transport of fertilizers and other nutrients to all the
Property H2O D2O
parts of plants.
Freezing point 0°C 38°C
 Water provides a habitat to a large variety of organism
in the form of ponds, lakes and oceans etc. Boiling 100°C 101.42°C
 Water helps in maintaining the firmness and structure of Temperature of maximum density 4°C 11.6°C
plant parts by providing appropriate pressure to the plant Dielectric constant 81 80
tissues. Solubility of substances High low
Role of Water in Human Body Hard and Soft Water
 Water is good solvent so it dissolves nutrients and salts
 Water which produces lather with soap solution readily
which are then easily absorbed by the body.
is called soft water, e.g., distilled water, rain water, ad
 Water acts as a medium for all metabolic reactions which
demineralised water.
takes place in the body.
 Water which does not produce lather with soap solution
 Water dissolves the waste material of the body and pro-
duces a good medium for excreting the body wastes. readily is called hard water, e.g., sea water.
 Water regulates body temperature.  The hardness of water is due to the presence of the bi-
 70% of our body weight is water. carbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium and mag-
nesium.
Properties of Water
 The hardness of water is of two types : Temporaryad
 Water is the neutral oxide of hydrogen.
permanent hardness.
 It is colourless liquid under ordinary conditions.
 Temporary hardness in water is due to the presence of
 It is polar compound (dipole moment = 1.85 D) and
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium dissolved in it.
possesses a high dielectric constant (approx 81).
It can be removed by boiling the water for sometime.
 It has abormally high melting point and boiling point
 Permanent hardness is due to the presence of chlorides
due to the association of H2O molecules through hydro-
gen bonding. and sulphates of calcium and magnesium dissolved in
water.
 In solid state (ice) water molecules are joined together
in three dimension network. It is responsible for low  Permanent hardness can be removed by Permutit method.
density of water. As the temperature of ice is increased It include the use of complex inorganic salts like
above 0°C, some H-bond are broken, this results in de- Na2,Al2Si2O8. xH2O, which have property of exchang-
crease in volume and increase in density. Density of water ing cations such as Ca2+, Mg2+ with sodium salt ions
is maximum at 4°C. (also known as Zeolites). Besides organic ion exchanges
 pH of water is 7. are also used.
 Conalent molecules which are capable of forming hy-  Calgon process (Sequestration) is also used to remove
drogen bonds with water molecules get dissolved e.g., hardness.
lower alcohols, lower carboxylic acid, sugars are soluble  The various properties of water which make it a uiversal
in water due to hydrogen bond formation.
solvent are
 Covalent molecules which coannot form hydrogen bonds
 The polar nature of water molecule.
with water are not soluble in it e.g. CHCl3, CCl4 ben-
zene alkanes etc.  The ability of water molecule to make hydrogen bonds
with molecules of many compounds.
Structure of Water Molecule
 The ability of water molecule undergo chemical reac-
 The molecule of water consists of two hydrogen atoms
tion with many elements and compounds.
bonded to oxygen atom by covalent bonds.
 The geometry of water is distorted and H-O-H bond Potable Water
angle is 104.5°.  Water which is suitable for drinking is called potable
 The desity of ice is less than water. water. Water may have disease carrying micro-organ-
 In water molecule, the central oxygen atom is sp3 state isms and dissolved impurities. So, it is essential to pu-
of hybridization and contain two lone pairs. rify water before drinking.

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 Sewage by applying excess pressure on solution side is known
 It is waste water released by homes, industries, hospi- as reverse osmosis.
tals offices etc. It also includes rain water. It is a com-  This process is used for desalination of sea water for
plex mixture of suspended solids, organic impurities obtaining drinking water.
human faceces, animal waste, oil, urea (urine), vegetable Information Plus
waste etc. Inorganic impurities (nitrates, phosphates,
 Ozone layer is present in stratosphere region of the at-
metals etc.), bacteria and other microbes.
mosphere.
Purification of Water  Water is a universal solvent.
(i) Physical methods : Filtration and sedimentation  Water is a neutral oxide.
(ii) Biological methods : Slow sand filters and activated
 Density of ice is less than water hence it floats of water.
sludge.
 Melting point of ice is lowered with increase in pres-
(iii) Chemical methods : Flocculation and chlorination.
sure.
Sometimes ozone is also used to disinfect water.
 Water act as both oxidising and reducing agent.
Many households use boiling as a method for obtaining
safe drinking water. Boiling kills germs present in wa-  Temporary hardness is due to bicarbonates and perma-
ter. nent harness is due to sulphates and chlorides of cal-
cium and magnesium.
Reverse Osmosis
 Mass of 1 mole of D2O is 20g and T2O is 22g.
 The process of movement of solvent through a semiper-
meable membrane from the solution to the pure solvent  Na2Al2Si2O8.xH2O (azeolite) used to soften water.



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 Valency
Valency Characteristics of Ionic Compound
The valency of an element decides the number of other at- (i) These are good conductors of heat and electricity in
oms which can combines with one atom of the element, e.g., molten state or aqueous medium due to the mobility of
the valency of carbon is 4 and that of hydrogen is l. so, one ions.
atom of carbon can combines with four atoms of hydrogen
(ii) These having high melting and boiling points due to the
to form a methane molecule CH4 as follows:
presence of powerful electrostatic force between the ions.
Element Valency CH 4 (product) (iii) The bond in ionic compound is non-directional. In these
C combination 4 or compounds both ions have uniform electric field, so one
H
cannot predict whether a particular ion is boned to this
H C H or that ion. Thus, the electrovalent compounds do not
H 1 show isomerism.
H
(iv) These are soluble in polar solvents like water but in-
 The capacity of an atom of an element to form chemical
bonds is known as its valency. The valency of an ele- soluble in non-polar solvents like CCl4, C6H6 etc.
ment is the combining capacity of element. (v) Ionic compounds are crystalline in nature. Their con-
 Valency of metal = number of valence electrons in its stituent units are ions. These ions are arranged together
atom, e.g., sodium (Na) = 2, 8, 1 in a regular way in an ionic lattice, e.g., in NaCl lattice
 Valency of sodium = 1 each sodium ion is bonded with 6 Na ions and each Cl
ion is surrounded by six Na+ ions.
 Valency of non-metal = 8 – No. of valency electrons in
its atom. (vi) Ionic compounds form ions in solution hence exhibit
C17 = 2, 8, 7 ionic reactions which are quite fast and instantaneous.
 Valency of Cl = 8 – 7 = 1 (vii)ionic compounds are hard and brittle in nature due to
Electronic Theory of Valency the strong force of attraction between oppositely charged
ions.
 According to this theory every element has a tendency
to occupy inert electronic configuration (eight electrons (viii) Cooling curve of ionic compound is not smooth, it has
in outermost orbit). two break points corresponding to time of solidifica-
 The configuration is attained by either tion.
 transference of electrons (electrovalency) Variable Electrovalency
 sharing of electrons (covalency) The elements which change their valency that have more than
 donation of lone pair of electrons (coordinate va- one electrovalency are said to posses variable electrovalency.
lency) This is due to following two reasons:
 There are three types of force that hold together the at- (i) Inert pair effect : It is observed that in the case of heavy
oms in a molecules are known as chemical force. The elements like Pb, Bi, etc ns2 electrons have extra stabil-
association between atoms in a molecule by these chemi- ity and hence do not take part in bond formation. This
cal force is known as chemical bonds. So, three types of effect is calle inert pair effect. This effect increase with
chemical bonds are possible: increasing the atomic number in a group, e.g Ge and Pb
 Electrovalent or ionic bond belongs to the 14th group of Periodic Table but Ge stable
 Covalent bond in Ge4+ state and Pb stable in Pb2+ state. Thus, Pb2+
 Coordinate bond salts are stable than Pb4+ salts.
Electrovalent or Ionic Bond Compounds (ii) Unstable configuration of the core : Since in d-blcok
 The types of bonds are formed by the transference of elements core possess ustable arrangement of electrons.
one or more electrons from one atom to another atom. Hence, they show variable valency, e.g., Fe2+ (3s2, 3p6,
3d6) lose an electron to change into Fe3+ do not lose
 Electrovalent bond is formed between most electrop-
ositive element (like, Na, K, Ca, Ba, Mg, etc) and elec- more electrons.
tronegative elements (Like O, F, N, S, Cl, Br etc). Covalent Bonds or Compounds of Covalency.
 The number of electron lost or taken up by the element These types of compounds are formed by the mutual sharing
is called electrovalency of the element which is equal to of equal number of electrons by the atoms in the molecules.
charge of anion or cation and these types of compounds Thus, the bond formed by the sharing of electrons is called
are called electrovalent compounds. covalent bond. Covalent bond is divided into two types.

