Lecture 6 - Transfer Functions

Topics covered:

• Input - Output

• Block diagrams

• Introduction to Transfer Functions

• Modeling using various TF

Readings: Nise 2.2

1 Introduction
In this course we will primarily be dealing with linear time-invariant systems
and Classical Control Theory, which is a branch of control theory that uses
the Laplace transform as a basic tool to model LTI systems. As was briefly
discussed, the Laplace transform allows us to convert a linear time-invariant,
ordinary di↵erential equation into a transfer function, which a frequency-
domain type of model.

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2 Input - Output for Systems
2.1 Notions
It is important that we clarify the meanings of the terms INPUT and OUT-
PUT in control theory.

• An input is a cause while an output is an e↵ect due to the input.

• An input is usually a variable that can be manipulated from outside

of the system boundary whereas an output is a variable that can be
measured or observed from the outside.

2.2 The connection between input/output and transfer function

• The transfer function captures the system behavior specified by a given
input-output relation.

• It informs how the output is a↵ected by the input. This implies that,
for a given system, a di↵erent choice of input and/or output leads to a
di↵erent transfer function

The general form shows that:

Output = T F ⇥ Input , T F = ....................................

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 Example 1: Take the example of a house heating system. One choice of
input-output variables is heater fuel burn rate and kitchen temperature, but
equally valid would be the choice of outside temperature and living room
temperature.

Example 2: Gear-train: Let gear 1 be the input or drive gear, and gear 2
be the output or driven gear.
• Input gear: N1 teeth
• Output gear: N2 teeth

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 If we know torque applied on the input gear T1 (t) at time t, we want to
find the torque applied on the output gear T2 (t) we can use:

N2
T2 (t) = T1 (t) ! ..............................
N1

2.3 Block diagrams and Transfer Functions

• One advantage of using transfer functions is that they allow us to graph-
ically represent a system in the block diagram form, where the input,
output, and system model are distinct, separate parts.

• This graphical description is convenient for representing the intercon-

nection of several subsystems, where each block represents a di↵erent
transfer function between the corresponding output and input of the
block.

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3 The Transfer Function (TF)
Definition: The Transfer Function is the ratio of the Laplace transform of
the output over the Laplace transform of the input, with all initial conditions
assumed to be zero.

Having a general di↵erential equation such as:

dn y dn 1 y dy dm r dr
+ an 1 + · · · + a1 + a0 y = b m m + · · · + b 1 + b 0 r
dtn dt n 1 dt dt dt
where y(t) is the output and u(t) is the input.

Assuming all initial conditions are zero and taking the Laplace transform
of both sides, we obtain:

...............................................................

.......................................................... =) Transfer Function.

We can write
Y (s) = G(s)R(s),
and represent the system in the following block diagram form.

...........................

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 If the TF and input of the system are known, we can calculate the response
by simply multiplying the two.

Example 1: Find the transfer function of the following system and then
determine its response to a unit step input

ẏ(t) + 3y(t) = r(t).

..................................................

...................................................

1
Since r(t) = u(t), R(s) = and
s

Y (s) = G(s)R(s) = ...............................

= ..............................

where

k1 = .........................

k2 = .............................

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 Y (s) = ..............................................

y(t) = .................................................

Example 2: Find the DE corresponding to the TF

s2 + 4s + 3
G(s) = .
s3 + 3s2 + 7s + 5

........................................................

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4 Transfer modeling of electrical networks
• We will discuss the application of the transfer function to the mathemat-
ical modeling of electrical circuits

• The guiding principles used are the Kircho↵’s Laws

• It is important to start by having a clear understanding of the rela-

tionships between voltage and current for the three basic passive linear
components:

– Resistor: v(t) = Ri(t) ) i(t) = R1 v(t)

Rt
– Capacitor: v(t) = C1 0 i(⌧ )d⌧ ) i(t) = C dv(t)
dt
R
1 t
– Inductor: v(t) = L di(t)
dt ) i(t) = L 0 v(⌧ )d⌧

• Applying the Laplace transform for the above formulations between volt-
age and current results in:

– Resistor: ....................................

– Capacitor: ...................................

– Inductor: ....................................

• Assuming that V (s) is the output and I(s) is the input, the transfer
function (inductance) is defined as:

...........................................................

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• Similarly, the relationship between the voltage and current can be also
defined as:

– Resistor: ........................

– Capacitor: .........................

– Inductor: ...........................

• Assuming that I(s) is the output and V (s) is the input, the transfer
function (admitance) is defined as:

...........................................................

• Mesh and nodal analysis are two very powerful methods for analyzing
any circuit. These methods are based on the systematic application of
Kirchho↵’s laws.

