INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

PHENOMENOLOGY
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) The Principal Founder of Phenomenology who sought to make
philosophy "a rigorous science" by returning its attention "to the things themselves" (zu den
Sachen selbst).

What is Phenomenology? Any object from our conscious experience that we are conscious
of (Johnson, 2006). (Thoughts that are rationally and intentionally thinking about - our
ideas.)
- He argued about Psychologism in his book, Logical Investigations.
- Psychologism suggests that concepts and truths in areas like logic or mathematics
are based on, or reducible to, psychological phenomena. But Husserl opposed it
because of the concepts of Objectivity, Relativism, Independence of Logical Laws,
and Foundations of Knowledge. According to his book, Philosophy of Arithmetic.

Etymology: Phenomenology φαινόμενου, phainómenon ("that which appears") and λόγος,

lógos ("study").

● Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) refers to phenomenology, as the world of our experience.

Phenomena refers to the world as we experience it. Noumenon refers to the
thing-in-itself (Ding an sich in German), which exists independently of our
perception and cognition (God, Cosmos, and the Soul).

● Husserl's phenomenology aims to explore and describe the structures of

consciousness and the essence of experiences without appealing to the idea of a
fundamentally inaccessible reality, as Kant's noumenon implies. Husserl's
phenomenology aims to explore and describe the structures of consciousness and
the essence of experiences without appealing to the idea of a fundamentally
inaccessible reality, as Kant's noumenon implies.

The Phenomenological Method - A series that continuously revises our perceptions of

reality or "brackets out" the non-essentials (biases). The human mind is Conscious,
Intentional, and Directed to its environment. This method uncovers the essential
structures of experience and its objects.

We have to be Holistic about our perspectives and understand them deeply to know the
underlying concepts about them, because they may be influenced by other factors creating
connotations. This will help us to not be biased (non-essentials).
 ● The inspection and description are supposed to be affected without presuppositions
any

Epoché (Phenomenological Reduction) - The first step in phenomenology is to bracket or

suspend all judgments about the existence of the external world. According to Edmund
Husserl

Eidetic Reduction (Essential Reduction) - the next step is to focus on the essence of
experiences. This process, known as eidetic reduction, involves identifying the essential
structures or invariants of a phenomenon. Removes empirical contents. (Realism, Holistic)
Example: when examining the experience of seeing a tree, phenomenology seeks to
uncover the essential features of what makes this experience a "seeing" of a "tree."

Key Concepts
● One of Husserl's key insights is that consciousness is intentional, meaning that it is
always directed toward an object.
● The process of constitution refers to how objects, meanings, and experiences are
formed in consciousness.
● Phenomenology is descriptive rather than explanatory.
● After the reduction and analysis, phenomenology ultimately seeks to return to the
Lebenswelt, or lifeworld, which is the pre-reflective, everyday world of lived
experience.

EXISTENTIALISM
1. One's outlook in life. It's not a primary philosophical method but it is a set of
doctrines centered on certain common themes. Themes include the Human
Condition, the Relation of the Individual to the World, the Being of a person,
Existence, Human Freedom, Choice, and Reason, Subjectivity of life as living
AGAINST abstractions and false objectification.
2. Existentialists share concerns signifying an individual and personal
responsibility. Existentialism is often thought to be antireligious, questioning
human purpose and existence.
3. Søren Kierkegaard (Theologist Philosopher) (1813-1853) insisted that the
authentic self was the personally chosen self as opposed to the public
identity or "herd". Not adhering to conformity to the society, religion, peers,
etc. Friedrich Nietzche (Critic of Culture Philosopher) (1844-1900) also took
this view of opposition. Both Nietzche and Kierkegaard influenced Martin
Heidegger (Hermeneutic Phenomenologist Philosopher, and Existentialist)
(1889-1976) whose conception of ownness came to dominate contemporary
existentialist thought.
 4. Jean-Paul Sartre has employed phenomenological methods in existential
themes. He emphasized free individual choice, consciousness
(being-for-itself) is always free to choose and not free not to choose. Free to
"negate" (or reject). Viktor Frankl's "Man's search for meaning", a person may
not change the circumstances but he can change his attitude towards that
situation. "We are our Choices".
5. The positive notion of Authenticity (Good Faith) is still elusive and obscure.
Socrates already concerned himself with the notion, that "being true to
oneself" is a virtue. Examining oneself with self-knowledge to escape from
biases, unexamined self is not worth living. Augustine also concerned himself
with the spiritual nature of the "true self" opposing to inauthentic desires of
the body. Jean-Jacques Rosseau was adamant about the essential goodness of
the natural self in contrast to the "corruption" of society.

6. It has exceptional prominence and popularity, starting a philosophical

movement with the works of Sartre (Choices), Camus (Absurdism), Beauvoir
(The Second Sex), and Marcel (Mystery and Hope).

POST MODERNISM
Post Modernism has come with a diffused family of ideas and trends that rejects modernity,
and pretensions of Western thought since The Enlightenment. A cry of despair, a reaction
towards modernism which is a worldview of logic, order, and authority based on knowledge:

- Reality can't be known or objectified by postmodemists. The American

Philosopher Richard Rorty developed themes from pragmatism and analytic
philosophy and brought them together with continental themes challenging
the presumptions that philosophy can achieve secure foundations of reality.

- Humanity should come at truth beyond the rational, including the spiritual.