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 Non-Polar Covalent Bonds in at least two electrons, while the other atom has already
These types of covalent bonds are formed between two iden- acquired stable noble gas configuration. The atom which
tical atoms or atoms having the same electro negativity.These contributes the electrons is called the donor. The atom which
shared electrons having approximately common properties contributes the electrons is called the donor while the other
of both atoms and thus count towards the stability of both which only accepts the electrons pair is knowns as acceptor.
the atoms, e.g., Cl2, O2 etc. This bond is usually represented by an arrow () pointed
from donor to the acceptor atom.
Polar Covalent Bonds
e.g., a hydrogen ion can combines with water molecules by
These types of covalent bonds are formed between different coordinate covalent bond to form hydronium ion (H3O+).
elemets or elements having different electronegativity. In this
bond one atom have partial negative charge and other atom
Coordinate Covalent Bonds in Complex
have partial positive charge, e.g., HBr, HCl etc. Compounds
Dipole Moment  In complex compounds ligands donatea pair of electron
 The property which measures the extent of polarity in to the central atom. Thus, in a complex ligands join with
the bond is called dipole moment. central metallic atom by a coordinate covalent bond e.g.,
 Dipole moment = Magnitude of charges (e) × distance K4[Fe(CN)6].
(d) Characteristics of Coordinate Covalent
 Dipole moments of diatomic molecules is zero because
Compounds
they are non-polar, e.g., H2, Cl2, F2, O2, N2 etc.
The charaacteristics of coordinate compounds are inter-
 Dipole moments of HF, HCl, HBr and Hi are very large
mediate between the properties of ionic and covalent
due to their high electronegativity differences.
compounds.
 Molecules of CO2, CS2 and BeF2 are linear having po-
lar bonds. The bond moments of two bonds beings equal The main properties are
but opposite in direction cancel each other so their di- (i) These exists as solids, liquids, and gases under nor-
pole moment is zero. mal conditions.
 The dipole moment of CH4, CCl4, BF3 are zero due to (ii) These are sparingly soluble in polar solvent like
their symmetrical structure. water but readily solube in non-polar solvents.
Characteristics of Covalent Compounds (iii) These are bad conductor of heat and electricity.
(i) These compounds are slightly soluble in water but highly (iv) The melting and boiling points are higher than purely
soluble in organic solvents such as alcohols, ethers etc. covalent compounds.
(ii) They undergo molecular reactions which are quite slow. (v) Covalent bond is rigid and directional. Thus, these
(iii) They are bad conductors of heat and electricity. compounds show isomerism.
(iv) They are generally rigid and directional hence show (vi) Compounds which have coordinate covalent bond
isomerism. posses high values of dielectric constant.
(v) They have low melting and boiling points (except dia- Hydrogen Bond
mond. Silica, carborundum (SiC)) etc. due to weak co- It is an electrostatic attractive force that exists between the
valent bonds. hydrogen atom which covalently bonded to highly electrone-
(vi) Those covalent molecules which form hydrogen bonds gative atom like N or O or F in a molecule and the electrone-
with water molecules becomes fairly soluble in water. gative atom of the same or neighbouring molecule.
e.g., lower alcohols, lower carboxylic acids etc.  H-bond is represented by a dotted line.
(vii)Covalent molecules do not conduct electricity in aque-  H-F....4 > H-O.... H > H - N .....H order of energy in
ous solution or in molten state because they do not con- decreasing order.
tain ion, but, when a covalent molecule reacts with wa-
Intermolecular H-bonding
ter, dissolves and produces ions, it begins to conduct
electricity.  It is formed between H atom of one molecule with elec-
(viii) Due to low melting and boiling points, covalent solids tronegative atom of neighboring molecule. e.g.,
are more volatile than ionic solids and therefore have F H-bond
F
high vapour pressure. H H H H
Coordinate or Dative Bond F F
The bond in which both the electrons in the shared pair come Intermolecular H-bonding between H-F molecules.
from one atom is called coordinate covalent bond. Such type  Intermolecular H-bonding increases the boiling point of
of bond is formed between atoms, one of which is deficient compounds and also their solubility in water.

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 Intermolecular H-bonding of the same molecule. e.g., o-nitrophenol, o-hydroxy
 It is formed between H atom and electronegative atom benzonic acid etc.

Valency of some metallic or positive radicals Valency of some acidic or negative radicals
Monovalent (valency 1) Monovalent (valency 1)
Hydrogen H+ Cuprous Cu+ Fluoride F– Chlorate ClO–3
Sodium Na+ Silver Ag+ Chloride Cl– Perchlorate ClO–4
Potassium K+ Ammonium NH+4 Bromide Br– Chlorite ClO–2
Rubidium Rb+ Mercury (1) [Hg2]3+ Iodide I– Hypochlorite ClO–
Cesium Cs+ Nitrate NO–3 Bisulphate HSO–4
Divalent (valency 2) Divalent (valency 2)
Barium Ba+ Cupric Cu2+ Oxide 2– Chlorate CrO2–4
Calcium Ca2+ Ferrous Fe2+ Sulphide S2– Dichromate Cr2O2–7
Cadmium Cd2+ Manganous Mn2+ Sulphate SO2–4 Silicate SiO2–3
Lead (Plumbous) Pb2+ Mercuric Hg2+ Thiosulphate S2O2–3 Managanate MnO2–4
Zinc Zn2+ Stannous Sn2+
Magnesium Zn2+ Carbonate CO2–3

Trivalent (valency 3) Trivalent (valency 3)

Aluminium Al3+ Chromic Cr3+ Borate BO3–3 Arsenite AsO3–3
Bismuth Bi3+ Ferric Fe3+ Phosphate PO3–4 Ferricyanide [Fe(CN6)]3+
Auric Au3+ Arsenate AsO3–4

Trivalent (valency 4)
Plumbic Pb4+ Pyrophoshate P4 O4–7
Stannic Sn4+ Ferrocyanide [Fe(CN)6]4

Knowledge Update
 Ionic bond is formed between metals and non-metals.
 Ionic compound conduct electricity even in molten form.
 d-Block elements form coloured complexes due to incompletely filled d-orbitals.
 pb2+ salts are more stable than Pb–4 due to inert pair effect.
 If the difference in electro negativity of the atoms is more than or equal to 1.7 the bond is more ionic.
 In complex salts central metal atom act as Lewis acid.
 Inert gases have zero valency.
 In complex compounds ligands join to central metal atom by a coordinate bond.
 H bond is formed between molecules if H is attached to highly electronegative elements like F, O, N.
 Metals posses metallic bond.
 Soft metals like Na, K posses weak metallic bond and hence can be cut with a knife.
 Molten ionic compounds conduct electricity due to ions.



