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PERMEABILITY:
Definition:
Permeability is defined as the property of a porous material which permits the passage or seepage of
water through its interconnecting voids.
A material having continuous voids is called permeable.
Gravel → highly permeable
Stiff clay → least permeable (impermeable).
Laminar flow:
Each fluid particle travels along a definite path which never crosses the path of any other particle.
Turbulant flow:
The paths are irregular, twisting, crossing and recrossing at random.
Darcy’s Law:
For laminar flow conditions in a saturated soil, the rate of flow (or) the discharge per unit time is
proportional to the hydraulic gradient.

q = kiA

𝑞
𝑉 = 𝐾𝑖 =
𝐴
Where, q → discharge per unit time
A→ Total c/s area of soil mass, perpendicular to the direction of flow.
i → Hydraulic gradient
k → Darcy’s coefficient of permeability
V→ Velocity of flow (or) average discharge velocity
If soil sample of length ‘L’ and c/s area ‘A’ subjected to differential head of water (h1 – h2), the hydraulic
ℎ1 −ℎ2
gradient ‘i’ will be equal to 𝐿

𝐾(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )𝐴
𝑞=
𝐿

If ‘i’ is unity ‘k’ is equal to ‘V’

Thus, coefficient of permeability is defined as the velocity of flow that will occur through the c/s area of

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soil under unit hydraulic gradient.

k → V → cm/sec (or) m/day (or) feet/day.
Discharge velocity and seepage velocity:
The velocity of flow ‘v’ is the rate of discharge of water per unit of total c/s area ‘A’ of soil.
A = As + Av
Since, the flow takes through the voids, the actual (or) true velocity of flow will be more than the
discharge velocity. This actual velocity is called the seepage velocity (Vs).
It is defined as the rate of discharge of percolating water per unit c/s area of voids perpendicular to the
direction of flow.
q = VA = Vs Av
𝑉𝐴
𝑉𝑆 =
𝐴𝑉
𝐴𝑉 𝑉𝑉
= =𝑛
𝐴 𝑉
1 𝑉 1+𝑒
𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉. = = .𝑉
𝑛 𝑛 𝑒
The seepage velocity Vs is also proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
Vs =kp i (kp is the coefficient of percolation)
From Darcy’s law, V = k i

𝑉𝑆 𝐾𝑃 1
= =
𝑉 𝐾 𝑛

𝑘
𝐾𝑃 =
𝑛

PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS IN THE LABORATORY:

They are two methods
• Constant head permeability test
• Falling head permeability test
Field methods
• Pumping – out test
• Pumping - in test
Indirect methods of ‘k’ involving computations from

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• Grain size
• Specific Surface
• Consolidation test data

Constant head permeability test

➢ Place the mould assembly in the bottom tank and fill the bottom tank with water up to its outlet.
➢ Connect the outlet tube of the constant head tank to the inlet nozzle of permeameter.
➢ Start the stopwatch, and at the same time put a beaker under the outlet of the bottom tank.
➢ Conduct the test for some convenient time interval. Measure the quantity of water collected in
beaker during that time.
➢ Repeat the test twice more, under the same head and for same time interval.
➢ This method is used for coarse grained soils.

Let ‘q’ be the discharge per unit time.

q = Q/t 1
From Darcy’s law,
q = kiA 2
Equate 1 & 2,
Q / t = kiA

k = Q / tiA

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i = h / L ; k = Q / (t(h / L)A) = QL / thA

𝑄. 𝐿. 1
𝐾=
𝑡ℎ𝐴
where,
k → coefficient of permeability (cm/s)
Q → Dischage (cm2)

L → Length of the sample (cm)

A → Total c/s area of soil specimen (cm2)
h → Head of water (cm)
t → Time taken (sec)

Falling head (or) Variable permeability test:

