A combinatorial approach to determinants

(Leibniz formula for determinants)

Definition
A permutation of the set of positive integers {1, 2, . . . , n} is an arrangement of
these integers in some order without omissions or repetitions.

e.g. X = {1, 2, 3}
P (X) = {(1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (2, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2), (3, 2, 1)}
n(P (X)) = 3!

Definition
Denote a general permutation of the set {1, 2, . . . , n} by (j1 , j2 , . . . , jn ).
An inversion is said to occur in a permutation (j1 , j2 , . . . , jn ) whenever a larger
integer precedes a smaller one.

Note
The number of inversions occurring in a permutation (j1 , j2 , . . . , jn ) can be ob-
tained as follows:
(1) Find the number of integers that are less than j1 and that follow j1 in the
permutation;
(2) Find the number of integers that are less than j2 and that follow j2 in the
permutation;
(3) Continue this counting process for j3 , . . . , jn−1 .
The sum of these numbers is the number of inversions in the permutation.

e.g. The number of inversions in the permutation (6, 1, 3, 4, 5, 2) is 8.

(∵ 5 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 8)
1
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Definition
A permutation is called even if the number of inversions is an even integer and is
called odd if the number of inversions is an odd integer.
e.g.
Permutation Number of inversions Classification
(1, 2, 3) 0 even
(1, 3, 2) 1 odd
(2, 1, 3) 1 odd
(2, 3, 1) 2 even
(3, 1, 2) 2 even
(3, 2, 1) 3 odd

Remark
If n ≥ 2, then the number of odd permutations = the number of even permuta-
tions.

Definition
A ∈ Matn×n (R)
An elementary product from A is any product of n entries from A, no two of
which come from the same row or the same column.

Example" #
a11 a12
1. A =
a21 a22
Since each elementary product has two factors and since each factor comes from
a different row, an elementary product can be written in the form a1− a2− , where
the blanks designate column numbers. Since no two factors in the elementary
product come from the same column, the column numbers form a permutation
of the set {1, 2}. Thus the elementary products from A are a11 a22 and a12 a21 .
 3

 
a11 a12 a13
 
2. A = a a a
 21 22 23 

a31 a32 a33

Since each elementary product has three factors and since each factor comes from
a different row, an elementary product can be written in the form a1− a2− a3− ,
where the blanks designate column numbers. Since no two factors in the elemen-
tary product come from the same column, the column numbers form a permu-
tation of the set {1, 2, 3}. Thus 3! = 6 permutations yield the following list of
elementary products from A:
a11 a22 a33 , a11 a23 a32 , a12 a21 a33 , a12 a23 a31 , a13 a21 a32 , a13 a22 a33

Remark
An n × n matrix A has n! elementary products. They are products of the form
a1j1 a2j2 · · · anjn , where (j1 , j2 , . . . , jn ) is a permutation of the set {1, 2, . . . , n}.

Definition
A ∈ Matn×n (R)
A signed elementary product from A is an elementary product a1j1 a2j2 · · · anjn
multiplied by +1 or −1 according to the following rule:
+1 if (j1 , j2 , . . . , jn ) is even
−1 if (j1 , j2 , . . . , jn ) is odd.

Example" #
a11 a12
1. A =
a21 a22
Elementary product Associated permutation Classification Signed elementary product
a11 a22 (1, 2) even a11 a22
a12 a21 (2, 1) odd −a12 a21
4

2.  
a11 a12 a13
 
A=a a a
 21 22 23 

a31 a32 a33
Elementary product Associated permutation Classification Signed elementary product
a11 a22 a33 (1, 2, 3) even a11 a22 a33
a11 a23 a32 (1, 3, 2) odd −a11 a23 a32
a12 a21 a33 (2, 1, 3) odd −a12 a21 a33
a12 a23 a31 (2, 3, 1) even a12 a23 a31
a13 a21 a32 (3, 1, 2) even a13 a21 a32
a13 a22 a31 (3, 2, 1) odd −a13 a22 a31

Definition
A ∈ Matn×n (R)
Define det(A) (denoted also by det A or |A|) to be the sum of all signed elementary
products from A.