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 Organic Chemistry
Organic Compounds lent bonds with a number or carbon atoms as well as
Compounds of carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) and their other atoms like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, Sulphur
derivatives (containing oxygen or other elements) are known chlorine, etc., to form a large number of organic com-
as organic compounds. Examples: methane (CH4), Ethane pound.
(C2H6), Ethene (C2H4), Acetylene (C2H2), Ethyl alcohol Types of Organic Compounds
(C 2 H 5 OH); Acetaldehyde (CH 3 CHO), Acetic acid Hydrocarbons
(CH3COOH), Chloroform (CHCl3), and Urea [CO(NH2)2].
A compound made up of only carbon and hydroge is called a
Organic compounds are covalent compounds having low
hydrocarbon. Example : Methane, ethane, ethane (ethylene),
melting and boiling points. Most of them do not conduct elec-
and ethyne (acetylene). Petroleum, which is obtained from
tricity.
underground oil deposits by drilling oil wells, is an impor-
Organic compounds occur in all living things like plants tant natural source of hydrocarbons. Petroleum in oil fields
and animals. The oxides of carbon, carbonates, hydrogen is covered with natural gas. which also contains hydrocar-
carbonates, and carbides are inorganic compounds. More than bons.
5 million carbon compounds are known at present. The rea-
sons for the existence of a large number of organic com- Types of hydrocarbons
pounds are  Saturated Hydrocarbons (Alkanes) : An alkane is a
 Catenation (Self Linking): Carbon atoms can link with hydrocarbon in which the carbon atoms are connected
one another by means of covalent bonds to form long only by single, bonds. The names of alkanes end with
chains or rings of carbon atoms, so that a large number 'ane' and their general formula is CnH2n+2 where n is the
of organic compounds are formed. This property of number' of carbon atoms in one molecule of the alkane.
selflinking is called catenation. Examples: Methane (CH4 ) ethane (C2H6), propane
(C3H6) butane (C4H10), and pentane (C5H12).
 Tetravalency : The valency. of carbon is 4 (tetravalency).
Due to this large valency, a carbon atom can form cova-

H H H

H C H H C C H

H Methane (4 single bonds) H H Ethane (7 single bonds)

 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons (Alkenes and Alkynes) :

A hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are con- H H
nected by a double bond Or a triple bond is called an C C H C C H
unsaturated hydrocarbon. The unsaturated hydrocarbons ethyne
H H
are obtained mostly from petroleum by a process called Ethane
cracking.
Alkenes containa double bond between two carbon at-  Cyclic Hydrocarbons: The hydrocarbons in which the
oms which is. formed by the sharing of two electron pairs carbon atoms are arranged in the form of a ring are called
(Le., four electrons). The names of alkenes end with 'ene' cyclic hydrocarbons. They may be saturated or unsatur-
and their general formula is CnH2n. Examples: Ethene ated. Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons are called
(C2H4); propene (C2H6), and butene (C4H8). Ethene is cycloalkanes. The general formula of cycloalkanes is
used for. ripening many' raw fruits. Polymerisationof CnH2n, which is the same as that of alkenes, Examples :
ethene gives polythene. Cyclopropane (C 3 H 6 ); cyclo butane (C 4 H 8 ),
Alkynes contain a triple bond between two carbon at- cyclopentane (C5 H10), and cyclohexane (C6H12). An
oms which is formed by the sharing of three electron important example of an unsaturated cyclic hydrocar-
Pairs (or six electrons). The names of alkynes end with bon is benzene (C6H6). It contains 3 carbon-carbon
'yne' and their general formula is CnH2n-2. Examples : double bonds and 3 Carbon-carbon single bonds. Com-
Ethyne (C2H2 ), propyne (C3H4) and butane (C4H6). pounds containing benzene rings are called aromatic
Ethyne (Acetylene) forms a polymer called compounds.
polyacetylene.

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 H
H H
H H H C H H C H
H C H C C C C
C C H H
H H H C C H C C
C C H
H H C H C H
H
HH H H
H
Cyclopentane Cvclohexane Bezene

The systematic names of hydrocarbons were given by Inter- Due to the presence of nitrogen and sulphur compounds
national Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in in them, combustion of coal and petroleum fuels leads to the
1958, so they are called (IUPAC) names. formation of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, which are ma-
Isomers jor air pollutants. When the supply of oxygen is sufficient,
the fuel burns completely, producing a blue flame (non-lu-
The organic compounds having the same molecular formula
minous flame). In a gas stove, cooking gas (LPG) burns with
but different structures are known as isomers. For example,
a blue flame because the stove has holes (inlets) for air, which
both-butane and isobutane have the same molecular formula
allows complete combustion of cooking gas.
(C4H10) but they have different structures. LPG cylinders
(cookig gas cylinders) contain a mixture of n-butane and When the supply of oxygen is insufficient, then the fuel
iso-butane, along with small amounts of propane and ethane. burns incompletely, producing a yellow flame (luminous
Isomerism is possible only with hydrocarbons having 4 or flame), The yellow colour of the flame is due to the glow of
more carbon atoms. Methane, ethane, and- propane do not hot, unburnt carbon-particles produced by incomplete com-
have isomers. Butane, Pentane, and Hexane have 2', 3, and 5 bustion of the fuel. Since incomplete combustion of the fuel.
isomers, respectively. Since incomplete combustion of wax takes place in a candle,
it burns with a yellow flame.
H H H H Fuels which do not vaporise on heating, burn without
butane H H producing a flame. Thus, coal and charcoal burn whithout
C C C C
producing a flame. They just glow red and give out heat. The
H H H H largest supply of fossil fuels is in the from of coal. Most of
the coal is burned to make electricity. 'Coal can be converted
H H H
into a relatively clean-burning fuel by a process known as
iso-butane H C C C H gasification.
Refining of Petroleum
H H
H C H Crude petroleum has to be refined before being put to com-
mercial-use. Two important operations are involved in refin-
H ing-of petroleum: Fractional distiltation and Cracking. Frac-
Coal and Petroleum tional distillation leads to the separation of crude petroleum
Most of the fuels are obtained from coal, petroleum, and into a number of fractions, each passing over a definite tem-
natural gas. Energy is released mainly in the form of heat perature range. Each fraction is a mixture of different Hy-
(and some light) when a fuel is burnt. This energy can be drocarbons which can be used for 'a' definite purpose as stated
used to cook food, run generators in thermal power stations, in the table below.
machines in factories, and engines of vehicles. Fuels such as Fraction Uses
coal, coke, and charcoal contain free carbon whereas fuels 1. Gaseous Industrial and domestic fuel
such as petrol, LPG, kerosene; and natural gas are all carbon hydrocarbons
compounds. When carbon burns in oxygen (of air), it forms
carbon dioxide and releases a large amount of heat. 2. Petroleum ether Solvent in perfumery, for dry
Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are known as fossil fuels cleaning of clothes
because they were formed by the decomposition of the re- 3. Gasoline Fuel
mains of plants and animals, which got buried under the sur- 4. Kerosene Fuel in lamps, bumers, etc.
face or the earth millions of years ago, under high tempera- 5. Diesel oil or Gas oil Fuel for diesel engines, for
ture and pressure.
industrial heating
Coal is a complex mixture of compounds of carbon,
6. Lubricating oils and Lubricants
hydrogen and oxygen, and some. free carbon. Small amounts
of nitrogen and sulphur compounds are also present in coal. Greases
Petroleum (or rock oil) is a dark coloured, viscous, foul smell- 7. Paraffin wax Candles, polishes, waxed paper,
ing crude oil. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons (some ointments and cosmetics.
nitrogen and sulphur containing compounds are also present). 8. Asphalt and coke Roofing, road building, cables,
Petrol, diesel, LPG, and kerosene are obtained from petro-
leum. battery boxes and electrodes.