➢ Prepare the soil specimen in the permeameter, keep the mould
assembly in the bottom tank and fill the bottom tank with water.
➢ Connect the inlet nozzle of the mould to the stand pipe filled with
water. Permit water to flow for some time till steady state of flow is
reached.
➢ With the help of stop watch, note the time interval required for water
level in the stand pipe to fall from some convenient initial value to some
final value.
➢ Repeat the above step atleast twice and note the time interval and also note the diameter of stand
pipe, from which the area of stand pipe calculated.
This method is used for grained soils.
From Darcy’s law,
q=kiA 1
q = Q / t = Area x Rate of Velocity
q = -a dh / dt 2
‘ - ’sign indicates falling head height decreases, time increases.
Equate 1 & 2,
-a (dh / dt) = k i A
-a (dh / dt) = k h A / L

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- (dh / dt) = k A h / a L
- (dh / h) = k A dt / a L

Integrating from ‘h1’ to ‘h2’ and ‘0’ to ‘t’.

h2 t

- dh = kA dt

h1 h aL 0

h2 t

logeh = -kA t

h1 aL 0

log e h2 – log e h1 = - k A t / a L

log e h1 – log e h2 = k A t / a L k

= a L log e ( h1 / h2 )

At
k = 2.303 a L log 10 ( h1 / h2 )

At

k → co-efficient of permeability (cm / s)

a → area of stand pipe (cm2)
L→ Length of specimen (cm)
A→ Total c/s area of soil sample (cm2)
h1→ initial head of water (cm)
h2→ final head of water (cm)

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FIELD METHODS:
They are more reliable compared to laboratory methods for the determination of ’k’. Lab tests
involves large man of soil with minimum disturbance unlike the small sample is used. The value of ‘k’
obtained from field tests represents an average value of ‘k’ for the large soil mass over a large area.

a) Pumping – out tests:

Aquifer: It is a permeable formation which allows a significant quantity of water to move through it
under field conditions.
Confined aquifers (or) Artesian aquifers: It is one in which ground water remains entrapped under
pressure greater than atmospheric, by overlying relatively impermeable strata.

Unconfined Aquifers: It is one in which the ground water table is the upper surface of the zone of
saturation and it lies within the test stratum. It is also called ‘free’, ‘phreatic’ or ‘non – artesian aquifers’.
When a well is penetrated into an extensive homogeneous aquifer, the water table initially remains
horizontal in the well. When the well is pumped, water is removed from the aquifer and the water table or
the piezometric surface, depending upon the type of aquifer, is lowered resulting in a parabolic depression

in the water table (or) piezometric surface. This depression is called the cone of depression or the draw
down curve.
In the pumping – out tests, draw downs corresponding to a steady discharge ‘q’, are observed at a
number of observation wells.
Pumping must continue at a uniform rate for an adequate time to establish a steady state condition,
in which the draw down changes negligibly with time.
Assumptions:
1) The aquifer is homogeneous with uniform permeability and is of infinite aerial extent.
2) The flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is valid.
3) The flow is horizontal and uniform at all points in the vertical section.
4) The well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer (and receives water).
5) Natural ground water regime affecting the aquifer remains constant with time.
6) The velocity of flow is proportional to the tangent of the hydraulic gradient (Dupuit’s theory).

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Unconfined Aquifer:
Fig., shows a well penetrating an unconfined (or) free aquifer to its full depth of an pumping – out
test.
Let r = radius of main well.
R = radius of zero drawdown known as max., radius of influence.
h = depth of water in the main well during pumping, measured above impervious layer.
H = height of initial water table above impervious layer.
q = rate at which water is pumped out of well.

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Let ‘P’(x , y) be any point on the draw down curve. The point ‘o’ (orgin of ordinates) at the bottomof
central axis of well is chosen as the orgin of reference.
Applying Darcy’s law, for flow through cylindrical surface of radius ‘x’ and height ‘y’ we have,
Discharge, q = k . Ax . ix
= k . (2πxy) dy / dx
= q . dx / x
= 2πky dy
Integrating between the limits (R, r) for x, and (H, h) for y, we get,
𝑅 𝐻
𝑑𝑥
𝑞∫ = 2𝜋𝑘 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑟 𝑥 ℎ