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4.1 Mesh analysis
Mesh analysis is a method used to obtain transfer functions based on Kirch-
ho↵’s voltage law. Voltages are summed around loops or meshes.

The steps involved in this process are as follows:

1. Define inputs/outputs of the problem

2. Sum the voltages around the loop

3. Take the Laplace transform of the equations in the voltage-current form,

assuming zero initial conditions

4. Rearrange terms and simplify to obtain the transfer function

Example 1: Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage Vc (s) to
the input voltage V (s) in the figure below:

1. Define inputs and outputs:

• Inputs: ....................
• Outputs: ......................

2. Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial conditions

..........................................................

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 dq(t)
(a) Change variables from current to charge using: i(t) = dt results
in: ..........................................................

(b) Considering that q(t) = Cvc (t) the above equation can be written
as:

..........................................................

3. Taking the Laplace transform and assuming zero initial conditions:

..........................................................

4. The transfer function becomes:

..........................................................

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4.2 Nodal analysis
Nodal analysis is a method to obtain the transfer function using Kirchho↵’s
current law in which currents are summed at the nodes of the system.
Steps:

1. Define inputs/outputs of the problems

2. Replace passive element values with their admittance and all sources and
time variables with their Laplace transforms

3. Sum the currents at the node

4. Rearrange terms and simplify to obtain the transfer function.

Example 3: Consider the simple circuit defined previously. Using nodal anal-
ysis compute the transfer function Vc(t)/V(t)

Solution:
The transfer function can be obtained by summing currents flowing out
of the node whose voltage is v(t). We assume currents leaving the node are
positive and currents entering the node are negative.

1. Define inputs and outputs:

• Inputs: .............................................
• Outputs: ............................................

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2. By taking the Laplace transform for the relationships between voltage
and current across a capacitor, resistor and inductor, the transform cir-
cuit becomes:
V (s)
3. From the impedance function we know that I(s) = Z(s) results in:

......................................

4. Solving the above equation for transfer function Vc (s)/V (s), yields:

......................................

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4.3 TF of Translational Mechanical Systems

Mechanical systems parallel electrical networks to such an extent that there

are analogies between mechanical and electrical components and variables.

Impedance
Component Voltage-current Voltage-charge
Z(s) = V (s)/I(s)
R
Capacitor v(t) = C1 i(t)dt 1/Cs v(t) = C1 q(t)
Resistor v(t) = Ri(t) R v(t) = Rdq(t)/dt
Inductor v(t) = Ldi(t)/dt Ls v(t) = Ld2 q(t)/dt2

Mechanical systems, like electrical networks, have 3 passive elements:

Mass =) stores energy =) analogous to Inductor

Spring =) stores energy =) analogous to Capacitor
Damper =) dissipates energy =) analogous to Resistor.

Electrical Mechanical
Voltage Force
Current Velocity
Charge Displacement
Resistor Damper
Capacitor Spring
Inductor Mass
Kircho↵’s voltage law Newton’s 2nd law
(Sum of impedances) I(s) (Sum of impedances) X(s)
= (Sum of applied voltages) = (Sum of applied forces)

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Example 1 Find the TF X(s)/F (s) of the mass-spring-damper system

..............................................................

..............................................................

4.3.1 Complex systems

Many mechanical systems are similar to multi-loop electrical networks, where

more than one equation is required to describe the system.

• Recall that in electrical networks, the number of equations is dependent

on the number of loops (currents) in the circuit.

• In mechanical systems, the number of equations is equal to .......................

...............................................................................................................

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 Figure 1: Complex mechanical system

Example 2 Find the TF X2 (s)/F (s) of the system

Solution: We’ll have one equation for the motion of mass 1 and one for the
motion of mass 2.

! !
Sum of impedances Sum of impedances
X1 (s) X2 (s)
connected to M1 only between M1 and M2
!
Sum of external
=
forces applied to M1

! !
Sum of impedances Sum of impedances
X1 (s) + X2 (s)
between M1 and M2 connected to M2 only
!
Sum of external
=
forces applied to M2

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4.4 TF of Rotational Mechanical Systems
Rotational mechanical systems are handled the same way as translational
ones, except that:

force ! torque

translational rotational
!
displacement/velocity displacement/velocity

mass ! inertia.

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Example 3: Determine the s-domain equations of motion for the system be-
low.

The schematic model is shown as:

• Dampers model viscous friction between shaft and bearings.

• Spring models torsion:

J1 s2 + b1 s + K ⇥1 (s) K⇥2 (s) = T (s)

K⇥1 (s) + J2 s2 + b2 s + K ⇥2 (s) = 0

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