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 Cracking is a process by means of which higher hydro- Biofuels
carbons are degraded to give smaller hydrocarbons. High-
A biofuel is a type of fuel whose energy is derived from bio-
boiling fractions can be converted into gasoline by cracking.
logical carbon fixation. Biofuels include fuels derived from
The quality of petrol used in car engines is denoted by their
biomass conversion, _as well as solid biomass, liquid fuels
antiknock properties. The anti-knock property of gasoline
and various biogases. Biofuels are gaining increased public
(petrol) is expressed in terms of the Octane number and that
and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price
of diesel in terms of the Centane Number, the higher the
hikes and the need for increased energy security. Bioethanol
Octane or cetane Number, the better is the fuel. The Octane
Number can be increased by adding tetraethyl lead (TEL) to is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohy-
gasoline. Gasoline treated in this way is called ethyl gasoline drates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn or sug-
or leaded gasoline. arcane. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources,
such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feed-
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
stock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel
Compressed natural gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for
for vehicles in its pure form, put it is usually used as a gaso-
gasoline (petrol), Diesel fuel, or propane/L.PG. Although its
line additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emis-
combustion does produce-greenhouse gases, it is a more en-
sions.
vironmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and it is much
safer than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is Petrochemicals
lighter than air, and disperses quickly when released). CNG Pertroleum and natural gas are excellent sources for the manu-
may also be mixed with biogas, produced from land fills or facture of a large number of compounds called petrochemi-
wastewater, which doesn't increase the concentration of car- cals. The important petrochemicals, which serve as building
bon in the atmosphere. CNG is made by compressing natural blocks for products like plastics, synthetic fibres, rubber,
gas (which is mainly composed of methane [CH4), to less detergents, pesticides, dyes, drugs, etc., are obtained directly
than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric or indirectly from petroleum.
pressure.



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 Periodic Classification of Elements
The 115 elements known at present have been divided into periods and eight groups, in the original periodic table of
groups such that elements in the same group have similar Mendeleev.
properties, This helps in the study of the properties of all the Mendeleev's periodic table could
elements.  Predict the existence of some elements
Some earlier Attempts  Predict the properties of several elements
Dobereiner's Law of Triads  Accommodate noble gases when they were discovered
When elements are arranged in the order of icreasing atomic
However, it could not:
masses, groups of three elements (known as triads), having
similar chemical properties are obtained. The atomic mass  Explain the position of isotopes
of the middle element the triad is equal to the average of the  Explain the wrong order of atomic masses of some ele-
atomic masses of the other two elements. Examples: Lithium, ments
Sodium, and Potassium; Calcium, Strontium, and Barium;  Assign correct position to hydrogen
Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine. Modern Periodic law
Newland's Law of Octaves In 1913, Henry Moseley suggested that atomic number of
When elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic elements is a better basis for the classification of elements.
masses, the properties of the eighth element (starting from a The Modern Periodic Law states 'The properties of ele-
given element) are a repetition of the properties of the first ments are a periodic function of their atomic numbers'. When
element. elements are arranged according to increasing atomic num-
The Periodic Table bers, there is a periodicity in the electronic configurations of
The periodic table is a chart of elements in which the ele- elements; which leads to the periodicity in their chemical
ments having similar properties occur in the same vertical properties.
column or group. In this table, the elements having similar Modern Periodic Table
properties are repeated after certain intervals or periods. A The modern periodic table was prepared by Neils Bohr. The
periodic table consists of horizontal rows of elements called arrangement of elements in the modern (long form) periodic
periods, and vertical columns, called groups. table is based on their electronic configurations. There are
Mendeleev's Periodic Table seven periods (horizontal rows) in the periodic table. The
Mendeleev's Periodic Law states 'The properties of elements elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers. The
are periodic function of their atomic masses. There were seven following figure shows the modern periodic table.

Modern Periodic Table

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 The first period starts with hydrogen and ends with the p-Block Elements (ns2 np1-6)
noble gas, helium, All other periods start with alkali metals  The elements in which the last electron enters the p-or-
like Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, etc., and end with noble bit of the outer most energy levels are called p-block
gases like Neon, Argon, Krypton, etc. The first element of elements. The elements of group 13 to 18 are in p-block.
every period has 1 valence electron and the last element of
General properties of p-block elements
every period, has 8 valence electrons (except the first period
 p-block elements include metals, non-metals as well as
in which the last element helium has 2 valence electrons).
metalloids.
Since the electronic configurations of elements in a period
are different, they show different properties.  These elements have smaller atomic raddi than s-block
elements. The atomic radius decreases from left to right
Division of the Periodic Table in s, p, d and f-Blocks
in period due to increasing nuclear charge.
s-Block Elements (ns1-2)  They have high electronegativities. It is due to their small
 The elements in which the last electron enters the s-or- atomic size that p-block elements posses higher elec-
bital of their outermost energy level are called s-block tron affinities than s-block element.
elements and hence are called representative elements.  Halogens, oxygen, sulphur and phosphorus are reactive
 It consists of elements of group IA and IIA. elements of p-block elements.
 Elements of IA group are called alkali metal while that  They usually form covalent compounds.
of IIA group are called alkaline earth metal.  Some of these elements show variable valency and exist
General characteristics of s-block elements except hydro- in more than one oxidation state in their compounds.
gen  Few elements, viz oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus ect. ex-
 They all are Q metals, malleable, ductile and good con- hibit allotropy.
ductors of heat and electricity.  They have high value of ionization energy.
 They show low ionization potential.  Their oxides are acidic in nature.
 They are soft metals (due to weak metallic bond) and d-Block Elements (n - 1)d1-10 ns1-2
have low melting and boiling points.  The element in which the last electron enters the dorbitals
 Most metals are solid at room temperature. Except mer- their second last, i.e., (n - 1) energy level constitue d-
cury (m.p-39°C) Cs (m.p. 28.4°C) and Ga (m.p. 29.8°C) block element. They constitute group 3 to 12 in the Pe-
are liquid above 30°C). riodic Table.
 They are highly electropositive. They are powerful re-  The d-block comprises of three series which are
ducing agent hence cannot be prepared by reduction.  First transition series scandium (Z = 21) to zinc (Z
 Elements of IA, IIA and aluminium (p-blcok) are pre- = 30)
pared by electrolysis of their salts in fused or molten  Second transition series ytrium (Z = 39) to cadmium
state. (Z = 48)
 Except Li and Be they form ionic compounds (because  Third transitions series lanthanum (Z = 57) to mer-
of small size of Li and Be form covalent compounds cury (Z = 80)
according to Fajan's rule). General properties of d-block elements
 The ionic nature of compounds increase from top to  They are metals having high melting and boiling points
bottom. (strong metallic bond).
 Elements of IA form monovalent cation while that of  They are good conductor of heat and electricity due to
IIA form tetravalent cation. By the loss of electrons from free and mobile electrons.
their outermost shell.  Almost all of them show variable valence and exist in
 They form diamagnetic, (no unpaired electrons), and serveral oxidation state in their compounds.
colourless salts except dichromates and permanganates  Transition elements and their compounds act as cata-
which are coloured. lysts.
 They show oxidation state +1 (IA) and +2 (IIA).  They form coordination or complex compounds.
 They do not show variable oxidation state.  Density of d-block elements are very high as compared
 Due to high reactivity, alkali metals are stored under liq- to s-block elements.
uid paraffins.  Properties of transition elements in moving across a pe-
 They form hydrides with hydrogen. riod from left of right do not change radically as those
 Of all these elements only hydrogen is a non-metallic of s and p-block elements because the last two orbits are
gas. incomplete.