𝑅 𝐻
1 𝑦2
𝑞 [log e ( ) ] = 2𝜋𝑘 [ ]
𝑥 𝑟 2 ℎ

q = πk (H2- h2)
loge (R / r)

k = q loge(R / r)
Л(H2 – h2)

(or)

q = 1.36 k (H2 – h2)

log10 (R / r)

In above equation R is found to vary from 150 m to 300 m and can only be estimated crudely, as for
example, using the following equation given by Sichardt,
R = S√k
R = 3000 S√k
K → m/sec R & S → ‘m’ S=H–h
To avoid the use of R, an alternative method is to measure drawdowns s1 and s2 in two observations
wells located at radial distances r1 and r2 from the axis of main well. The depths of water in the two
observation wells are,
h1 = H - S1

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h2 = H – S2

We now have,

y = h1, at x = r1

y = h2, at x = r2
𝑟2 ℎ2
𝑑𝑥
𝑞∫ = 2𝜋𝑘 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑟1 𝑥 ℎ1

𝑟2 ℎ2
1 𝑦2
𝑞 [𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒(𝑥)] = 2𝜋𝑘 [ 2 ]
𝑟1 ℎ1

k= q loge (r2 / r1)

Л (h22- h12)

CONFINED AQUIFER:

Fig., shows a well fully penetrating a confined (or) artesian aquifer. Let (x,y) be the coordinates of
any point ‘p’ on the drawdown curve, measured with respect to the origin ‘o’.
q = discharge or rate at which water is pumped out of main well.
b = thickness of confined aquifer.
Applying Darcy’s law for flow through cylindrical surface of radius ‘x’ and height ‘b’. We have,
q = k ix Ax
where, Ax = c/s area of flow , measured at ‘p’ = 2 Л x b
ix = hydraulic gradient at ‘p’ = dy / dx
q = k (dy / dx ) (2 Л x b) (or) q (dx / x) = 2 Л x b dy
Integrating between the limits (R, r) for x and (H, h) for y, we get,

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𝑅 𝐻
𝑑𝑥
𝑞∫ = 2𝜋𝑘𝑏 ∫ 𝑑𝑦
𝑟 𝑥 ℎ

1 𝑅
𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( ) = 2𝜋𝑘𝑏[𝑦]𝐻
ℎ
𝑥 𝑟

From which,

q loge (R / r) = 2Лkb (H – h)

k= q loge (R / r)
2Лb (H – h)

(or)

q = 2.72 Ts
log10(R / r)

T = co-efficient of transmissibility = bk
S = drawdown at the well
Alternatively, if h1 and h2 are the depths of water measured above bottom impervious stratum in two

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observation wells located at radial distances r1 and r2 from the axis of main well, then we can write,
r2 h2
q dx /x = 2Лkb dy
r1 h1

q loge ( r2 / r1) = 2Лkb (h2 – h1)

k= q loge (r2 / r1)

2Лb (h2 – h1)

(or)

q= 2.72 T (h2 – h1)

log10 (r2 / r1)

PUMPING – IN TESTS:
The two methods desired by U.S. Bureau of Reclamation are,

i) Constant water level method (in open – end pipe) and

ii) Packer method (in section of borehole).
1) Constant water level method :
An open end pipe is sunk into the soil to desired depth and the soil is taken out of the pipe till its
bottom end. The test is also conducted in a borehole with the pipe casing extending to the desired depth.
Fig., illustrates the arrangement for the method.
In fig.,(a) and (c) the bottom end of pipe is above water table and Fig., (b) and (d) it is below water
table. Water is pumped into the pipe and the rate of flow, q is adjusted to maintain water level constant in
the pipe. In the case of soils of low permeability additional pressure head ‘Hp’ is required to be added to
the gravity head ‘Hg’ in order to maintain constant rate of flow. The co-efficient of permeability is
computed using the following equation.