Example
" #
a11 a12
1. A = , det(A) = a11 a22 − a12 a21
a21 a22
2.  
a11 a12 a13
 
A= a a
 21 22 23 a 
a31 a32 a33
det(A) = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 − a13 a22 a31 − a12 a21 a33 − a11 a23 a32

Remark det([a11 ]) = a11 .

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Cofactor expansion (Lapalace expansion)

Definition
If A is a square matrix, then the minor of entry aij is denoted by Mij and is
defined to be determinant of the submatrix that remains ofter the ith row and
the jth column are deleted from A. The number (−1)i+j Mij is denoted by Cij
and is called the cofactor of the entry aij .

Example
 
1 2 3
 
A=
4 5 6

7 8 9
" #
5 6
M11 = det( ) = −3, C11 = (−1)1+1 M11 = −3
8 9
" #
4 6
M12 = det( ) = −6, C12 = (−1)1+2 M12 = 6
7 9

Remark
 
+ − + − + ···
 
− + − + − · · ·
 
+ − + − + · · ·
 
 
− + − + − · · ·
 
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
6

Theorem
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
 
Let A = 
 .. .. . . . .. . The determinant of A can be computed as follows:

 . . . 
an1 an2 · · · ann
for each 1 ≤ i ≤ n and 1 ≤ j ≤ n,
(1) det(A) = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + · · · + ain Cin
(cofactor expansion along the ith row)
(2) det(A) = a1j C1j + a2j C2j + · · · + anj Cnj
(cofactor expansion along the jth column)

Example
" #
a11 a12
1. A =
a21 a22

det(A) = a11 C11 + a12 C12 (1st row)

= a11 a22 + a12 (−a21 )
= a11 a22 − a12 a21

det(A) = a12 C12 + a22 C22 (2nd column)

= a12 (−a21 ) + a22 a11
= a11 a22 − a12 a21

 
a11 a12 a13
 
2. A = 
a21 a22 a23 

a31 a32 a33
det(A) = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13 (1st row)
 7

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

= a11 (−1)1+1 + a12 (−1)1+2 + a13 (−1)1+3
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

det(A) = a12 C12 + a22 C22 + a32 C32 (2nd column)

a21 a23 a11 a13 a11 a13
= a12 (−1)1+2 + a22 (−1)2+2 + a32 (−1)3+2
a31 a33 a31 a33 a21 a23

Definition

Let A = [aij ]m×n be a m × n matrix. The transpose of A, denoted by AT (or At ),

is defined to be the n × m matrix that results by interchanging the rows and
columns of A.  
" # 1 4
1 2 3  
e.g. A = , AT = 2 5 
4 5 6
 
3 6

Theorem
Let A be a square matrix. Then det(A) = det(AT ).
(Proof) Since transposing a matrix changes its columns to rows and its rows to
columns, the cofactor expansion of A along any row is the same as the cofactor
expansion of AT along the corresponding column. Hence we see that det(A) =
det(AT ).

Theorem
Let A ∈ Matn×n (R).
1. If B is the matrix that results when a single row or single coluumn of A is
multiplied by a scalar k, then det(B) = k det(A).
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e.g.
ka11 ka12 ka13 a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 = k a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
2. If B is the matrix that results when two rows or two columns of A is inter-
changed, then det(B) = − det(A)
e.g.
a11 a12 a13 a21 a22 a23
a21 a22 a23 = − a11 a12 a13
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
3. If B is the matrix that results when a multiple of one row of A is added to
another row or when a multiple of one column of A is added to another column,
then det(B) = det(A)
e.g.
a11 + ka21 a12 + ka22 a13 + ka23
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
= (a11 + ka21 ) − (a12 + ka22 ) + (a13 + ka23 )
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a11 a12 a13
= a21 a22 a23 +ka21 (a22 a33 −a23 a32 )−ka22 (a21 a33 −a23 a31 )+ka23 (a21 a32 −a22 a31 )
a31 a32 a33

a11 a12 a13

= a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33