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 Most of these ions contains unpaired electrons hence  Order of EA of halogens
are paramagnetic and coloured (due to d-d transition). Cl > F > Br > l
 Zinc, cadmium, mercury having d10 configuration do not  Whithin the same orbit IP decrease in order
form coloured salts.
s>p>d>f
f-Block Elements Periodic property In a period from In a group from
(n – 2)f1–14 (n – 1)d0 –10 ns2 left to right topto bottom
 The elements in which the last electron enter the f-orbit- 1. Ionisation energy Increase Decrease
als of their atom are called f-block elements (penultimate 2. Electron affinity
orbit). 3. Electronegativity
 The first series follows lanthanums (lanthanide series) 4. Non-metallic character
from Z = 58 to Z = 71. This is also known as 4f-series
5. Oxidising character
innertransition series.
6. Acidic nature of oxides
 The second series follow actinium (actinide series) from
7. Atomic size
Z = 90 to Z = 103 also known as 5d inner-transition
series. 8. Electropositivity
9. Metallic character
General properties of f-block elements:
10. Basic nature of oxides
 All f-block elements are metals and are highly reactive.
 These have high density, high melting and boiling points.  Ionisation potential (IP)
 They show variable valency. Their ions are coloured and IA < IIA < IIIA
paramagnetic in nature. IVA < VA > VIA
 They form complex compounds.  Electron affinity (EA)
 They are radioactive IA > IIA < IIIA
 These are highly electropositive metals due to low ion-
IVA >VA< VIA
ization energies.
 The abnormal IP and EA of IIA and VA is due to half
 They generally form ionic compounds.
filled and fully filled p-orbitals respectively, which is a
 Lanthanide contraction : As we move in lanthanides
comparatively stable configuration, hence, to remove an
from left to right, the last electron enters inner
electron from such atom requires larger amount of en- 
penultimate of orbital and not in outermost orbital on
ergy.
account of diffused shape of 4f orbital, lesser screening
effect of 4f orbital and increase in nuclear charge as we  Size of isoelectrons decrease in its own period, i.e., with
move from left to right in a period, the inward pull of 4 increase in nuclear charge.
fe's increase thus, causing reduction in size on lan- Electronegativity
thanides.  It is the tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of
periodic Properties an electron towards itself.
Ionisation Potential (IP)  Decreasing order of electronegativity is
 It is the minimum amount of energy required to remove F > O > Cl  N > Br > C  1 > H
the most loosely bonded electron from outer most orbit 4 3.5 3 3 2.8 2.5 2.5 2.1
of isolated, neutral gaseous atom.
 If difference in electronegativity is
 IP measures tendency of cation formation.
 less than 1.7, bond is more covalent
Electron Affinity (EA)
 equal to 1.7 bond is more ionic.
 It is the energy released when an extra electron is taken
 more than 1.7, bond is purely ionic.
by an isolated neutral gaseous atom.
IA Group Elements
 It measures tendency of anion formation.
 IP and EA incease in a period from left to right and de- Alkali metals Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr.
crease in a group from top to bottom.  The general electronic configuration is ns1.
 Zero group elements on account of the stable configura-  Elements of IA group are called alkali metals because
tion exhibit exceptionally high value of IP (highest in its their oxides and hydoroxides on dissolving in water
period). gives alkaline solution.
 EA of zero group elements is extremely low.  All alkali metals are soluble in liquid ammonia to give
 Fluorine has less EA than chlorine because of its small blue colorued solution (due to solvated or ammoniated
size F has more electron density and hence greater elec- electron) which conduct electricity. This solution actsas
tron repulsion. powerful reducing agent.

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 Due to small size, these posses low hydration energy  C and Si due to catenation power (chain forming prop-
which increase from Li+ to Cs+. erty) forms millions of compounds.
 Alkali metals and their compounds impart characteris-  Various compounds of carbon are used as fuel, e.g., coal
tic colour to the flames. gas (CO + N2), semiwater gas (CO + N2 + H2) etc.
 Li-ed, Na-yellow, K-pale violet, Rb-violet and Cs-red-  Si forms most complicated compounds, e.g., zeolite,
dish violet. mica, tale, asbestos etc.
 Li and Na burns in air to form peroxides (Li2O and Na2O  Silica (SiO2) is sp2-hybridised with tetrahedral struc-
while K, Rb and Cs forms super oxides (KO2, RbO2, ture.
CsO2). VA Group Elements (N, P, As, Sb, Bi)
Periodic Trends in Properties of Compounds of  General electronic configuration is ns2np3.
Alkaline Earth Metals  Due to half filled orbitals these are quite inert and have
(a) Reactivity of alkaline earth metal abnormally higher IP and lower value of EA.
Be < Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba  They exhibit variable oxidation states
(b) Basic character and solubility of hydroxides. N = –2, –1, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5
Be(OH)2 < Mg(OH)2 < Ca(OH)2 < Sr(OH)2 < Ba(OH)2 P, As, Sb = –3, +3, +5
(amphoteric) Bi = –3, +5
(c) The solubility and stability of carbonates Their carbon-  These forms trihydrides which act as Lewis base.
ates are quite insoluble.  N2 can form maximum four covalent compounds, e.g.,
MgCO3 > CaCO3 > SrCO3 > BaCO3 NH+ 4
Slightly soluble Insoluble
Various oxides of nitrogen are
BeCO3 < MgCO3 > CaCO3 < SrCO3 < BaCO3  N2O : (laughing gas)-neutral, diamagnetic, linear.
Min. stable Max stable
 NO : neutral, paramagnetic, rectangular.
(d) Solubility of Sulphates  N2O3 : acidic, diamagnetic.
BeSO4 > MgSO4 > CaSO4 > SrSO4 > BaSO4  NO2 : acidic, paramagnetic, V-shape.
Fairly Sparingly Sparingly Insoluble Insoluble
soluble soluble soluble  N2O5 : most acidic (solid)
 Basic nature of hydrides follows the order.
IIIA Group Elements (B, Al, Ga, In, TI) SbH3 < AsH3 < PH3 < NH3
 General electronic configuration ns2np1.  Bond angle of true hydrides decreases as
 These generally show +3 oxidation state. Some elements NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3
also exhibit +1 oxidation state due to inert pair effect.  Order of b.pt.
 Ba, Al show + 3 oxidation state, while Ga, In, TI show NH3 > SbH3 > AsH3 > PH3
+1 and +3 states.
H-Bond
 Compound of boron due to incomplete octet act as Lewis
 Among red and white phosphorus the former is less re-
acids.
active and used in match industry.
 All compounds of boron are used in manufacture of glass
VIA Group Elements (O, S, Se, Te, Po)
to reduce thermal expansion of glass.
 The general electronic configuration is ns2np4.
 Boron absorbs neutrons, so used in nuclear reactor.
 These elements are known as chalcogens or ore form-
 Aluminium form amphoteric oxide.
ing elements.
 Basic nature of oxides and hydroxides follows the or-
 The elements show +2, +4 and +6 oxidation state and a
der
coordination number of +4 and +6.
B < AI < Ga < In < TI
 Oxygen due to high electronegativity generally show -
 Strength of Lewis acids of boron follows the order. 2 oxidation state. It also exhibit oxidation state of -1
Bl3 > BBr3 > BCI3 > BF3 (peroxides), 0 (O2), +2(OF2) and +1 (O2F2).
IVA Group Elements (C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb)  Order of acidic nature and oxidizing nature of hydrides
 General electronic configuration is ns2np2. is
 Common oxidation states are +2 and +4 Ge, Sn and Pb H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te
are more stable in +2 oxidation state due to inert pair.  Bond angle shows the order
 Generally elements with +2 oxidation state form ionic H2O > H2S > H2Se > H2Te
compounds and +4 oxidation state form covalent com- 104.5° 92.2° 91.0° 90°
pounds.
VII A Group Elements F, Cl, Br, I, At
 Carbon lacks d-orbitals and so cannot expand its va-
 General electronic configuration is ns2np5.
lence shell, so maximum covalency in its compounds is
not more than four. On the other hand, Si and elements  These are known as halogens.
of this group have vacant d-orbitals so it can extend its  F show -1oxidation state, while other show –1, +1, +3,
covalent y from 4 to 6. +5 and +7 states.