K = q / 5.5 r H

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Where,
r = internal radius of pipe
q = constant rate of flow
h = differential head of water (gravity plus pressure, if any)

2) Packer method:
A packer is an expandable cylindrical rubber sheeve packers are used as a means of sealing of a
section of borehole. Two types of packer methods are used in practice.
i) Single packer method:
In single packer methods the hole is drilled to the required depth. The packer is fixed at a desired
level above the bottom of the hole and the water pumped into the section below the packer. The constant
rate of flow ‘q’ ie., attained under an applied head ‘H’ is found.
ii) Double packer method:
In double packer method, the hole is drilled to the final depth and cleaned. Two packers are fixed at
a distance apart equal to 5 times the diameter of bore hole. Both packers are then expanded and water
pumped into the section between the two packers. The constant rate of flow, q that is attained under an
applied head, H is found.

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The co-efficient of permeability, k is computed using the following.

K = q sinh-1(L / 2 r)

2ЛLH For, r ≤ L ≤ 10 r

K = q log10(L / r)
For, L ≥ 10 r
2ЛLH

Where,
L = length of portion of the hole tested
r = radius of bore hole
q = constant rate of flow into the test section
H = differential head for maintaining a constant rate of flow in test section

PERMEABILITY OF STRATIFIED SOIL DEPOSITS:

In nature soil mass may consists of so many layers deposited one above the other. Each layer is
assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic. The average permeability of whole deposit will depend on the
direction of flow.
Average permeability parallel to the direction of flow:
q = q1 + q2 +q3
i = i1 = i2 = i3
kiA = k1i1A1 + k2i2A2 + k3i3A3
A1 = z1 x i, A2 = z2 x i, A3 = z3 x i, i is equal

kx = k1z1 + k2z2 + k3z3

Average permeability perpendicular to the direction of flow:

For vertical flow, v & q is equal.
∴ i = v/k1 , [v = ki]
v = ki = kh / L

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h = vL / k (or) vz / k
vz = vz1 + vz2 +…....+ vzn

kv k1 k2 kn

∴ kv = z

z1 + z2 + …. + zn
k1 k2 kn

Factors affecting permeability:

By comparing poiseuille’s law with Darcy’s law adopted for the flow through the soil pores, we get,
q=kiA

2
K = Ds γw e3 . c
1
η 1+e

Thus, the factors affecting permeability are,

1) Grain size
2) Properties of the pore fluid
3) Void ratio of the soil
4) Structural arrangement of the soil particles
5) Entrapped air and foreign matter
6) Adsorbed water in claying soils
1) Effect of size and shape of particles:
Permeability varies approximately as the square of the grain size. Since, soil consists of many
different sized grains. Some specific grain size has to be used for comparison.
a) Allen Hazen (1892) found in filter sands of particle size between 0.1 and 3mm.

2
k = CD10

K = coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)

D10 = Effective diameter (cm)
C = Constant = 100 (approx.,) When D10 in ‘cm’.
b) Attempt have been made to correlate the ‘k’ and specific surface of the soil particles by Kozency

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(1907).

K= 1 X n3

Kk η ss 2 1 – n2

n = porosity
ss = Specific surface of particles (cm2/cm3)
η = viscosity (g sec/cm2)
kk = constant = 5 for spherical particles
c) Loudon (1952 - 53) developed from the basis of his experiment is,

Log 10(kss 2) = a + bn

a = 1.365; b = 5.150 for ‘1c’ at 100c.

2) Effect of properties of pore fluid:
From equation 1, the ‘k’ is directly proportional to ‘γw’ and inversely proportional to its viscosity.
‘γw’ does not change with change in temperature. Other factors remain constant.
Effect of property of water on ‘k’
For a standard temperature at 270c

k27 = K η

η 27

k27 = permeability at 270c

η27 = viscosity at 270c
Change of ‘γw’also taken into account.

k1 = η2 . γw1 = η2 . ρw1

k2 η1 . γw2 = η1 . ρw2

Muscat (1937) is pointed out that in more general co-efficient of permeability called physical
permeability ‘kp’ related to Darcy’s co-efficient of permeability ’k’.

kp = K η
γw
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3) Effect of void ratio:

Void ratio is the opening space between the particles. If the ‘e’ is larger means, the water is easily flow
inside their by the value of ‘k’ is more. k is directly proportional to the void ratio.

k1 = e1 2
= e 13 e23

k2 e2 1+ e2
1+e1
From the relation permeability varies as a square of void ratio.
k1 = permeability at void ratio ‘e1’
k2 = permeability at void ratio ‘e2’
4) Structural Arrangements:
The structure of soil becomes changed depends on the method
of compaction. Due to compaction particles come closer compact mass,
there by pore size get reduced. So the value of ‘k’ get reduced. If effect of
compaction is more means, the ‘k’ is less.

Fig., PLOT OF ‘e’ AGAINST ‘log k’

Example:

Plate structure Flocculated structure

(k is less) (k is more)
Fine grained soils more

KH > KV

5) Effect of degree of saturation:

When the degree of saturation increases, the ‘k’ is increased. At a lower percentage of degree of
saturation, the ‘k’ is increased.
Partly saturated soils reduces ‘k’
Fully saturated soils increases ‘k’.

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6) Effect of presence of foreign matter:

Presence of foreign matter such as dust, reduces the value of ‘k’. Because it sometimes closes the
open space between the particles, there by the movement of water get reduced.
7) Effect of adsorbed water:
The adsorbed water, which is held by soil particles, is not free to move and therefore reduces the
effective pore space available for passage of water.
PROBLEMS
1) Calculate the coefficient of permeability of a soil sample, 6cm in height and 50cm 2 in c/s area, if a
quantity of water equal to 430ml passes down in 10 minutes, under an effective constant head of
40cm. On over drying, the test specimen has mass of 498g. Taking the specific gravity of soil solids
as 2.65, calculate the seepage velocity of water during the test.
Given:
Q = 430ml; t = 10 x 60 = 600 seconds; A = 50cm2; L = 6cm; h = 40cm
Solution:
We know, co-efficient of permeability K = (Q/t) . ( L/h) . (1/A)

= (430/600) . (6/40) . (1/50)

K = 2.15 x 10-3 cm/ sec x 864

K = 1.86 m/day [1cm/sec = 864 m/day]

Now, velocity, v = ki = 2.15 x 10-3 x (40 / 6)

v = 1.435 x 10-2 cm/sec
(or)
v = (q/A) = (430 / (600x50)) = 1.435 x 10-2cm/ sec
Now, pd = (Md / v) = (498/(50 x 6)) = 1.66 g/cm3
𝐺𝜌𝑤 2.65 𝑥1
𝑒= −1= − 1=0.595
𝜌𝑑 1.66

𝑒 0.595
𝑛= = = 0.373
1 + 𝑒 1.595
Seepage velocity, vs = v = 1.435 x 10-2
n 0.373
vs = 3.85 x 10-2cm/sec

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2) In a falling head permeameter test, the initial head (t=0) is 40cm. The head drops by 5cm in 10
minutes. Calculate the time required to run the test for the final head to be at 20cm. If the sample is
6cm in height and 50cm2 in c/s area, calculate the co-efficient of permeability, taking area of stand
pipe=0.5cm2.
Given:
Falling head permeability test
h1=40cm; t1=0
Time, t=10min x 60 = 600 seconds. 5cm drop., so h2= 40-5

h2=35cm
L=6cm; a=0.5cm2; A=50 cm2
Solution:
Co-efficient of permeability,
K=2.303 aL log10 h1
At h2

t = 2.3 aL h1
log10
AK h2

h1 m = 2.3 aL
t = m log10
AK
h2

If h1 = 40cm; h2 = 35cm; t = 600sec

600 = m log10 (40/35)

m = 10.363 x 103

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If h1=40cm; h2=20cm

t = 10.363 x 103 log10[40/20]