- There is no objective truth, humanity should realize the limits of reason and
objectivism. (Adhering to a relational holistic approach) (Realism). David Wells
(2006) (Theologist and Professor) centered issues on God's existence and
human nature. For David, philosophy should confront issues like genetic
makeup with silence and solitude, respect for nature, committed and
dedicated relationships, excellence, and a life of prayer.

- Bernaldez (2006) (Orthopedic) questions issues in posthumanism. Humanism

stresses dignity whilst posthumanism transcends human nature. Bernaldez
 maintained that science and technology must uphold value and dignity but
accept posthuman improvements such as limb replacements

- In the Post Modern view there are no absolutes of any kind and there are no
universal truths nor universal criteria for beauty and nor are there universal
principles of the GOOD. Thus, there is a return of relativism in the sphere of
morality. With that return there is also the threat of chaos which relativism
spawns.
ANALYTIC TRADITION
"Can language objectively describe truth?". For philosophers of this tradition, nope. Ludwig
Wittgenstein (Analytic Philosopher) argues that language is socially conditioned, with no
objective meaning. We understand the world in terms of language, truth is socially
constructed.

Alfred Tarski (US Mathematician and Logician) avoided ambiguities to accomplish the
definition of truth, he was interested in logical relationships in which truth in the sentence
was emphasized. Truth shows properties based on facts (Tangible).
Truth is materially adequate. Truth is arrived at through a psychological approach.
Language is infected with deficiencies of possessing consistency which is an
essential value for truth-seeking.

Philosophical errors are rooted in errors in language and can be avoided by careful analysis
and attention to its workings. Analysis refers to a method, owning a great deal to the
pioneers: Bertrand Russel, G.E. Moore, Wittgenstein, and J.L. Austin. Truth and logic can
only manifest through words and sentences. It has increased self-searching and applied it
to such deeper questions.
LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING
- Centered on the analysis and structure of arguments. Critical Thinking is
distinguishing between objective and subjective. This serves as freedom from
half-truths and deceptions.
- Cultural Systems, Values, and Beliefs could influence the interpretation of the
meaning of facts. Critical thinking helps us uncover prejudice and biases.
- If an opinion or belief has no evidence, there is no argument. Thus not a factual
claim. There must be a claim that the evidence supports.
- Inductive - Drawing Conclusions from specific points (Guessing). Deductive -
concludes broad points. Often an inference.
● All Philosophers are wise (Major Premise) - Confucius is a philosopher (Minor
Premise) - therefore, Confucius is wise. (Conclusion) (Syllogism).
● The deductive argument is valid. Validity comes from a logical conclusion
based on only logically-constructed premises. (Reed, 2010).
- Surveys are one example of Inductive Reasoning, getting many specific examples
and generating a general and educated guess. Inductive arguments can’t prove if the
premises are true, they provide only probable support for the conclusion. An
inductive argument that succeeds in providing probable support is strong, but if it
fails it is a weak argument. Strong arguments with true premises are said to be
cogent.

FALLACIES
Fallacies defect an argument, an unsound argument, invalid logic, and errors in reasoning.
Detecting these fallacies that distort the truth and lead us to deception is required.
1. Appeal to Pity (Argumentum Ad misericordiam) - Exploiting his/her opponent's
feelings of pity and guilt to win an argument.
2. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum Ad ignorantiam) - Concluding whatever has not
been proven false or true.
3. Equivocation - Using a phrase or word repeatedly in an ambiguous way or in
different meanings.
4. Composition - Something is true from the whole because it is true for some part of
the whole. (Opposite from Division)
5. Division - Something that is true from a whole must be also true from all of its
parts. (Opposite from Composition)
6. Against the Person (Argumentum Ad hominem) - Linking the validity of the
premise to a characteristic or a belief of the person advocating the premise. But in
some instances, this can be relevant.
7. Appeal to Force (Argumentum Ad baculum) - Force, coercion, or threat is given in
the argument for justification.
 8. Appeal to the People (Argumentum Ad populum) - Appeals or exploits people’s
vanities, desire for esteem, and anchors on popularity
9. False Cause (Post hoc) - Coincidental correlation or correlation, not causation.
10. Hasty Generalization - Based on a broad conclusion that fails to sufficiently
represent the whole. Insufficient evidence for generalizing.
11. Begging the Question (Petito Principii) - Conclusion is assumed to be one of the
premises - circular reasoning that prompts someone to ask another question.

Determining Truth from Opinion: Applying Logic and Analyzing Fallacies

- At the beginning of the Tractatus (Book) Ludwig Wittgenstein (1992) spoke of
consciousness (picturing reality), we represent the existence and non-existence of
state of affairs. Tractatus also defines the relationship between language and reality,
also the limits of science. (20th century). It is the possibility of agreeing and
disagreeing with reality, thus being truth or false, the meaning of the picture lies.
- Wittgenstein described spoken language and written language, it defined its
meaning in terms of its capacity of being true or false. The limits of what can be said
are defined by logical rules. The logic of language shows how elements fit the state
of affairs and how they can be linked together.
- Wittgenstein argues that the world consists of a state of affairs, not things, and can
be reproduced in a picture (Case of a projection in a picture). He also compares
pictures and reality with score and music. Everyday language reproduces actual
situations but can be extremely opaque and complicated with the use of impure
words.
- Over the years, the purpose of journalism has irrevocably changed.
● Purpose to inform - words have cognitive meaning
● Can also have an emotive meaning - persuade
● And this implies that words have the power to persuade, convince, and coax
people. Words have emotive meanings whether positive or negative
overtones creating connotations.