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 Reactivity of halogens follow the order.  Maximum malleability = Gold (Au)
 Strength of hydroacid and reducing character follow the  Coinage metals = Cu, Ag, Au
order HF < HBr < HCl < HI.  Maximum hydronium energy = Li
Zero-Group Elements (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)  Only stable dimeric ion = (Hg)
 All the elements are colourless, tasteless and odourless  Liquid elements = Cs, Fr, Hg, Ga, Br
gases.  Adams catalyst = Pt
 All these are present in atmosphere except radon.  Lightest metal is scandium and densest transition ele-
 They are all monoatomic and their atomic size increases ment is osmium.
with the increase in the atomic number.  Last element of s and p-block are radioactive.
 All these gases have zero electron affinities.  Aluminium is powerful reducing agent hence is used in
 The first noble gas compound XeF6 was obtained by thermite process.
N.Bartlett in 1962.  Thallium is stored in air tight containers under kero-
 Important uses of noble gases. sene, glycerin or Vaseline.
(i) He is used in gas cooled atomic reactors as a cool-  Aluminium forms both covalent and ionic compounds.
ing medium. Among hydroxide of elements of IIA group order of
(ii) Mixture of 85% He and 15% H2 is used for filling acidity is
in balloons and airships. He is light, non-combus- B(OH)3 > Al(OH)3 > Ga(OH)3 > In(OH)3 > TI(OH)3
tible gas. Acidic Amphoteric Basic Max basic

(iii) Mixture of He and O2 is used for respiration of sea  The thermal stability of halogens of IVA group is in the
divers. order
(iv) Ne is used in neon discharge lamps and signs for CCl4 > SiCl4 > GeCl4 >SnCl4 > PbCl4
advertising purposes.
and the stability and volatility of tetrahalide is
(v) Mixture of 85% Ar and 15% N2 is filled in electric
CF4 > CCl4 > CB4 > Cl4
bulb.
Most Least
(vi) Radon is used in treatment of cancer. volatile volatile

Transition Elements (VII Group Elements)

 Carbon is harder than silicon.
 All the transition elements are d-block elements but all
the d-block elements are not transition elements. Nitrogen forms six oxides.
 Transition metals have small atomic sizeand hence the Oxygen exhibits + 2 oxidation state in OF2.
ionization potential values are high. H2S is more volalite than H2O due to hydrogen bonding
 The characteristic property of transition elements is to in H2O.
show several oxidation states. Ozone is known as dry bleach as it bleaches in absence
 They have high density, melting point and boiling point. of moisture.
 They form metallic bond. Order of bond dissociation energy of halogens is
 They are coloured and paramagnetic. l2 < Br2 < F2 < Cl2
 The atomic volume of the transition elements is low as Order of stability of halides is
compared with group IA and IIA elements. HF > HCl > HBr < HI
 Mn shows maximum oxidation state of +7 in KMnO4+ Gold is soluble in mercury.
 Most abundant transition elements is Fe. Pure gold is 24 carat in fineness.
Some General Points Halides of Zn. Cd and Hg are volatile, while their
 Most electronegative element = F sulphides are insoluble in water but soluble in acids.
 Minimum electronegative element = Cs Cadmophone (CdS + BaSO4) is used as yellow pigment.
 Max ionization potential = He Information Plus
 Biggest period = 6th Order of hardness is :
 Rarest element in earth crust = At B4C > SiC > Diamond > Glass
 Most poisonous metal = Pu Members of 2nd priod (Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F) shows
 Maximum number of natural isotopes = Sn lower EA than the next lower members in their respec-
tive groups.
 Biggest group IIIB (32 elements)
The decreasing order of volatile nature of hydrides of
 Wonder element = Titanium (TI)
VIA group elements is
 Twin element = Zn and HF
H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S
 Max m. pt. and b. pt = Tungsten (W) Least Most
 Maximum conductivity = silver (Ag) volatile volatile



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 Metals, Minerals, Ores : Properties, Uses
 Eath crust is the main source of elements. Calcium (Ca) Limestone CaCO3
 Among non-metals-Oxygen and then Silicon and among Calcite CaCO3
metals- Aluminium is found in abundant quantity in the Gypsum CaSO42H2O
earth curst. Fluorspar CaF2
 In nature, metals are found in two states- Aluminium Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O
(i) Free state (Al) Cryolite Na3AIF6
(ii) Combined state Corundum Al2O3
 In nature, the occurrence of any metal depeds on its Diaspore AIO(OH)
chemical reactivity. Tin (Sn) Cassiterite SnO2
 Less reactive metals as gold and platinum occurred in a (Tinstone)
free state. Lead (Pb) Galena PbS
 More reactive metals are found in combined state. Cerussite PbCO3
 Some metals as copper, silver and iron are found in both Matlockite PbFCI
states i.e.free and combined state. Copper (Cu) Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
Minerals: (Copper Pyrite)
 The state in which metals and their compouds occur in Chalcocite Cu2S
earth's crust is known as minerals. Cuprite Cu2O
Ores: Malachite Cu2(CO3)(OH)2
 Minerals from which economically beneficial metals or Azurite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
gems can be extracted are known as ores. Silver (Ag) Native Silver Ag
 Generally, metals occur in the state of oxides, sulphides, Argentite Ag2S (Silver Glance)
carbonates, halides and sulphates. Cerargyrite AgCl (Horn Silver)
Minerals and Ores of Some Metals Zinc (Zn) Zinc Blende ZnS (Black jack)
Metal Mineral/Ores Composition of Franklinite ZnFe32 O4
Mineral/Ores Calamine ZnCO3
Sodium (Na) Rock Salt NaCl Zincite ZnO (Red Zinc)
Trona Na3(HCO3)(CO3)2H2 O Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar HgS
Chilli Saltpetre NaNO3 Manganese Pyrolusite MnO2
Borex Na2B4O7.10H2 O (Mn) Manganite MnO(OH)
Glauberite Na2Ca(SO4)2 Hausmannite Mn3O4
Glauber's Salt Na2SO4.10H2O Iron (Fe) Magnetite Fe3O4 (Load stone or
Potassium Sylvine KCI Magnetic oxide of iron)
(K) Carnallite KCI.MgCl2.6H2O Hematite Fe2O3
Schoenite K2Mg(SO4)2.6H2O Limonite FeO(OH).nH2O
Magnesium Magnesite MgCO3 Siderite FeCO3 (Spathic Iron)
(Mg) Dolomite MgCO3.CaCO3 Iron Pyrites FeS2
Carnallite KCl.MgCl2.6H2O
Kieserite MaSO4.H2O
Epsom Salt MgSO4.7H2O
(Epsomite)