= 3.12 x 103 sec/60

t = 52 minutes

aL
Now, m = 2.3
AK

10.363 x 103 = 0.5 x 6

50 x K
k = 1.33 x 10-5cm/sec

3) A stratified soil deposit is shown in figure along in the co-efficient of permeability of the
individual strata. Determine the ratio of kH and kv. Assume an average hydraulic gradient of 0.3 in
both horizontal and vertical seepage. Find discharge and discharge velocity for each layer, for
horizontal flow and hydraulic gradient and loss in head in each layer for vertical flow.
Given data:
i = 0.3
kv = ?
kH =?

kH / kv = ?

v1 = v2 = v3 = ?
i1 = i2 = i3 = ?

h1 = h2 = h3 = ?
Solution:

We know, for horizontal seepage, kH = k1z1 + k2z2 + k3z3

z1 + z2 + z3
= 5 x 10-4 (200) + 5 x 10-4 (500) + 5 x 10-4 (200)
200 + 500 + 200
-4
kH = 5 x 10 cm/sec

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for vertical seepage, kv = z1 + z2 + z3

z1 + z2 + z3
k1 k2 k3

= 900
200 + 500 + 200
5x10-4 5x10-4 5x10-4

KV =5X10-4 cm/Sec

𝐾𝐻 5𝑋10−4
= =1
𝐾𝑉 5𝑋10−4

i) Discharge velocity (V): (for horizontal flow)

Let q1, q2, q3 be the discharge through the layer 1,2,3.
V1, V2, V3 be the velocity through the layer 1,2,3.
We know, q = kiA

For layer 1, q1 = k1i1A1

= 5x10-4 x 0.3 x (200x1)
q1 = 0.03 cm3/sec
Also,
q2 = k2iA2 = 5x10-4 x 0.3 x (500x1) = 0.075 cm3/sec
q3 = k3iA3 = 5x10-4 x 0.3 x (200x1) = 0.03 cm3/sec
V1 = k1i = 5x10-4 x 0.3 = 1.5x10-4 cm/sec
V2 = k2i = 5x10-4 x 0.3 = 1.5x10-4 cm/sec

V3 = k3i = 5x10-4 x 0.3 = 1.5x10-4 cm/sec

ii) Hydraulic gradient and loss in head in vertical flow:

We know,
V = Ki

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Hydraulic gradient ,
𝑉1 1.5𝑋10−4
𝑖1 = = = 0.3
𝐾1 5𝑋10−4
𝑉2 1.5𝑋10−4
𝑖2 = = = 0.3
𝐾2 5𝑋10−4
𝑉3 1.5𝑋10−4
𝑖3 = = = 0.3
𝐾3 5𝑋10−4
Loss of head

h = iz

 i = h / (L.z) [L = 1m]
h1 = i1xz1 = 0.3 x 2 = 0.6m
h2 = i2xz2 = 0.3 x 5 = 1.5m
h3 = i3xz3 = 0.3 x 2 = 0.6m
4).An aquifer of 20m average thickness is overlain by an impermeable layer of 30m thickness
.A test well of 0.5m diameter and two observation wells at distances of 10m and 60m from
the test well are drilled through the aquifer. After pumping at a rate of 0.1m3/sec for a long
time, the following draw downs is stabilized in these wells: First observation well 4m; second
observation well, m .Show the arrangement in a diagram. Determine the coefficient of
permeability and draw down in the test well.

Given:
h1=50-4=46m
h2=50-3=47m
dia D=0.5m
q=0.1m3/s
b=20m
2.303 𝑞 𝑟2
𝑘= log10 ( )
2𝜋𝑏(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) 𝑟1
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2.303 𝑥0.1 60
𝑘= log10 ( )
2𝜋. 20(47 − 46) 10
=1.43x10-3 m/sec
Draw down:
2.303 𝑞 𝑟2
(ℎ2 − ℎ𝑤 ) = log10 ( )
2𝜋𝑏𝑘 𝑟1
2.303 𝑥0.1 60
(47 − ℎ𝑤 ) = −3
log10 ( )
2𝜋𝑥20𝑥1.43x10 10
hw=43.94 m
Draw down , S=50- hw
=50-43.94=6.06m

CE8491 SOIL MECHANICS