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Food Preservation, Nutrition, Medicine, etc.
Food Preservation: duced. This is because the reduced oxygen slows down
 Food preservation may be defined as the process of treat- the respiration and metabolic rate of the product and
ing and handling food in such a way as to stop, control therefore, slows down the natural aging process.
or greatly slow down spoilage and, of course, to mini- Food Preservatives:
mize the possibility of foodborne illness, while main-  Food preservatives are chemical substances added to a
taining the optimum nutritional value, texture and flavour. product to destory or inhibit multiplication of microor-
Principles fo Food Preservation: ganisms food preservatives are as follows:
 The principles of food preservation are as follows– (i) Sodium meta bisulphite (Na2S2O5) – It is used in pres-
1. Removal of microorganisms inactivating them: This ervation of jams, sauce and pickles.
is done by removing air, water (moisture), lowering or (ii) Sodium benzoate (C7H5NaO2)– It is widely used food
increasing temperature, increasing the concentration of preservative. It is used to preserve soft drinks and acidic
salts, sugar of acids in food. For the preservation of green foods.
leafy vegetables, the water should be removed from the (iii) Sorbic acid (C6H8O2) and its salts– Sorbic acid or 2,4-
leaves so that the microorganisms cannot survive. hexadienoic acid, is a natural organic compound used
2. Inactivating enzymes : Enzymes found in food can be as a preservative. It is a colourless solid that is slightly
inactivated by changing its conditions such as tempera- soluble in water and sublimes readily. Its sodium and
ture and moisture. One of the methods of preserving peas potassium salts are used as preservative to inhibit the
is to put them for a few minutes in boiling water. This growth of bacteria and fungi in cheese, cooked food-
method inactivates enzymes. stuffs, pickles and food products of flesh and flsh.
Methods of Food Preservation: (iv) Epoxides – Epoxide of ethylene (ethylene oxide-C2H4O)
 Pasteurization : Pasteurization of milk requires tem- and epoxide of propylene (propylene oxide-CH3CHCH2)
peratures of about 63°C (145°F) maintained for 30 min- are good food preservatives to preserve food stuffs with
utes or alternatively heating to a higher temperature i.e. little amount of water as dry fruits and spices.
72°C (162°F) for 15 seconds. This method kills the bac- Drugs :
teria.  Drugs are natural or synthetic substances, when taken
 Freeze : The colder a food is, the slower is its rate of into a living body, affects its functioning or structure,
deterioration. In cold storage refrigerated air is used for and are used in the diagnosis, mitigation, treatment or
food preservation. prevention of a disease or relief of discomfort.
 Use of strong concentrations : Use of strong concen-  Drugs are also called medicines.
tration of salts, inhibit the growth of bacteria.  In medical science drugs have been classified on the basis
 Canning : Canning is most widespread and effective of their functions, which are as follows–
means of long term food storage. In canning food is 1. Antipyretics :
cooked under pressure to attain a temperature high Antipyretics are substances that reduce fever. Examples:
(around 121 °C) to destroy endospores. Aspirin (acetylsalicyic acid), paracetamol, phenacetin.
 Organic acids : Organic acids used to preserve food 2. Analgesics :
include benzoic acid, sorbic acid and prpionic acid. The term Analgesics encompasses a class of drugs that
These acids are added as salts such as sdium benzoate, are designed to relieve pain without causing the loss of
potassium sorbate, sodium propionate. These acids in- consciousness. It has been divided into two groups–
hibit the growth of bacteria. Some other organic com- (a) Non-narcotic analgesics : Aspirin (2- acetoxybenzoic
pounds as cinnamon and cloves contain the benzene acid) and Paracentamol (2-Acetamidophenol).
derivative eugenol, a potent microbial agent. (b) Narcotic analgesics : Drugs which are administered in
 Drying method : Food drying is a method of food small quantity to releave pain and promoting sleepness,
preservatin in which food is dried (dehydrated or desic- are called narcotic analgesics.
cated). It inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeasts and mold  Its excessive dose is responsible for laxiness, coma and
(fungi) through the remval of water. may be causing death.
 Most fruits & vegetables age less rapidly when the level  Examples of narcotics analgesics are opium products
of oxygen in the atmosphere surrounding them is re- such as morphine, heroin and codeine. These are also

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 called opiates because these are derived from opium.  Reserpine is a strong tranquillizer which is obtained from
These are habit forming substances. the plant Rauwolfia serpentina. It is used for the treat-
3. Antiseptic : ment of high blood pressure.
 Antiseptics are antimicrobial substances that are applied  Barbituric acid and its derivatives as seconal and lumi-
to living tissue/skin to reduce the possibility of infec- nal are some other tranquillizers.
tion, sepsis or putrefaction (the process of decay or rot- 6. Antibiotics :
ting in body).  Antibiotics are such chemicals that inhibit the growth of
 Antiseptics are harmless to living tissues and are used microorganisms or destroy them.
on cuttings and wounds.  Antibiotics are obtained or formed from living cells.
 Examples of antiseptics are mercurochrome, mercurric The first antibiotic penicill in wad discovered by
chloride, alcohol, iodine, hydrogen peroxide, boric acid, Alexander Flemming (1929) from Penicillium notatium,
potassium permangnate, iodoform etc. a fungus.
 Garlic has powerful antiseptic properties.  Antibiotics do not work on viruses.
4. Disinfectants : 7. Anaesthetics :
 Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied  A substance that induces insensitivity to pain or a tem-
to the surface of non-living objects to destroy microor- porary loss of sensation is known as anaesthetics.
ganisms that are living on the objects.  Its effect is reversible. it means that affected organ gains
 These are harmful to living tissues and cannot be ap- its normal position after being less amount of anaesthetics
plied on skin. substance.
 Examples of disinfectants are phenol, methylphenol,  Anaesthetics may be divided into two broad classes: 'gen-
chlorine, bleaching power, formaldehyde etc. eral' anaesthetics, which result in a reversible loss of
5. Tranquillizer. consciousness, and 'local' anaesthetics, which cause a
 A medicinal drug taken to reduce tension or anxiety is reversible loss of sensation for a limited reason of the
known as tranquillizer. body without necessarily affecting consciousness.
 It acts on the central nervous system and is used to calm,
decrease anxiety or help a person to sleep.



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 Detergent and Soap
Detergent : e.g. palmitic acid (C 15 H31 COOH) and stearic acid
 Detergent is a water soluble cleansing organic compound (C17H35COOH).
which combines with impurities and dirt to make them  Common soaps are the mixture of slats of higher fatty
soluble and differs from soap as it does not forms a scum acids (C8 to C18) which are manufactured by the saponi-
with the salts in hard water. fication of fats.
 Detergent helps to remove dirt and grease from porous Saturated fats give hard soap and vegetative oils (unsat-
surfaces such as fabrics, clothes, non-treated wood and/ urated fats) give soft soap.
or non-porous surfaces such as metals, plastics and Raw materials used in manufacturing of soap:
treated wood. (i) Vegetable oils or fats– For manufacturing of soap oils
 Soapis used only for soft water but detergent can be used of peanut, mahua, castor oil and coconut are used.
for soft water as well as hard water, because the calcium (ii) Castic soda or castic potash–The saponification of oil
and magnesium salts of detergents are soluble in water. or fat is performed with the aqueous solution of castic
 Chemically detergent it the salt of strong base and strong soda (NaOH) or castic potash (KOH).
acid with higher molecular weight, whose anion or cat- (iii) Fillers– Fillers are substances that are added to soap to
ion has a long chain of carbon atoms from 12 to 18. make it more useful for particular applications. For ex-
 For example – Sodium Lauryl Sulphate is an ionic ample:
surfactant with a long chain of 12 carbon atoms. a. Sodium rosinate is added to laundry soap to increase
 The aqueous solution of detergent is neutral so it is used its foaming capacity.
to clean the clothes made from delicate fibres. b. Glyeerol is added in shaving soaps to prevent them from
 The solution of soap is alkaline due to hydrolysis, so it rapid drying.
is harmful for cleaning delicate clothes. c. Sodium silicate increases the durability of the soap and
Soap : the rapid drying of the soap is prevented and increases
 Soaps are salts of fatty acids whereas fatty acids are satu- the hardners of soap bars.
rated monocarboxylic acids that have long carbon chains d. Sulphur is added to produce anti acne soap bars.

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 The Fertilizers
Fertilizers: plication of organic manure has been recommended
 Fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic origin along with artificial manure.
that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one Vermicompost :
or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.  Now a days vermicompost is widely used instead of fer-
 Fertilizers are used daily by farmers and families to help tilizers. The most significant benefit of vermicompost is
crops and gardens grow. that the nutrients in it are very easily absorbed by the
 With the global population steadily growing, it is neces- roots of plants unlike chemical fertilizers. Vermicompost
sary that enough crops are produced each year to pro- is not easily flushed from the soil because of the worm
vide adequate food, clothing and other agricultural prod- mucus that it contains. Plants have longer time to obtain
ucts to people around the world. These crops deplete the nutrients and get the maximum benefit.
soil nutrients in different ways and rates. Difference between Synthetic Fertilizer and Manure
 Fertilizers play an important role in providing crops with S.N. Synthetic Fertilizer Manure
the nutrients they need to grow and be harvested for 1. Synthetic fertilizer is an Manure is a natural
nutritious food. inorganic salt. fertilizer
Manure: 2. Synthetic fertilizer is Manure can be made
 Manure is an organic material that is used to fertilize manufactured in factories. in fields.
land, usually consisting of the feces and urine of domes- 3. Soil does not get humus Soil gets humus in
tic animals, with or without accompanying litter such as from the synthetic fertilizer excessive amount
straw, hay, etc. from the manure.
 Animals manure is less rich in nitrogen, phosphorus and 4. In synthetic fertilizer the In manure plant
potash than synthetic fertilizers and hence must be ap- plants nutrients as nitrogen, nutrients are in
plied in much greater quantities than the latter. phosphorus and potash are less quantity then
 Manure is rich in organic matter or humus and thus present in abundance amount. synthetic fertilizer.
improves the soil's capacity to absorb water and store Kinds of Synthetic Fertilizers:
water, thus preventing erosion. There are three categories of synthetic fertilizers:
 Much fo the potassium and nitrogen in manure can be (1) Nitrogeneous fertilizers
lost through leaching, if the material is exposed to rain- (2) Phosphatic fertilizers
fall before being applied to the field. These nutrient losses (3) Potassium fertilizers
may be prevented by such methods as stacking manure (1) Nitrogeneous fertilizers:
under cover or in pits to prevent leaching.  Nitrogen is absorbed by the plant roots in two forms-
 The manure is also called compost or organic fertilizer. nitrate form (NO3-) and ammonium form (NH4+).
Green manure is a type of cover crop, grown to add Most of the crop plants prefer nitrogen in nitrate form;
nutrients and organic matter to the soil. Typically, a green but paddy and few other plants prefer nitrogen in am-
manure crop is grown for a specific period of time, and monium form. Ammonium form of nitrogen is however,
then ploughed under and incorporated into the soil while easily convertible into nitrate form.
it is green or shortly after flowering.  Based on the forms of nitrogen they contain, nitrogenous
 The legumes (mainly pea family plants) used as green fertilizers are classified into four categorles, viz. (i) ni-
manuring crops have nitrogen fixing symbiotic bacteria trate fertilizers (ii) ammonium fertilizers (iii) ammonium
in their root nodules that fix atmospheric nitrogen in a nitrate fertilizers and (iv) amide fertilizers.
form that plant can use as well as providing organic (i) Nitrate fertilizers : These are three main nitrate fertil-
matter (humus) to the soil. Such plants are clover and izers–
vetch. (a) Sodium nitrate – 16% N
 Continuous use of chemical fertilizers on soil depletes (b) Calcium nitrate – 15.5% N
the soil of essential nutrients. As a result, the food pro- (c) Potassium nitrate –13%N
duced in these soils have less vitamins and chemical (ii) Ammonium fertilizers : The following ammoniums fer-
contents. The number of microorganisms in soil may tilizers are in use–
decrease. It also increases the acidity of soil. So the ap- (a) Ammonium sulphate – 20%N

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 (b) Ammonium chloride – 24.26%N (3) Potassium fertilizers:
(c) Monoammonium phosphare – 11–20%N and 20–  It is also called potash fertilizer.
48% Phosphate  Potassium (K) is one of the essential nutrients for plants,
(d) Diammonium phosphate (DAP) – 18%N and 46% along with nitrogen and phosphorus.
phosphate
 Potassium is vital for a plant to resist drought and dis-
(iii) Ammonium nitrate fertilizers: Following fertilizers
ease as well as for promoting healthy growth.
are of this category–
 The two main types of potash are - Muriate of Potash
(a) Ammonium nitrate – 33%N
(MOP) and Sulphate of Potash (SOP).
(b) Calcium ammonium nitrate – 26%N
(c) Ammonium sulphate nitrate – 26%N  Muriate of potash is the trade name of potassium chlo-
ride.
(iv) Amide fertilizers: Amide group fertilizers are agronomi-
cally very significant. They are readily soluble in water  Although the amount of potassium in soil is sufficient
and easily decomposed by microorganisms in the soil. and no need is required of potassium fertilizer, but its
In the soil, they are quickly changed into ammonium regular use maintains the stability of potassium in soil.
form and then nitrate form and become available to the  Some potassium fertilizers are as follows:
plants. The two main amide fertilizers are used– (a) Potassium chloride – 48-60% K
(a) Urea – 46–47% N (b) Potassium sulphate – 48-50% K
(b) Calcium eynamide – 21%N (c) Potassium nitrate – 44% K
(2) Phosphatic Fertilizers: (d) Wood ash – 3.7% K
The nutrient phosphorus present in phosphate fertilizers Biofertilizers:
are usually expressed in terms of phosphoric anhydride  Biofertilizers are living microorganisms of bacteial, fun-
or simply as phosphorus pentaoxide (P2O5). gal and algal origin.
Some phosphatic fertilizers are as follows:  Biofertilizers add nutrients through the natural processes
(a) Super phosphate – 16-47% P of nitrogen fixation and solubilizing phosphorus and
(b) Basic slage – 15-25% P stimulate plant growth through the synthesis of
(c) Bone meal – 20-35% P growthpromoting substances.

(d) Rock phosphate – 25-30% P  The microorganisms in biofertilizers restore the soil's
natural nutrient cycle and build soil organic matter and
(e) Calcium monophosphate – 50% P
they can be expected to reduce the use of synthetic fer-
(f) Calcium metaphosphate – 64% P
tilizers and pesticides.
(g) Ammophos – 46-52% P

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